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Negotiation and Instrumentalisation – The Reception of “the Tragic” in Modern Chinese Literary Discourse, 1917-1949 by Gu Tian A Thesis Submitted in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Subject of Chinese Studies The University of Edinburgh September 2017 DECLARITION This is to certify that the work contained within has been composed by me and is entirely my own work. No part of this thesis has been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. Signed: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all the people who have contributed to make this thesis possible. First of all, I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, Professor Natascha Gentz, for the instructive suggestions on the organisation of materials, and the technical advice on writing and argumentation. Her generous help and unfailing patience have been a great encouragement for me to overcome all the difficulties I have encountered during the writing process, and to finally complete this thesis. I feel so blessed to have her as both a mentor and a friend, and the experience of working with her will certainly become my lifelong benefit. Similarly, I extend my thanks to Dr. Julian Ward, Dr. Christopher Rosenmeier, Dr. Mark McLeister, Dr. Daniel Hammond, and all the other academic staff in Chinese Studies. Their enlightening lectures and impressive scholarly attitude have greatly broadened my horizons, and will be inspiration for my future research and career. I am also grateful to my proofreader, Elizabeth Leith, for helping me to improve this thesis. Her careful work and positive comments have greatly inspired me to keep practising with English academic writing. I also want to show my heartfelt thanks to my beloved parents for their constant consideration, comfort, and encouragement during my PhD studies; without their support, I could never have had the opportunity to go abroad and see more of this wonderful world. Special thanks go to Chen Chen and Li Hao, my close friends since childhood, who have been keeping me company through thick and thin over the years. I may be too shy to straightforwardly express my feelings, but I will always keep in mind how lucky I am to have them in my life. Thanks to all the people who have supported me and offered me their generous help all along. I owe you everything. ABSTRACT This study examines how the concept of tragedy has been introduced and has negotiated itself into modern Chinese literary discourse during a time period of thirty-two years from 1917 to 1949. Taking into consideration the simultaneous development of a modern Chinese literary tradition, this study concentrates on the relationship between the discourse on one particular genre and the discourse on literature as a whole during the process of reception of an alien literary concept and its influence on indigenous literature. Modern Chinese intellectuals interpret the concept of tragedy from two main aspects: one is in the theatrical domain where tragedy functions as a dramatic form closely related to the emergence of a new genre in Chinese literature, namely, the spoken drama (huaju); the other is in the aesthetic domain where tragedy (or more specifically, the tragic) operates as a literary or philosophical idea and offers possibilities for the development of this notion in non-dramatic literature. This dual-focus approach is fundamental in the formation of a modern Chinese discourse on tragedy, as a paralleled line of arguments concerning these two aspects remains visible in the modern period. The major influence from foreign intellectual tradition on modern Chinese perception of tragedy takes the shape of two pairs of different perspectives, namely, literary utilitarianism and literary aestheticism in theoretical discussions, corresponding to realism and romanticism in literary creativity. These two pairs of perspectives set the tone for modern Chinese understanding of the concept of tragedy: literary utilitarianism and literary aestheticism focus respectively on the foremost importance of tragedy’s practical utility in social progression, or of tragedy’s aesthetic function to offer emotional cleansing to the audience; realism and romanticism debate the intricate relation between tragedy and social reality that besieged several generations of writers throughout the Republican era. It is noticeable that these viewpoints have not developed in a balanced way, as a pragmatic realist perspective has prevailed in both theory and practice, while the aesthetic/romantic pursuit being either rejected or incorporated into the ultimate thematic concern with social reformation and national salvation. This study abstracts the idea of the tragic from its dramatic form in examining the cross-genre and multidisciplinary development of the concept of tragedy in modern Chinese literary tradition. The main body of the thesis contains four chapters. The first chapter sets the scope of this study by clarifying several terminologies that are key to approach the long-lasting debates on whether there is a Chinese tragedy in 20th-century Chinese literary discourse. The second chapter focuses on the period of the New Culture Movement from 1917 to 1927, when the counter-traditional and iconoclastic agenda dominates the overall literary field and associates tragedy largely with literature’s functional role in social criticism. The third chapter examines theories and writings produced from 1928 to 1937, when the perspective of pragmatic realism prevails the reading of the tragic due to the strengthened connection between literature and politics. The fourth chapter centres on the wartime literary expression of the tragic from 1937 to 1949, when the Anti-Japanese War homogenises the literary subjects with an overt and unified political theme to inspire the people with optimism and fighting spirit. By exploring the possible factors that differentiate modern Chinese tragic perception from its foreign counterparts, this study investigates and demonstrates the constant interplay among several cultural, social, and political factors in affecting the formation of a modern critical discourse on tragedy. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………..1 CHAPTER ONE One Problem: Terminology – Approaching the Subject...............28 1.1 Debate Revisited: Is there a Chinese Tragedy?.............................................29 1.2 Clarification of Terms: Tragedy, the Tragic, and Others…………………..35 1.3 Choice of Word: Why the Tragic?................................................................45 CHAPTER TWO The 1920s: The New Culture Movement and Its Legacy (1917-1927)………………………………………………………………………….52 2.1 Theoretical Discussion: Tragedy and the Counter-traditional Agenda…….54 2.1.1 The Rejection of Chinese Tragedy…………………………………….54 2.1.2 The Conceptualisation of Tragedy…………………………………….59 2.1.3 Summary………………………………………………………………63 2.2 Literary Creativity: Different Expressions of Social Concerns……………66 2.2.1 The Realist and Romantic Interpretations of the Tragic………………67 2.2.2 The Blurred Line between Realism and Romanticism………………..83 CHAPTER THREE The 1930s: The Deepening of Western Influence and the Politicisation of Literature (1928-1937)…………………………………………….90 3.1 Theoretical Discussion: The Making of a Theory………………………….91 3.1.1 The Rejection of Chinese Tragedy…………………………………….92 3.1.2 The Conceptualisation of Tragedy…………………………………….95 3.1.3 Summary……………………………………………………………..113 3.2 Literary Creativity: The Overwhelming Realism………………………...116 3.2.1 The Realist Construction of Tragic Narratives……………………….117 3.2.2 The Debate between Aesthetics and Politics………………………...128 CHAPTER FOUR The 1940s: The War and the Politically-oriented Literature (1937-1949)………………………………………………………………………...141 4.1 Theoretical Discussion: Tragedy and the War………………………........141 4.1.1 The Rejection of Chinese Tragedy…………………………………...142 4.1.2 The Conceptualisation of Tragedy…………………………………...144 4.1.3 Summary……………………………………………………………..153 4.2 Literary Creativity: The Performance of a War Experience……………...155 4.2.1 The Inheritance of the Tradition of Realism…………………………156 4.2.2 The Convergence of Realism and Romanticism……………………..167 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………...179 BIBLIOGRAPHY.………………………………………………………………..191 INTRODUCTION Gao Xudong, a Chinese scholar in comparative literature, refers to the Western influence on modern and contemporary Chinese literature as “all-pervasive”:1 “The textbooks of literature we are now using, including those of ancient Chinese literature, are compiled under the rules of Western literary theories and concepts; contemporary Chinese writers, whether consciously or unconsciously,