ISSN 1692-5858 Vol. 16 No. 01 • Enero - Junio de 2018 • P. 133 - 146 Language Policy and the Construction of National Identity in Colombia

Cómo referenciar este artículo: Joshua James Zwisler Zwisler, Joshua James (2018) Language Policy and the Universidad del Tolima, Colombia Construction of National Identity in Colombia. En revista [email protected] Encuentros, vol. 16-01. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15665/.v16i01.700

ABSTRACT The connection between identity and language is hard to deny. In the production of national identities, language plays a key role in the homogenizing of the population by political will. Since the conquest of Colombia over 500 years ago, language has been a crucial tool in the construction of national identity and the concept of nation. This article, through archival research, critical reading, textual analysis, and grounded theory, examines the role of language from pre-colonial Colombia to modern day Colombia in the formation of national identity and character. It carefully and critically examines the roles and conflicts of Spanish and indigenous languages in colonial laws until modern education legislation, and the current rise of English in education law, and what this means in terms of national identity for Colombia. Key words: national identity, language policy, language education, identity theory.

Recibido: 31 de marzo de 2016 / Aceptado: 5 de diciembre de 217

La Política Lingüística y la Construcción de la Identidad Nacional en Colombia RESUMEN La conexión entre la identidad y el lenguaje es difícil de negar. En la producción de identidades nacionales, el lenguaje desempeña un papel clave en la homogenización de la población por la voluntad política. Desde la conquista de Colombia hace más de 500 años, el lenguaje ha sido una herramienta crucial en la construcción de la identidad y el concepto de nacionalidad. Este artículo, a través de la investigación archivística, lectura crítica, análisis del texto y muestreo teórico, examina el papel del lenguaje desde la Colombia pre-colonial hasta la Colombia moderna en cuanto a la formación de la identidad y carácter nacional. También examina cuidadosa y críticamente los papeles y conflictos entre el español y las lenguas indígenas en las leyes coloniales hasta la legislación educativa moderna, y el auge actual del inglés en las leyes educativas, y lo que este último significa en cuanto a la identidad nacional de Colombia. Palabras clave: identidad nacional, política lingüística, educación lingüística, teoría de identidad.

133 Encuentros Política Linguística e Construção da Identidade Nacional na Colômbia RESUMO

A conexão entre identidade e idioma é difícil de negar. Na produção de identidades nacionais, a linguagem desempenha um papel fundamental na homogeneização da população por vontade política. Desde a conquista da Colômbia há mais de 500 anos, a linguagem tem sido uma ferramenta crucial na construção de identidade e conceito nacional. Este artigo, através da pesquisa arquivística, leitura crítica, análise textual e teoria fundamentada, examina o papel da linguagem da colônia précolonial para o moderno Colômbia na formação da identidade e do caráter nacionais. Examina com cuidado e criticamente os papéis e conflitos das línguas espanholas e indígenas nas leis coloniais até a legislação educacional moderna e o aumento atual do inglês na legislação educacional e o que isso significa em termos de identidade nacional para a Colômbia. Palavras chave: identidade nacional, política linguística, educação linguística, teoria da identidade.

1. Introduction The imposition of the Spanish examines how language policy has trifecta of identity – in particular not only affected Colombians of all Since the colonisation of what language - has over the course of varieties, but also how it has been we now know as the Republic of these centuries greatly affected the used to create national identity and Colombia 516 years ago, the area identity of the indigenous groups how this policy is being used today has taken many shapes and forms: that have survived, the progeny of to create a future identity for the colonised, decolonised, divided, and the colonizers and even those groups country. even sold off. The formation of the that have immigrated to Colombia state of Colombia has been at times a since – whether by choice or by force. bloody crusade of arms, and at other 2. Methodology However, today this original trifecta times, a refined intellectual affair, but is not the lone player in the game As previously mentioned, this to all phases of the state of Colombia of national identity in the country. article uses archival research, critical three central themes have been used Education in Spanish, foreign reading, text analysis, and grounded to create the identity of the state, language education in English, and theory. Archival research refers to chosen originally by Spain and then ethno-education all have important researching documents that may adopted by the various incarnations roles in the current development of not be widely known or accessible. of the Colombian republic – race, national identity, although the role Critical reading and text analysis language, and religion (Charry, 2011). each plays is vastly different. are techniques whereby texts are It is important to recognise that submitted to detailed and careful Colombia was not discovered as a This article uses archival research, analysis of their contents in terms of Terra Nullius and when the Spaniards critical reading, text analysis, and who wrote them, what was written, arrived, they discovered indigenous grounded theory in terms of identity how they were written, and why groups ranging from hunting tribes to and identity theory on a wide variety they were written (University of 134 early stone city builders. of sources. As such, this article Encuentros Bradford, 2016) in addition to finding limitations or influences in the to possible biases – all of which were is the situated outcome of the text and applications (University of tagged. Patterns and similarities were communicative processes whereby Queensland, 2016). Critical reading then connected together to find larger people make situationally motivated and text analysis are distinguished patterns and phenomena, and from choices from social repertoires of from other reading and analytical these a larger hypothesis and results resources and craft these choices into methods in that they do not allow were obtained – all of which are semiotic claims – something that is for the writer to be given a neutral discussed below. negotiated with others using the social position – these techniques predict and communicative/semiotic means that all writers have a position that 3. Discussion available in the given culture. This they are trying to promote, even when agrees with Mendoza-Denton (2002), writing supposedly neutral academic Identity and Language who asserts that identity is an active texts (University of Queensland, Identity is a complex subject to linguistic and semiotic negotiation of 2016). study and even define. Identity, as a the individual’s relationship to society and its constructs. It also agrees with Grounded theory is an analytical general term, can be understood as Joseph (2004), who states that identity method used in the social sciences who we understand ourselves to be, processes are constantly under which works in reverse to traditional though a more formal definition is maintenance or construction. Jaspal hypothesis testing - grounded harder to formulate and understand. (2009) builds upon this saying that theory creates hypotheses from Tajfel (1978), in Social Identity any change, be it social or personal, previously produced data. Grounded Theory, states that identity can be can result in the rapid destabilisation theory analyses data from a neutral split into two broad categories – social of identity and thus shows it to be a position, looking for connections and personal: with personal being personal construction rather than an and phenomena that appear in the those traits unique to the individual acceptable stable fact of the person. texts which are tagged and then and social identity entailing those connected into overarching patterns traits which come from membership It is important to keep in mind thus building a hypothesis from the in different groups. According to though that even if we accept Tajfel’s ground up (Dörnyei, 2007). Weeks (1990) identity is defined in division of identity into personal and terms of social relationships and how social identities, in modern theories In this case, a wide range of texts we associate ourselves in terms of this is not enough to define identity. (55) regarding language policy, similarity and difference to others. Among modern social identity theories linguistic identity, identity theory, Furthermore, according to Ochs (in that are used in sociolinguistics, two Colombian linguistics and Colombian Hall, 2012), our social identity also stand out from the rest. Hecht (2001) language policy were used. The texts consists of the reputations and power divides identity into four – a personal include official government policy, relationships between groups which identity to which only the self has academic research, documents from are linked to affective and epistemic access, an enacted identity which is non-profit organizations and reflective stances: something that can change how we express that personal identity material from groups affected by over time as we change groups and through language, a rational identity linguistic policy. These texts were as the groups themselves change the composed of how we stand in relation carefully analysed to find inherent power relations between themselves. to others, and finally a communal patterns and connections in addition For Bauman (in Hall, 2012) identity 135 identity, which is comprised of our Encuentros different group memberships. This class), give it the prestigious title of most if not all of the nation’s theory clashes with the theory posited national language (Barbour, 2002) languages as national languages by Pavlenko & Blackledge (2004) who and then present linguistic diversity and create a national ‘pluri-ethnic’ also divide identity into four categories as a threat to unity (Jaspal, 2009). The identity (Byram, 2006) with examples but divide it along different lines - a creation of a ‘national’ language unites including Switzerland, South Africa, personal identity which is unknown the majority of the populace under and Bolivia. But what kind of social to all but the self also, an assumed a common linguistic flag and helps identity is a national identity? It must identity - a social identity that is not enforce power relations between the be a social identity, as it relies on contested, an imposed identity - a ruling and other classes. However, group membership and the exclusion/ social identity given by others and this identity forming process is not inclusion of others, therefore being which cannot be removed, and finally without its consequences. The a personal identity, is ruled out. a negotiated identity, which is actively effect of this process will often be For the majority of the population, deliberated upon given the option the official spreading of the new nationality is not something that is of other identities. A key difference national language and the cultural questioned – especially in Colombia, between these two models is that norms attached to it at the expense of where most people are united by a Pavlenko & Blackledge do not place a other languages as the economic and common language – and thus falls limit on the different identities that we official strength given to the official into the category of assumed identity. have (Hecht places them as aspects language or dialect prejudices the However, this is not case the for the of one of the divisions) but state that use of other languages and/or dialects speakers of other languages inside the our different identities are classifiable within the state (Arieza-Londoño, nation borders or any other class of within the schema of four lines and 2011). Indeed, as the media takes up social difference: these people have that the classification depends on the official language, and education reasons to question their belonging how we express these identities. enforces either monolingual (in the to the national group and therefore Given the more nuanced nature official language) or bilingual (in the any acceptance of the national and the appearance of choice in the official language and a mother tongue) identity must be the result of internal Pavlenko and Blackledge model, this education for children, the policy of negotiation, and this make national is the model of social identity that national language as national identity identity a negotiated identity. will be used for the remainder of the is a direct cause of language loss and As mentioned above, minority article. cultural death as the policy results groups usually fare badly under in subtractive language learning In terms of national identities, national language policies, and and unstable diglossia in minority nations - which are purely political among those that suffer the most communities, which ultimately see constructs and often contain more are indigenous groups. Being that the national language consume the than one ethnic group - will often Colombia has 82 indigenous languages groups’ mother tongues (Skutnabb- seek means to create or homogenise and even more indigenous groups, it Kangas, 2008; Skutnabb-Kangas & a national identity for those who fall is vital to mention the construction Dunbar, 2010). inside its borders. One means of of indigenous identity. For indigenous doing this is to select a language or It is worth saying that there are groups, while language is not the dialect from among those within its cases (usually recent) where the only defining characteristic of group 136 Encuentros borders (usually that of the ruling nations have taken steps to include membership and identity, it does play a crucial role in identity formation very difficult to separate. Languages Colombia: From Pre-Colony (Schmidt, 2008; Corntassel, 2003). express human understanding and to Post-Colony Globally, being indigenous is an meaning, and often this meaning The area that is today the Republic identity that has become conflated is differently or even uniquely of Colombia has thousands of years with resistance and opposition to expressed in different languages of human history. When human the colonialization of foreigners and (Fishman, 1991), and due to the fact population of Colombia started is their descendants, along with the that different languages can express not known, but the first material experience of struggle against being things uniquely, a language often evidence of human habitation is dispossessed of their ancestral lands becomes closely associated with, or dated at around 12,600 – 10,920 b.c. and histories (Maddison, 2013). For becomes associated as a part of, the in the cliffs of Suesca, close to the many indigenous groups, language culture of the people who speak it. capital, Bogotá (Castañeda de Eslava, is a significant tool of pursuing a When in contact with other groups 2008). When the Spanish arrived on differentiated identity to that of the and other languages, the use of a the Caribbean shores of what would colonial state as the groups fight particular language helps demarcate be Colombia in 1499, the number for rights, recognition and territory a group and its cultures from other of indigenous groups (and number (Green, 2009). For many indigenous groups (Barbour, 2002) and serves as of languages) was unknown, but it is groups, the use of their own language a marker of difference and in-group estimated to have been at least double means understanding their collective membership (Byram, 2006). And of what exists today (Caro y Cuervo, memory, stories, justice, territories, here we have the essential feature 2000). The level of complexity and essence. Thus, the loss of use of of language in identity construction: of these civilizations ranged from an indigenous language is the severing language is an effective ‘othering’ hunting tribes (e.g. the Huitoto) to of ties, not only with territory, but also tool; that is a tool with which we can semi-migratory villages (e.g. the Pijao) with history (Jamioy-Juagibuoy, 2005, convert others into the sociological to monument and stone city building Ramirez-Poloche, 2012). However, ‘not us’ (the other) (Zwisler, 2015). cultures (e.g. the San Agustin culture indigenous identity should not be The mechanisms of this tool involve and the Tayrona) (Silva, 2008). understood as an assumed identity, foregrounding and background but as a negotiated identity given aspects of the identity which show From 1499 to the end of the that it is constructed through the similarity or difference and thus revolution in 1810, the area that negotiation of an ‘other’ and that, manage the exclusivity of group would be Colombia was under most importantly, it can be weakened membership. This foregrounding and Spanish dominion in the form of or destroyed through linguistic means backgrounding in order to create the the viceroyalty known as the Nuevo (Zwisler, 2015). other is supported by Rajagopalam Reino de Granada, where the will of (2001) who forwards that linguistic the Spanish monarchs was exercised Language and semiotic means choice, when the possibility of through viceroys, whom they directed play an important role in identity choice exists, is a manner of flagging via royal letters (cédulas reales). formation and negotiation, and both political allegiance to one group or During this time, the principal cities major theories of social identity allude another who are indexicalized by that were founded, and much of the to this, but what about languages linguistic code. indigenous population was destroyed, themselves as part of an identity? enslaved or displaced (with the 137 Language and culture are often Encuentros exception of one culture – the Nasa, empires stretching its Pre-Columbian (Alvar, 2000) (translation mine). all of the city building cultures were era, it is known that Tahuantinsuyu Given that faith and its spread was destroyed or fragmented) and many had a language policy of Runasimi one of the three pillars of the Spanish of the native languages were killed (Quechua) for administration and colony, it is not surprising that even (Silva, 2008; Giraldo-Gallego, 2011). local languages for local life (Temoche- these native languages began to suffer After the revolution of 2010, came Cortez, 2007), but in terms of the as the powerful Catholic identity was the creation of the first republic other indigenous civilizations nothing announced incompatible with the (Gran Colombia – today Colombia, is known. As for the Nuevo Reino de native linguistic identity. In 1770, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama) Granada, from its establishment to its Spanish king Felipe IV announced and the process of decolonization fall, there are records showing how that not only was all activity inside began. The first official constitution language was used in the control of Colombia to be done in Spanish, but of the new country followed a few the new territory and the identity of that its teaching was to be imposed years after in 1821 (the constitution its inhabitants. As mentioned in the on all members of society, except of Cúcuta). Come 1830, the new introduction, the new territory was for those in the ‘most savage’ regions country would dissolve into three governed under three concepts of (Giraldo-Gallego, 2011, Pineda- – Ecuador, Venezuela and Nueva identity – race, religion and language. Camacho, 2005), thus decreeing Granada (Colombia and Panama) Until 1550, the South American that the wide variety of linguistic and after even more civil wars and viceroys had decreed that religion identities in the Nuevo Reino were social problems, Nueva Granada (Catholicism) was only to be taught in untenable in the new kingdom and its would be reborn as the Republic five languages – principally Spanish, cities and villages, and reducing those of Colombia in 1886 – with a new but also four indigenous languages: indigenous language speakers identity (and very damaging for minorities) Muiscabun (at that time called holders to the place of ‘savages’. constitution and vision of itself and Chibcha), Quechua (Runasimi), From the very beginning, we can what it meant to be Colombian. Seona and Sáliva (Muiscabun and see that the Spanish Crown actively This new vision of Colombia would Sáliva being Colombian languages) used language to forge the identity remain intact until 1991, when after (Giraldo-Gallego, 2011; Pineda- of the nascent nation. Having decades of civil unrest and minority Camacho, 2005). During this time, understood that language could be movements, Colombia would issue these languages enjoyed considerable vital in changing the religious identity a new constitution cutting itself off prestige in comparison to the other of the indigenous groups, the four from what it now recognised as a languages, and as a result Quechua most powerful indigenous languages colonial and bigoted past, ushering became the largest of the Amerindian were permitted to be used in the in new rights for linguistic minorities languages and arrived to what are now transmission of religious identity and indigenous groups. the southernmost states of Colombia. and given the prestige associated Language Policy: Colonial However, this was not to last with these languages, other religions Colombia and in 1550 the Spanish monarch were quickly subsumed given the Very little is known about language (Carlos III) issued two royal decrees linguistic authority of Muiscabun, and identity before the Nuevo Reino proclaiming that ‘In the language Runasimi, Seona and Sáliva. of the Indians, one cannot properly However, as these languages became 138 de Granada was established; of the Encuentros explain the mysteries of our faith’ more powerful, they became rallying points against the Spanish Crown to read and write - and this meant status. and, as such, threatening identities to learning Spanish. Even the big four The biggest blow to minority the prevalence of Spanish dominion that had relatively prospered before language identity though would be in South America. Thus to preserve 1770 (albeit via covert prestige after the constitution of 1886 and the dominion through national identity, 1550) would be devastated by this creation of the Republic of Colombia. under the guise of faith, indigenous new constitution – Muiscabun was The 1886 constitution was written by languages were demoted from their considered extinct by 1871(Giraldo- linguist and ardent hispano-centrist, positions of prestige to positions Gallego, 2011), Seona and Sáliva Miguel Antonio Caro; who apart from of social barbarity as a means of were deciminated (in 2005 Sáliva being a fervent catholic and believing disparaging the social identity only had 20 speakers (Aguirre-Licht, the Felipe III decree to the word, associated with these indigenous 2005) and Quechua had broken believed that indigenous peoples languages and to forcibly convert the down into communities which in the were fallen and that their continued holders of indigenous identities to future would produce new languages linguistic identities were a threat the identity offered by the Spanish from the Quechua base. Being that to the nascent republic (Pineda- Crown. their languages could not be written Camacho, 2005). The constitution or read, indigenous Gran Colombians was written so that the three bases Language and Identity: Post- had to choose between their own of Spanish civilization – race, Colonial Colombia 1810 – linguistic and indigenous identity or religion and language – would once 1991 learning to read and write Spanish again become central to Colombian The Constitution of the and become citizens (Mar-Molinero, identity. Catholicism was to be spread independence movement (1821) 1995). would be an even stronger, though further, the Colombian people were subtle, move against linguistic In terms of identity, the Constitution identified as ‘white’ or ‘white-mestizo’ minorities – to be a citizen, apart of Gran Colombia created a system (white mixed with indigenous but from having a certain sum of money where only those with a traditional with more white than indigenous) and being 21 years of age, one had western education would be and the official language of the to know how to read and write (La perceived as Colombians. Thus the country and all of its affairs would be Constitución Política de la Gran national identity was imagined as Spanish – a form of Spanish that was Colombia, art. 1). With the exception an extension of European education to be polished and made authentically of the four previously mentioned and standards, and language was ‘Colombian’ under the guidance of the

Amerindian languages, the native the means to enforce this national new national language institute(today languages of (what was now) Gran identity: only Spanish was written at Instituto Caro y Cuervo) (Miller, Colombia had not been written. this time, and this meant that Spanish 2006; Aguirre-Licht, 2005). To further This was a blow for even those who would become the only acceptable push this point, the constitution was were already considered savages – language of national identity and that amended with a law (#89) in 1890 to become a member of the new minority would be unacceptable, non- putting language matters in the republic and take up the identity national ‘others’. Writing became the hands of religious authorities so that of a Gran Colombian, speakers of tool of othering those who bore what they ‘determine the way in which the were derided as barbaric identities savages might be governed so that they indigenous languages had to learn 139 and relegating them to non-national are reduced to living a civilised life’ Encuentros (Constitución Política de Colombia, Linguistics (SIL). During the pre- terms of Colombian Spanish, due to 1890 – translation mine). This put 1991 period this organization worked the efforts of Caro y Cuervo and the all indigenous language speakers extensively with indigenous groups promulgation of their ideas by the in reserves under the management documenting their languages so that national government, the Spanish of religious authorities be they the bible might be presented to the variety that developed in the country Catholic or some other Christian groups in a form easier for them to during the colonial and post-colonial denomination. understand and thus make it easier times would be used to mark a to convert them to Christianity Colombian from other neighbouring Given the mission of ‘civilising’, (Corrales-Carvajal, 2008) and it is Spanish-speaking countries and religious authorities quickly estimated that at the turn of the most importantly – Spain. Thus demonised the country’s native century almost 90% of all written Colombian Spanish became a tool languages and set out to change material in the indigenous languages to other speakers of neighbouring the customs of the different groups of Colombia had been produced Spanish varieties and the Colonial via traditional catholic education by SIL (Pachón, 1997). Until the variety prevalent in education before (Contraloría General de la República, creation of the new constitution SIL the constitution and to foreground 2012). This situation quickly was a powerful political player and this difference in Spanish varieties produced disagreements between the promoter of indigenous education to mark the national identity as an indigenous groups who wished to lead (Freeland & Howard-Malverde, exclusive group. a traditional lifestyle and maintain 1995). However, upon the creation of their indigenous heritage and Minority language identity suffered the new constitution, SIL was banned identity and the various religious and greatly during this period. With from Colombia as it become illegal governmental authorities who wished the church and military charged to convert indigenous communities to convert them. From 1948 onwards, with educating the minorities in under the guise of linguistic work. The violent conflicts arose between the Colombian Spanish and Catholicism, government argued that SIL was not two parties (Miller, 2006) and took the indigenous groups suffered respecting the traditional character of the form of two movements – the linguicide - the destruction of a indigenous identity and that SIL was movement of Quintin Lame and language through a government policy using language to change the (now the Pijaos for ancestral land and which can be overt or covert – through protected) identity of indigenous the movement led by the Nasa for complete prohibition or through Colombians (Rojas-Curieux, 1998). cultural recognition (Pachón, 1997). prohibition in education respectively This led to the creation of new The changes to the national identity (Zwisler, 2015). During this period, reserves and laws, and of the regional during this period are numerous and minority languages and therefore councils of indigenous peoples, the of great consequence. The strong their attached identities suffered most successful and powerful of wording of the constitution meant overt linguicide. In an attempt to which would be the Consejo Regional that through education, indigenous homogenize the national identity, de Cauca (CRIC) of the Nasa people identity was to be erased from the education and use of minority mother (Pachón, 1997). national character and that the tongues were restricted and the social Spanish variety that had surged in identities of indigenous and minority Of particular interest during this Colombia would be given the special communities were demonised as 140 period is the Summer Institute of Encuentros status of national identity marker. In unacceptable and barbaric – a title which is still felt today by many Spanish would remain the national (Instituto Caro y Cuervo, 2000). communities. The Colombian language, every indigenous language With only 3 languages not being linguicide achieved the further spoken in the country would be given below ‘developing’ on the EGIDS alienation of indigenous and minority official status in the region(s) where scale, most of the native languages identities from mainstream national it is spoken and three more languages are in clear danger of disappearing identity. Indeed this period resulted would receive official recognition – the and are not being transmitted to new in the complete annihilation of many immigrant language Romani, and the generations (Ethnologue, 2015). indigenous cultures and languages in two African based creoles Palenquero While the numbers appear grim, they the name of national identity. and San Andres (Constitution of are dated at least 10 years and may 1991, article 10). A further article in not represent current figures. This is Language and Identity: the new constitution would prohibit not to say that the languages aren’t in Modern Language Policy anyone from disrespecting any danger – they are, however the figures After decades of civil strife and linguistic identity inside the country available to us at the moment cannot minority movements, Colombia (article 13). Furthermore, in a move tell us how successful the last 22 created a new constitution in 1991 recognising indigenous languages as years have been in terms of the new that would radically alter its society enriching the cultural heritage of the emphasis of local linguistic identities. and linguistic policy figured strongly country, the government created the For that we would need to look at in the new document. As of 1991, ‘law of languages’ in 2010 (Ley 1381 new challenges and successes that language policy divides into three de 2010) that not only enshrined this have occurred in the last 22 years in clear divisions: ethno-education (the further but enforced the right to use comparison to the challenges (both teaching of indigenous and Creole one’s mother tongue in all ambits new and old) faced by the countries languages), Spanish education and of government and healthcare. linguistic identities. foreign language teaching, and these The new law would also promote One of the main challenges divisions mark new steps in changing the revitalisation of endangered presented to the continuing survival national identity. and extinct languages and offer of indigenous linguistic identities government financial assistance to Indigenous and minority groups is that of work and in particular do so; and also that the science arm received rights that had been denied globalisation. Increasing globalisation of the government (Colciencias) to them for over 500 years in what the and the rule of the market in almost all would be charged with monitoring government hoped would be seen as facets of Colombian life have arrived this preservation (Ley 1381 de 2010, a move of historical reconciliation. to even the most remote indigenous articles 14 and 21). The national government declared communities and have brought with itself a pluri-ethnic state, proud of The national census of 2005 put them new linguistic challenges. its heritage and linguistic diversity, the total indigenous population of Although having been given almost having realised that in the past it had Colombia at 1,392,623 people (3.36% express control of their territories, consigned indigenous peoples to the of the total population) comprising the indigenous communities of national ‘other’ since the republic’s 87 ethnicities and speaking 64 Colombia are now exposed to the founding and that there existed a languages (DANE, 2005) with the economic factors at play in the rest of desperate need of renewing the largest indigenous languages being the country. It has become common 141 national identity (Ariza, 2004). While Wayuunaeki, Nasa Yuwe and Embera for indigenous youth to give up their Encuentros languages and even change their Another well-known case in Bogotá SIL and Catholic administrations tradition names to Hispanic names as is that of the Inga. Inga is both a and suffered an almost complete loss they seek work and higher education group and a language from the south of tradition beliefs and autonomy. – which require Spanish in the cities of Colombia and an off shoot of However, they were also one of the (Areiza-Londoño, 2010). Another Quechua. Thousands of Inga have two groups who led the rebellions in reason for youth leaving their linguistic migrated to Bogotá and the larger the 1950s and 60s that led to the new identities has to do with the country’s cities to find work and for a long language laws and the creation of the internal violence due to the guerrilla time did not pass on their language regional indigenous authorities. Once groups. Guerrilla groups frequently to their children. However given their authority (CRIT) was created; take indigenous land and force able the recent interest and help given they quickly became proactive in not indigenous peoples to leave and look to indigenous linguistic identities in only setting up a language program for labour elsewhere. This usually Colombia, the Inga language has also for all Nasa wherever they may be entails leaving behind their identities made a comeback – in both numbers in Colombia but also took steps to as indigenous language speakers as and attitude. Not only have parents completely re-write their alphabet they seek work with Spanish speakers begun teaching their children to (thus eliminating the SIL and (Jamioy-Juagibioy, 2005). speak Inga (using new materials catholic versions) and to formally sponsored by the government) but document their grammatical system To counter these points though is attitudes towards the language have and publish it for all. As a result of the surge of evidence of activities soared – with adults (particularly the proactive efforts and in the face being taken to promote indigenous women) taking pride in public usage of many challenges, Nasa Yuwe use is linguistic identities that have of their language (Pineda-Camacho, growing in and out of cities and can been successful – even within the 2005). now be found in media and literature large cities. Muiscabun, one of – proudly supporting traditional Nasa the aforementioned chosen four In terms of revitalization outside identity and values (UNICEF, 2002; indigenous languages, that was of big cities, there are many success Pachón, 1997; Corrales-Carvajal, thought extinct has shown itself stories but here I will deal with two – 2008; Curieux-Rojas, 1998). to be alive thanks to a spectacular Nonuya and Nasa Yuwe. The Nonuya revitalization effort. The Muisca were a group on the southern state The success of Nasa Yuwe reserves on the outskirts of the capital of Putumayo who were reduced to leads us to very notable initiative Bogotá have created language courses only dozen people. However after by big universities in the country. and primary schools in Muiscabun to the change in laws, the discovery Understanding that higher education openly pass on the language to new of a single elderly Nonuya speaker is often a reason for unstable generations (Giraldo-Gallego, 2011; lead to the revitalization of the diglossic situations occurring – with Pineda-Camacho, 2005). Such is language with entire communities indigenous language speakers leaving the power of this movement that taking up the language (Echeverri their mother tongues for domestic even in mestizo sectors of Bogotá & Landaburu, 1995). The example affairs and using Spanish in the there are interests in learning the of revitalization par excellance in public sphere - many universities took language as part of their heritage and Colombia though is that of Nasa steps to see that indigenous languages for those interested; there is even Yuwe. Under the 1886 constitution, were incorporated in education. The 142 Encuentros an online course available to all. the Nasa were interned under both National University of Colombia offers its courses in Nasa Yuwe and intimately tied to the education was closely attached to the idea of Arhuaco in addition to Spanish and legislation regarding foreign language traditional European values and opened up an indigenous language teaching. The creation of the new education and thus echoed the line in its Master of Linguistics degree. constitution resulted in the creation Constitution of Cúcuta and the The University of Los Andes opened of new education guidelines a 1886 Constitution and their division up a Masters of Ethnolinguistics scant three years later. Under the of social classes via education - a (now closed) specifically aimed Ministry of Education’s (MEN) vision that is notably classist of social at indigenous languages and their new plan education would now be stratification in terms of wealth promotion and research; and the compulsory until fifteen years of age distribution, social opportunity and National University of Open and and all students would need to be education quality. However, from Distance Education (UNAD) offers educated in a foreign language. While 1994 onwards the onus of foreign an ethno-education degree so that originally offering whatever language language education was to develop indigenous languages speakers the student or school should desire, ‘competent and competitive’ citizens can educated their own language come 2004 MEN would introduce through the acquisition of English communities in their own languages the plan ‘Colombia Bilingüe’ which (Utakis & Pit, 2005). and thus avoid unfavourable diglossic recommended the teaching of English Many academics have spoken out situations with Spanish in education to every student in the country who was rather loudly against the imposition that may damage the future of the not of indigenous, Romani or Creole of English in the educational system languages. descent, and in 2006 it introduced at the cost of other foreign languages the ‘Basic Standards of Competence Through recent legislation and and even at the cost of Spanish itself. in Foreign Languages: English, further changes in attitudes, indigenous A particular criticism of the model strengthening the dominant position identity has be accepted as a central imposed by MEN is that it does not of English in education. In 2014, facet of national identity. While provide a context which is relevant English would gain further foothold attitudes from the 1886 constitution to Colombian national identity or in Colombian education with the still and one can still hear disparaging everyday life (de Mejía, 2011). Patiño ‘Colombia Very Well’ programme remarks about indigenous language (2005) notes that the plan devised whose aim is form a nation of English/ and culture, law and education have by MEN is focused on an ideal of Spanish bilingual individuals. turned their back on the linguicidal europeanization of the education past of the nation and embrace The nature of this education policy system and aims to emulate a Europe indigeneity and Creole as core tenets is tied very strongly with the concept that in reality does not exist outside of of the multi-cultural nature of the of national identity, although at the government’s imagination. Indeed, newly envisioned national identity – times it may not seem that obvious. a common fear is that the government gone are the days were the minority Until 1994 the teaching of foreign (through MEN) may be trying to identity were legally othered as languages was largely the domain change the national identity, or at barbaric and unacceptable. of rich, private schools who taught least the national power relations, due prestigious European languages as to influence from the British Council In a similar vein to minority means of creating a separate social who has been lobbying around the communities, the current social identity for the uppers classes (de world since the 1900s for English identity of Spanish speakers is 143 Mejía, 2011). This social identity education everywhere (Crystal, 1997; Encuentros Phillipson, 2000; Gonzáles-Moncada, is Spanish, perceived the national 4. Conclusion 2007). Whether or not this is factual identity to be less prestigious than the From the beginning of the Spanish is hard to discern, but the influence identity of English speaking countries. colonization to its end and then of English speaking institutions on Given the inferiority complex of the through the changing borders and the national government of Colombia ruling class, the government saw constitutions of the republic, the is hard to refute. fit to impose a foreign language on languages of Colombia and the the population in order to create a How is national identity influenced identities attached to them have new aspect of the country’s social through MEN’s English policies? undergone many changes. Colombia identity. What this has seen is the As it has been mentioned, national as a country has passed from being privileging of English in universities identity is a creation and language is a region of many nations with many and schools at the expense of Spanish used to ‘other’ external societies and languages to the colonial and post- in technical education (Patiño, homogenize internal society. Prior to colonial eras where power relations 2005). This privilege of English over 1991, Colombia had been imagined and nation identities were mandated Spanish creates the situation where as a Spanish speaking country which through the national language the traditional unifying language developed its own variety of Spanish policy of Spanish at the expense of (Spanish) is relegated to a position of which became the official tool indigenous languages, identities and social inferiority as the government with which to ‘other’ other Spanish knowledges. The minority linguistic tries to align itself more with capitalist speaking nations (particularly Spain) communities of Colombia have gone English speaking countries for trade and the linguistic minorities inside from being treated as slaves and then benefits. But for the hispanophones the country. The 1991 constitution re- savages for the language they spoke to of the country, this has meant an imagined the country as a Colombian their eventual vindication as valued immediate devaluing of the national Spanish speaking nation where speakers of valued languages, having identity that was constructed over minority languages were given equal endured many losses and hardships 500 years through Spanish as the footing and identity status. However during 492 years to reach a point hispanophones are now made to the 1994 MEN decrees pushed where they could be recognised as see themselves as inferior to the national identity onto a different path. equals for the language they speak. more commercially dominating While there are still challenges in With the 1994 decree, the Anglophone identities. Thus Spanish, the form of globalisation, the work national identity was re-imaged which was once the language of market and the guerrilla problem as being bilingual in English as a prestige and unification in the facing indigenous language speakers means of becoming competent and country; remains a tool to unify the in the expression of their linguistic competitive in international markets. country but at the same time is held identity; positive steps taken by the In this statement alone lies a key as being inferior to the commercially national authorities, educational assumption about how Colombian dominant English speaking identities institutions and proactive local identity is perceived: the Colombian and English has become a tool to organisations are helping to remediate government considered the linguistic align the country’s social identity this situation and create a state where prestige of Spanish to be inferior to with the Anglophone countries that all linguistic identities – be it Spanish, that of English and, given that the manipulate the national government indigenous, Romani or Creole – are 144 national language of the country for their own benefit. 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