An Int^rated .^pproaeh to Human Resouree Management

Editor's Note: GAO has been work­ people in organizations.' This HRM ing to develop and implement an inte­ approach has a two-fold goal: first, to grated human resource management improve employee productivity on a system. Mr. Pernick is with the variety of important performance mea­ Research and Analysis Branch of the sures such as cost savings, perfor­ newly formed Office of Organization mance level or rate, timeliness, and '\ and Human Development, which accuracy; and second, to enhance the Roberta Pemick brought together a number of GAO qualitative aspects of the work place— components working in the area. The e.g., challenging and interesting work, Mr. Pernick is a personnel research psy­ views expressed in the article are his reasonable control over one's job, and chologist with GAO's Office of Organiza­ own, and they reflect one approach to satisfying interpersonal relationships. tion and Human Development. Prior to this an integrated system. GAO's approach, Improving these qualitative dimensions he spent 3 years as an internal consultant will benefit the employee and could on the agency's Organization Development now being developed, will reflect many staff. Mr. Pernick's current organizational of the concepts expressed here, but also have significant organizational activities include designing career man­ will surely be different from this pro­ payoffs through reduced turnover, agement systems, developing performance posed model. absenteeism, tardiness, grievances appraisal systems, and teaching manage­ filed, accident rate, slowdowns, strikes, ment development courses on performance In October 1980, GAO began operat­ equipment breakage, and employee improvement. He holds a master's degree in ing an independent personnel system theft. organization behavior from Nev*' York Insti­ which removed it from most Office of tute of Technology. Personnel ty/lanagement regulations. HRM has evolved in response to the This independence, combined with a fundamental changes in our society continually expanding congressional that are influencing organizational mandate, a changing work force, legal effectiveness. These changes have constraints on employment practices, been well documented (see, e.g., HEW and improvements in personnel man­ Task Force, 1973; O'Toole, 1974; Davis agement technology, gives GAO the & Cherns, 1975; Herzberg, 1976; Sut­ responsibility and opportunity to tle, 1977; Walker, 1980). In brief, these create a human resource management changes include demographics (an (HRM) system that would help it more aging and expanding work force), effectively manage its employees. higher-educated employees, persistent productivity declines, legal and regu­ In looking at these responsibilities latory constraints, and changing em­ and opportunities, this article serves ployee attitudes. four purposes. First, it gives a back­ ground on a variety of personnel man­ Naturally these changes have many agement changes that could occur. organizational and managerial conse­ Second, the article broadly defines the quences. As some workers elect to need for and benefits of HRM and sug­ stay on the job past the traditional gests its relevance to GAO. Third, this retirement age, different managerial introduction to the field gives a context strategies are required. The techniques for considering several of GAO's own that motivate a 70-year-old employee programs. Finally, the article notes may not be effective with a 20-year- several reasons why an organization old. The demand for jobs has greatly needs to establish a comprehensive increased as "baby boom" members policy and a systematic approach to and women enter the full-time labor HRM. In this latter context the article market in record numbers. The work discusses one integrated system that force's education level has risen, and could enhance GAO's management of workers tend to be less satisfied with human resources in the 1980's. routine employment, in general, em­ ployees tend to expect more from work. Continuing declines in U.S. P'°' C4>mponents of Human ductivity reduce the number and type Resoui*ce Management of employment opportunities and also In broad terms, human resource limit salary potential for those fortu­ management is an attitude and ap­ nate enough to find work. A large body proach of managers toward the effec­ of Federal and State legislation has tive selection, use and development of increasingly defined managerial actio 71 GAO Review/Spring 1981 An Integrated Approach to Human Resource Management

in employee discrimination, safety, developed with input from question­ enough to include a variety of organi­ health, privacy, and compensation naire design/analysis experts and the zations, comprehensive enough to practices. data may be faulty. Programs which include the core processes, and orderly Employee values concerning the are developed by one unit may cause enough to show the sequence and relative importance of work and per­ dissatisfaction in other units which do relations among those processes. A sonal expectations from work are also not have them. Finally, fragmented general model that seeks to satisfy changing. Employees are increasingly programs prevent development of an these requirements is presented in interested in off-duty leisure activities integrated human resource manage­ Figure 1. and are often more reluctant to make ment information system. an undesirable geographical move On the other hand, a systems per­ Relevancy to GAO solely for the sake of, for example, spective in HRM permits management career advancement (Etzioni, 1977). to understand and act upon the rela­ Many of the conditions that create And although workers still desire ade­ tionship that people have with their an organizational need for HRM exist quate salaries and comprehensive work within the various parts of the in GAO. Some of these conditions fringe benefits, employees increas­ organization. For example, it is ob­ include a continually expanding con­ ingly desire "more" from the job itself. viously important to select the most gressional mandate, a changing work This desire often translates into feel­ capable and compatible applicant for a force, legal requirements on employ­ ings of achievement, opportunities for position. The accuracy of that selec­ ment practices, and passage of the learning and advancement, a job that tion decision eventually can be deter­ Civil Service Reform Act (CSRA) and uses their abilities to the fullest extent, mined by the performance appraisal GAO Personnel legislation. and meaningful participation with man­ program. Assessing employees' per­ The Congress has increasingly agement in decisions affecting them formance levels in relation to relevant called upon GAO to conduct a wider personally. individual characteristics such as bio­ and often controversial range of pro­ In addition to improving performance graphical data, education, and expe­ gram evaluations. To accomplish this and the quality of working life, an rience provides information which can mission, the agency must operate in HRM-minded organization is better then be used in the selection program an adaptive and creative manner and prepared for the future because it is for future recruiting of candidates who be capable of quickly reviewing and more adaptable and integrated: adapt­ best fit the successful performer's pro- reporting findings to the Congress. able in the sense of anticipating and file.2 Thus the selection and perfor­ These operational requirements de­ planning for change, and making mance subsystems are highly interde­ mand an effective organization. quick responses to new conditions; pendent and interact to influence the The GAO work force has changed and integrated in that the HRM pro­ organization's functioning. considerably over the past decade and grams are complementary and there­ Four main ideas can be summarized is now multidisciplinary. In addition to fore can contribute to improved organ­ from this introductory section: the traditional accountant/auditor, izational effectiveness. Given our • HRM has evolved as a way to deal GAO now employs program analysts, society's recent history of rapid and with changes in our work force, econ­ management analysts (frequently with unexpected change, increased foreign omy, and legal environment. master's degrees in business or public competition, and technological com­ • HRM is an effective way for organi­ administration), economists, mathe­ plexity, this organizational versatility is zations to achieve current goals, maticians, behavioral scientists, and essential. improve performance, and prepare for computer analysts. Moreover, these the future. new employees are increasingly women Systems Perspective • A "human resource" approach to and/or nonwhite, and their different in HRM management tends to be more psy­ backgrounds, career interests, and chologically satisfying to employees developmental needs require varied A systems perspective is embodied in addition to improving organiza­ managerial responses. In addition, the in the human resource approach to tional effectiveness. work force in general is more question­ management. A system can be simply • Human resource programs should ing of managerial style and preroga­ described as "containing highly inter­ support each other and, in total, con­ tives and increasingly is voicing a dependent parts or sub-systems, all of tribute to meeting organizational desire for significant participation in vi'hich interact among themselves and objectives because organizational the management process. with the environment in determining functioning is an interdependent pro­ Equal employment opportunity how the organization functions." cess, and the design and management (EEO) laws and other employment Without a systems oriented ap­ of human resources is best accom­ requirements have had a profound proach, individual components within plished in a systematic manner. influence on the management of an organization tend to develop their human resources. In general, this own human resource units or under­ body of legislation requires GAO (and take related projects. While on the HRM Model all employers) to establish personnel surface this may not appear inappro­ There are several models which management programs built around priate, it can cause problems. For in­ represent the major elements of an job-related criteria without regard to stance, surveying employees in one HRM system. In general, an HRM race, sex, or age. GAO has a strong top unit about their concerns may raise model should contain work force management commitment to EEO, their expectations which cannot be planning, recruitment and selection, and this commitment has been a major met by limited programs developed performance, rewards, training and factor in designing programsfor recruit­ within a unit. In addition, the survey development, and evaluation compo­ ment, selection, promotions, apprais­ instrument used may not have been nents. The model should be general als, rewards, and training. GAO Review/Spring 1981 7a An Integrated Approach to Human Resource Management

Fig. • 1 Human Resource Management Model

s

other Define PreHIre Hirlnfl Performance Quality of Organizational Organization Requirements Process Phase Workllte Outputs Mission *?- Programs

Developmental Programs I

Evaluate Organization's Effectlvess

Evaluate HRM Programs

The CSRA was enacted to improve interrelationships between personnel Programs and 1^<«k Forces Federal employee productivity and functions. To remedy this deficiency, Competitive Selection Process. The service through a variety of personnel the Comptroller General established a CMC reviewed various personnel management programs and regula­ high-level Career Management Com­ management practices and gathered tions. Examples include performance mittee (CMC) in 1975. data on employees' perceptions of appraisal, merit pay, and employee The CMC was top management's career management. Their review dismissal. A central focus of the act is first attempt to integrate GAO's var­ found, among other things, that a large to strengthen the relationship between ious personnel management policies majority of employees were dissatis­ performance and the giving or with­ and programs. Over the next 3 years— fied with the promotion system, which holding of rewards. Although GAO until a career personnel director was they viewed as a "patronage" process. now has its own personnel manage­ hired—CMC initiated several HRM Accordingly, the competitive selection ment legislation, the Congress has projects. Their work helped to form the process (CSP) was developed to man­ required that our personnel practices basic shape and direction of human age promotions above the GS-12 be consistent with CSRA principles resource management in GAO (GAO career ladder, for outside upper-level and objectives. Both pieces of legisla­ 1966-1981: An Administrative History, hires into the agency, and for all selec­ tion will influence any HRM system 1981). tions to GAO's overseas branches. established in GAO. The CSP involves procedures that give Selected O^'ervieiv of each applicant an opportunity to com­ Career Management pete for promotion on a basis of job- HISM in GAO relevant criteria, and thereby improves Conunittee What follows is a brief overview of the promotion program's perceived To try to satisfy the personnel man­ many CMC-initiated programs that are and actual fairness. agement demands of a changing envi­ with us today. Other human resource Recognizing that the system has not ronment, GAO implemented several activities and functions, not directed been perfect, there have been numer­ independent projects in the early by CMC, are also mentioned because ous attempts to make CSP more equi­ 1970's. However, these projects did of their similar goals and potential table and less of a paperwork burden not adequately address the necessary importance in management. The new performance appraisal sys- 78 (iAO RcWcw/Spring lOf" \n Integrated Approach to Human Resource Management

terns are likely to contribute to these recognition of desired performance. ciently accomplishing work through goals. Most recently, a task force of Realizing the complexity of rewards, positive interactions with people. division directors^ sought input from the Task Force on GAO Effectiveness Because relationships are so impor­ QAO management and employee ad­ recommended establishing a Rewards tant in an effective organization, GAO visory committees and developed some Task Force to determine if the many has spent considerable time and changes to the process. More funda­ reward possibilities in GAO reinforced money developing a course to enhance mental changes are possible as part of organizational goals while satisfying human interactions at work. An inten­ the new personnel system installation. employee needs. sive 4-day course entitled "Skills for Training Needs Assessment. A train­ The Rewards Task Force concluded Performance and Career Develop­ ing needs assessment is a systematic that the distribution or rewards was ment" is underway for all professional method that determines the required accomplished without well-defined cri­ staff. In a lecture and experiential for­ level of competency for successful teria, and therefore lacked credibility mat, the course enhances skills in performance and compares that re­ in GAO. Of the many proposed interpersonal problemsolving via per­ quirement with the actual current level recommendations made to correct formance coaching, appraisal train­ of employee performance. The differ­ this fundamental and far-reaching ing, and career counseling. These ence represents the organization's problem, the division directors adopted generic skills are designed to improve legitimate responsibility to its em­ two that appeared to be achievable. human interactions which in turn sup­ ployees for training or other develop­ port individual HRM programs and The first recommendation stated mental experiences. ultimately GAO's effectiveness. A sim­ that managers should set specific per­ ilar course is being developed for non- GAO accomplished separate assess­ formance goals and design proce­ evaluator staffs. ments for auditors and clerical staffs. dures to evaluate the degree of goal The findings are now used to design, accomplishment. Secondly, the organ­ improved Career Paths. GAO created implement, and evaluate professional ization should be responsible for train­ its Upward Mobility Program to pro­ and support staff training courses. ing managers and providing expert vide employees in nonprofessional Furthermore, these job-relevant data advice in carrying out the design and series (below GS-9) a systematic were used in developing the Behavior- evaluation tasks. As with the competi­ opportunity to fully develop their work ally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS) tive selection process, the new perfor­ capabilities and expand their realistic performance appraisal system for aud­ mance appraisal systems with behavior- career possibilities. The program itors, and similarly will be used in based and results-based components emphasizes structured developmental developing the appraisal program for is designed to satisfy both of these assignments and permits some use of other occupations. recommendations. work time for required formal educa­ Betiaviorally Anchored Rating Scales. Generallst/Specialist Career Paths. A tion. To date, over 100 employees have The Task Force on GAO Effectiveness Division Director Task Force exam­ entered the program, and more than (established in 1977) specified that ined the career advancement of GAO 60 percent have successfully gradu­ assessment of individual performance generalists (auditors/evaluators) and ated into a variety of professional posi­ would be carried out on each assign­ the advancement of specialists (econ­ tions such as auditors, editors, and ment. The BARS system was deve­ omists, lawyers, statisticians) to deter­ computer analysts. loped with this in mind. Supervisors mine if the advancement is equal. In As another example of increased will provide ratees with direct feedback response to the Task Force's many career alternatives. Personnel created on their work in behavioral terms, adopted recommendations. Personnel an evaluator assistant classification thereby allowing easier correction of has been charged with working with series that places participants in deficiencies and development of poten­ line management to develop formal planned developmental assignments tial. The system will be merged with a career ladders and improve career for future entry into the evaluator results, or accomplishments, dimen­ paths that recognize the different and series. Several other classification sion that measures individual contri­ equally valuable contributions GAO "bridges" are planned. butions to the organization. This specialists make to the office. dimension is an essential feature for Equal Employment Opportunity Evaluator Series. A distinct classifica­ promotions, merit pay, and other per­ (EEO). GAO created several EEO pro­ tion series (GS-347) has been created sonnel decisions. Planning is under­ grams to provide equal employment to recognize GAO's unique function, way to develop comparable perfor­ opportunity for all qualified people, and it provides guidance for pay based mance appraisal systems for other and to eliminate or reduce discrimina­ on actual levels of work. The new ser­ groups of professional employees and tion. As one way to reduce discrimina­ ies is compatible with the BARS per­ support staffs. tion, the agency held 2-day, small- formance appraisal system, is not group training programs for all em­ Rewards System Task Force. It is diffi­ expected to change grade levels, and ployees using GAO coworkers as cult to determine what an individual in most cases, will cover employees facilitators. The learning gained in this regards as rewarding. Individual re­ currently performing GAO's mainline 'Functional Racism" seminar will con­ wards may be influenced by personal auditing activities. Employees' con­ tinue in the divisions/offices through attributes (Korman, 1976); satisfying version to this series (from others such each unit developing its own antidis­ situation-specific consequences of as accountants and management ana­ crimination/human relations training behavior (Bandura, 1969); or percep­ lysts) took place just prior to Octo­ program. tion of equitable treatment when com­ ber 1, 1980, the effective date of our pared to similar others (Adams, 1965). Employee Organizations. As a more independent personnel system. f^ewards are also organizationally formal way of participating in the man­ defined, based on what management Interpersonal Skills. Reduced to its agement process, GAO has several thinks employees want and deserve in simplest terms. HRM is a way of effi­ organizationally chartered groups. GAG Review/Spring 1981 7* An Integrated Approach to Human Resource Management

Two are the Career Level Council and community resources for longer-term forefront of HRM in the Federal agen­ the GS-13/14 Management and Policy personal problems. cies. However, what has not been ade­ Advising Council. The groups repres­ Organization Development. This staff quately articulated is a clear and ent the interests of GS-7 through -14 directs their efforts at improving work agreed-upon management policy and staff. In general, these groups seek to groups' efficiency and the quality of an agencywide implementation stra­ influence the design and implementa­ interpersonal relationships, usually by tegy that defines GAO's system and tion of GAO policy concerning work increasing employee participation in the goals of HRM. This obviously is methods, management practices, and the management process. By applying the task of the new Office of Organiza­ employee rights. behavioral science knowledge from tion and Human Development. areas such as human communica­ HRHStaSSs tions, conflict resolution, and small IVeed for Integrated GAO's top management realized group decisionmaking, an organiza­ HRM that accomplishing these HRM proj­ tion development consultant attempts ects and programs required the assis­ to develop within a work group the While GAO has undertaken many tance of a variety of personnel. Conse­ skills necessary for the group to diag­ projects and activities designed to quently, over the past several years nose and solve its own problems. enhance human resource manage­ GAO has hired or developed profes­ Because the typical project requires ment, the lack of a comprehensive sional staff with expertise in training considerable changes in how employ­ HRM policy can make it difficult for and employee development; psycho­ ees and managers interact, organiza­ staff to understand how they all fit logical and career counseling; per­ tion development is usually a long- together. At the same time, some indi­ sonnel/organizational research, design, term venture. Its ultimate goal is to vidual divisions and offices have devel­ oped their own projects which, while implementation and evaluation; labor assist organization members in creat­ meeting some of the needs of their relations; and organization develop­ ing a more adaptive, effective, and per­ staff, have been geared toward their ment." GAO now has a sufficient sonally satisfying work environment number of human resource profes­ own, rather than organizational, needs. (Huse, 1980). sionals capable of assisting manage­ There are other issues which need to ment in developing their HRM pro­ Research and Analysis. Staff in this be addressed, such as measuring the grams. To provide additional focus on group conduct personnel-related re­ impacts of HRM programs and helping the area, Comptroller General Staats search, and develop, coordinate, and employees develop individual devel­ merged several HRM staffs into one monitor personnel management sys­ opment plans (IDPs). The latter offer office—the Office of Organization and tems. Among other responsibilities, the opportunity to record career inter­ Human Development (OHD). A descrip­ this staff conducts selection validation ests and abilities, identify long-range tion of some of that office's staffs studies, develops standardized data- realistic job opportunities and plan follows. collection instruments, evaluates EEO strategies for career progress."' policies and practices, and performs Training and Development. This staff GAO wouJd thus benefit from clearly job/task analyses. is responsible for assessing the train­ articulating an HRM policy and work­ ing needs of professional, technical, Two staffs in other parts of GAO play ing within that framework. The agency and support staffs; and for designing, a particularly important role in human needs to be able to respond to the implementing, and evaluating courses resource management. The Labor demands of an increasingly complex intended to fulfill those needs. The Management and Employee Relations mission, a changing and heterogene­ staff offers a wide range of courses staff of the Personnel Office develops ous work force, legal and regulatory such as Program Evaluation for Audi­ internal labor-management policies constraints on personnel practices, tors, Supervisory Skills, Entry-Level and provides assistance to manage­ and the changes being implemented ADP, and Secretarial Procedures. ment in dealing with union or other under GAO's new personnel legislation. Counseling and Career Deveiopment. organized groups. It also advises man­ This staff provides any interested agers on disciplinary actions and employees with individual or group resolving grievances as well as advis­ An Operational Model counseling regarding career planning ing employees of their rights. The Civil With the above background in mind. and mobility. GAO views career man­ Rights Office provides technical assis­ Figure 2 presents a program-specific agement as a joint responsibility of the tance on designing EEO training pro­ HRM model that suggests the range of Office and the employee, but places an grams. It also coordinates the Human activities necessary to systematically emphasis on individual initiative and Concerns Council which represents address the needs of an organization self assessment in the process. Career special interests groups such as han­ such as GAO. Because this model topics covered include assessing cur­ dicapped and Hispanic employees, identifies individual programs and rela­ rent skill levels, interests, and apti­ and develops the annual affirmative tionships, it could be one useful way W tudes; examining career opportunities action plan. approach HRM policy, program strate­ within and outside the agency; devel­ When the cumulative work of the gies, goals, and staffs responsible tor oping strategies for career goals; and Career Management Committee, task program implementation. managing stress. The staff also offers forces, programs, and human resource- Following is a brief discussion of tti'S outplacement services, retirement oriented staffs is viewed, it should be model including mission, human counseling, and short-term confiden­ apparent that there is a considerable resource planning, selection, perfor­ tial assistance for more serious per­ organizational effort to improve GAO's mance, evaluation and information^ sonal problems such as drug or alco­ effectiveness and quality of work life. systems. Existing or planned programs hol dependency and marital difficul­ In fact, these human resource efforts that relate to the model are also men­ ties. Referrals are made to professional and staffs may well place GAO in the tioned. This discussion is not intended 75 GAO Review/Spiing 19**' An Integrated Approach to Human Resource Management

Rg.- 2 Oparatlonal HRM Model

Human Resource • •• Planning Psrtormance Recruit - i—». Program *1 Planning 1 Employees REWARDS 1 Promotion 1 1 ' ._. Merit Pay Task Cash Bonus Analysis for job Awards Specifications, t ' , I 1 r Other-Individual r 1 Standards and OTHER QUALITY Select Duties Performance *_ ,. OF WORK LIFE Employees •«i— RtTCognire the -I — ---• _PEtQQflAMS Evaluate GAO 1 Organization's Employee 1 Elfectiveness Mission and \ Organizations Establish 00 Progrems Supporting Wage ana ' . Organiza­ Strategies Salary Latwr Mviagement tional * • Program Organizational Pertormance Programs •^-1 4 Outputs J Orientation Monitoring L DEVELOPMENTAL EEO Programa 1 Assignments Healtti, Safety & 1 iSecurlty Programs \ Position Counseling and Evaluate Descriplion u 1 1 Career Development — all HRM "*• I i Assign u Periormance Training Employees Appraisal Employee 1 r Relations 1 Requirements ' Hiring Process ( p^^^^

Human Resource Information System

as a thorough analysis of the opera­ forecasting human resource needs, Due to GAO's excepted service sta­ tional model or as a guide to imple­ performance management, and career tus' and CSRA requirements, a pay- ment programs. Rather, it highlights management. for-performance philosophy dictates an integrated system that could build In broad terms, resource needs are the need for a new and integrated on previous work to manage human predicted by analyzing the external compensation, appraisal, and position resources at an organization such as environment (e.g., budget constraints), classification plan that will reward GAO. accounting for future internal human employees based primarily on perfor­ Mission. The need for GAO to contin­ resource requirements, and subtract­ mance and eliminate salary increases ually evaluate its operating strategies ing future resource availability to arrive based primarily on seniority. is perhaps prudent, given its dynamic at net needs. Performance manage­ Hiring Process. In agreement with role of providing services to the Con­ ment, as a minimum, requires estab­ EEO legislation and sound personnel gress, the accelerating rate of change lishing programs to improve produc­ management practices, recruitment in society at large, and the upcoming tivity through job design, performance and selection efforts need to be based appointment of a new Comptroller appraisal, and wage and salary admin­ on job-related criteria developed from General.'• Once this direction is istration. Career management is, in job analyses. Furthermore, to encour­ defined, certain personnel programs essence, an integrated process of age constructive "self-selection, "appli­ can be established to ensure that recruiting, selecting and assigning cants should have realistic job pre­ appropriate human resources are employees, promotion, transfer, man­ views which carefully explain position available to accomplish that mission. agement succession planning, train­ requirements (in behavioral terms if Further, since the mission ideally ing and development, and career possible), including any presumed "drives" the organization, it is essential counseling (Walker, 1980). Although negative aspects (Wanous, 1979). that the mission be clearly evident performance and career management Failure to select qualified and organi­ through HRM policies. programs are implemented at a later zationally compatible applicants can Pre-Hire Requirements. Although new time, early inclusion of these activities result in reduced productivity, higher employees are needed periodically, in the planning process ensures their turnover and absenteeism, increased several activities should occur prior to influence on future resource needs. administrative costs, and a diminished organizational staffing, as shown in Planning for human resources also quality of work life. the "pre-hire requirements" section of requires job analyses to determine the Toward this end of efficient and the model. Optimally, human resource critical knowledges, skills, and abilities accurate employee selection, GAO s planning occurs first, as this requires required for complex positions. Sub­ Office of Personnel is redesigning the analyzing the organization's person­ entire recruitment, selection, and nel needs relative to its mission and sequently, a rational wage and salary policy and requires developing pro­ program that attracts, motivates, placement process. New systems will grams to satisty those requirements. rewards, and retains qualified employ­ include a more realistic job descrip­ Planning activities typically include ees must also be designed and imple­ tion and announcement, the use of mented to deliver the needed skills. job-related assessment criteria in the GAO Review, Spring 1981 76 An Integrated Approach to Hiunan Resource Management

interview and selection decision, and, Evaluation. Ideally, an organization's availability, assist in training needs over time, empirical validation of the outputs will satisfy its mission, goals, assessments, and maintain a data base entire process. The initial target posi­ and other constraints whi le also satisf­ on employees' individual career plans. tion for this new selection process is ying human resource concerns. Eva­ HRM must be a systematic undertak­ entry-level evaluators. If there are posi­ luation criteria should be comprehen­ ing if it is to be fully effective. The tive results on dimensions such as per­ sive enough to reflect these concerns model shown in Figure 2 introduces formance level and turnover rate, a because organizational effectiveness one system for managing our human similar method of employee selection and HRM programs influence each resources. would be implemented for other levels other. Three examples illustrate the GAO has previously experimented and job series. point: with creating or modifying several Performance Ptiase. Work performance • A training program that teaches independent automated information is generally enhanced when an em­ a new skill may be assessed posi­ systems to meet management needs. ployee and supervisor use an interac­ tively by participants, yet that skill I n keeping with the systems concept of tive process that involves planning, may be obsolete to the organization organizational interdependency, GAG monitoring, and appraising perfor­ and will not contribute to improved is now moving toward a consolidation mance. During the planning session performance. of its three major data bases. In 1981 a an employee receives a thorough job • A supervisor may achieve an contractor will assist in redesigning orientation of work requirements and impressive production rate through a and merging the financial, personnel, priorities and participates in setting dictatorial management style. Although and auditing ADP subsystems. When performance goals and standards use­ high production is important to the completed, this consolidated system ful for evaluation criteria. The super­ organization, this unit might expe­ will permit easier data input and re­ visor monitors on-going performance rience a costly increase in turnover, trieval and will have an expanded and provides the employee with on- absenteeism, and tardiness. information-processing capability. Fur­ the-job training and constructive feed­ • A unit supervisor may achieve a thermore, because the system is being back. After an appropriate period of high production rate by using a parti­ designed exclusively for GAO, it will performance, a formal appraisal of cipative management style. The organ­ be more capable of satisfying our results occurs, during which perfor­ ization may benefit directly, and the unique information needs. I would mance is compared with established unit's employees may report an above- hope this system has a human re­ criteria. When combined with behav­ average level of job satisfaction. An source component. ioral feedback on work processes, this indirect organizational benefit of lower evaluation provides an employee with turnover may also be possible. developmental information and is used As these simple examples indicate, Summing Up tbe to make personnel decisions such as organizational effectiveness is inex­ Model promotions or cash bonuses. tricably interwoven with long-term In many respects the performance HRM concerns. Therefore, multiple Developing, with input from employ­ appraisal function is central to the per­ criteria—defined by the type of work ees at all levels, a model that captures sonnel management process. Formal performed—give a more complete pic­ organizational, managerial, and sub­ appraisals permit differentiation among ture of organizational functioning ordinate needs will not be an easy task. employees for distribution of scarce (Steers, 1975). In GAO, evaluation In an organization with a wide range of rewards such as promotions and merit criteria might include cost savings, work and individual employee differ­ pay. In addition, appraisals provide timeliness, accuracy, employee reten­ ences, the challenge is even more data on performance levels which in tion rate, absence of undue stress, and complex. A policy developed in a par­ turn are essential in designing specific psychological commitment to organi­ ticipative process which is communi­ training and development curricula zational goals. After carefully deciding cated to all staff is likely to create and initiating other administrative ac­ on and evaluating meaningful criteria, employee commitment to HRM goals tions. Furthermore, aggregate results the findings are used by managers in and procedures. of an accruate appraisal system enable reformulating strategic plans, design­ The integrated HRM approach is validation of the selection process, ing new objectives, and creating pro­ thus best created by provides feedback to the wage and gram action plans. • basing HRM policy on the organi­ salary program, and ultimately affects zation's goals, almost all aspects of human resource • ensuring that individual programs management (Henderson, 1980). Human Resource support and are consistent with each Ouality-of-work-life programs also Information System other, influence performance, but not neces­ • evaluating HRM programs primar­ sarily in as direct a manner. Thus, this A Human Resource Information ily on the basis of their long-run con­ HRM model shows that performance System containing personnel data on tribution to organization effectiveness, may be linked directly to outputs or acquiring, developing, and managing and may be influenced by rewards, devel­ human resources is an important • connecting evaluation data with opmental activities, and/or other aspect of an integrated human resource the design of future HRM goals and quality-of-work-life programs. How­ management system. Among other strategies. ever, recalling the dual goals and things, such a system can be used to An HRM system can have a power­ interaction of HRM programs, perfor­ evaluate personnel management poli­ ful influence on organizational func­ mance will be enhanced if it is some­ cies and programs and advise man­ tioning To be and remain viable, it how connected to these qualitative agement on them, assist managers in requires considerable effort, resources, activities (Likert & Bowers, 1975). forecasting work force needs and and continual commitment. 77 CAO Revicw/Si>ring 19H' yKn Integrated Approach to Human Resource Munafiiement

^onie Concluding Bibliography Xhoughts

The need for an integrated HRM sys­ Adams, J.S. "Inequality In Social Ex­ tem in GAO is likely to intensify in the change." In Advances in Experimental 1980'S. In response to an increasingly Psychology. Vol. II. New York: Aca­ demic Press, 1965. complex world, our mission is almost Bandura, A. Principles of Behavior Modifi­ certain to expand. Moreover, the work cation. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Win­ force will continue to ask for, or per­ ston, 1969. haps demand, through highly active Beckhard, R. Organization Development unions, a more participative role in Strategies and Models. Reading, Mass.: management. Also significant is the Addison-Wesley, 1969. fact that additional employment legis­ Etzioni, A. "Opting Out: The Waning ofthe lation such as "equal pay for work of Work Ethic." Psychology Today. July, 'Numerous other names and phrases equal value," will further influence 1977, p. 18. such as Human Resource Development (HRD), Quality of Work Life (OWL), organizational and personnel manage­ Henderson, R.A. Performance Appraisal: From Theory to Practice. Reston, Va.: Organization Development (OD), Soclo- ment behavior. Finally, with the free­ Reston Publishing Co., 1980. technical systems. Participative Manage­ dom of GAO's excepted-service status Herzberg, F. The Managerial Choice: To ment, and Industrial Democracy are used will come an intense scrutiny of our Be Efficient and To Be Human. Home- to describe this emerging field. There are new personnel system by the Con­ wood, III.: Dow Jones-Irwin, 1976. some differences in technique, e.g., gress and other Federal agencies. All Huse, E. Organization Development and conducting attitude surveys or establish­ of these factors call upon GAO to be Change. 2nd ed. St. Paul, Minn.: West ing performance appraisal systems; and in client focus, e.g., union employees or top an adaptive and responsive agency. Publishing Co., 1980. Korman, A.K. "Hypothesis of Work Behav­ management. Still, such programs are Clearly, the new Office of Organiza­ similar in attempting to develop and tion and Human Development has its ior Revisited and an Extension." Aca­ demy of Management Review, January manage human resources at work toward work cut out for it. 1976, pp. 50-63. the achievement of personal, social, and Above all, HRM cannot be inter­ Likert, R. and D.G. Bowers. "Organization economic goals (Mills, 1975). preted as a panacea. HRM programs, Theory and Human Resource Account­ 'Equal employment opportunity and bythemselves, will not compensate for ing." American Psychoiogist, August affirmative action factors also enter into the selection decision. deficiencies in, for example, financial 1975, pp. 585-592. ^GAO has 12 division directors who resources or unmotivated organiza­ Mills, T. "Human Resources—Why the New Concern?" Harvard Business fle- manage the work of its operating units tional members. However, because wew, March-April 1975, pp. 120-134. (called divisions). The directors also work HRM facilitates constructive organiza­ Snyder, R.A., CS. Raben, and J.L. Farr. as a team in addressing key internal tional change via improved human "A Model for the Systematic Evaluation management issues. interaction, it does have considerable of Human Resource Development Pro­ 'Another evidence of GAO's commit­ potential benefits for dynamic organi­ grams." Academy of Management Re­ ment to HRM was the establishment of the zations, including GAO. view, July 1980, pp. 431-444. Federal Personnel and Compensation Steers, R.M. "Problems in the Measure­ Division (FPCD) in 1972. This division is ment of Organizational Effectiveness." responsible for reviewing the Federal Administrative Science Quarterly, De­ Governments personnel policies and cember 1975, pp. 546-558. programs, and frequently makes recom­ Suttle, J.L. "Improving Life at Work: Prob­ mendations to the Congress on ways to lems and Perspectives." In Improving improve HRM. Due to their knowledge of Life at Work. Ed. J.L. Suttle and J.R. personnel and pay systems, staff mem­ Hackman. Santa Monica, Calif.: Good­ bers in FPCD have had a major role In year Publishing Co., 1977. designing GAO's independent personnel Ttie Quality of Working Life: Problems, system and may provide Personnel with Perspectives and the State of ttie Art. future assistance as well. Ed. L.E. Davis and A.B. Cherns, Vols. I & 'The BARS system for GS-7-14 evalua­ 11. New York: The Free Press, 1975. tors does have a developmental section U.S. Civil Service Reform Act of 1978, 5 which captures some of the IDP data. U.S.C. 2301. However, at present this data is not U.S Dept. of Health, Education, and Wel­ formally connected to a work force fare Task Force. Worl( in America. Cam­ planning system. Furthermore, these bridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1973. evaluators constitute less than 55 percent U.S. General Accounting Office. GAO of GAO's employee population. 1966-1981: An Administrative History. ^Comptroller General Staats' 15-year Washington: GAO, 1981. term ended on March 7, 1981, and as this Walker, J.W. Human Resource Planning. article went to press in April, the Congress New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1980. and the President were still deliberating Wanous, J.P. Organizational Entry: Re­ about his successor. cruitment, Selection and Socialization 'GAO employees were removed from of Newcomers. Reading, Mass.: Addi­ the competitive Federal service with son-Wesley, 1979. passage of the May 1980 Personnel Act. Worl( and the Quality of Life: Resource Employees are now in the excepted Paper for Work in America. Ed. J. service but are able to move into the O'Toole. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, competitive service if they want to transfer 1974. to another Federal agency. GAO Review/Spring 1981 78