Spies and Shuttles University Press of Florida Florida A&M University, Tallahassee Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton Florida Gulf Coast University, Ft. Myers Florida International University, Miami Florida State University, Tallahassee New College of Florida, Sarasota University of Central Florida, Orlando University of Florida, Gainesville University of North Florida, Jacksonville University of South Florida, Tampa University of West Florida, Pensacola SPIE S AND SHUTTLE S NASA’s Secret Relationships with the DoD and CIA James E. David Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C., in association with University Press of Florida Gainesville · Tallahassee · Tampa · Boca Raton Pensacola · Orlando · Miami · Jacksonville · Ft. Myers · Sarasota Copyright 2015 by Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper All photographs courtesy of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. This book may be available in an electronic edition. 20 19 18 17 16 15 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data David, James E., 1951– author. Spies and shuttles : NASA’s secret relationships with the DOD and CIA / James David. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8130-4999-1 (cloth) ISBN 978-0-8130-5500-8 (ebook) 1. Astronautics—United States —History. 2. Astronautics, Military—Government policy—United States. 3. United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration—History. 4. United States. Department of Defense—History. 5. United States. Central Intelligence Agency—History. 6. National security—United States. I. Title. TL789.8.U5D26 2015 327.1273—dc23 2014030770 The University Press of Florida is the scholarly publishing agency for the State University System of Florida, comprising Florida A&M University, Florida Atlantic University, Florida Gulf Coast University, Florida International University, Florida State University, New College of Florida, University of Central Florida, University of Florida, University of North Florida, University of South Florida, and University of West Florida. University Press of Florida 15 Northwest 15th Street Gainesville, FL 32611-2079 http://www.upf.com For Jeanne and Cristina Contents List of Illustrations ix Acknowledgments xi Abbreviations xiii Introduction 1 1 Forging Close Ties in NASA’s Early Years 13 2 NASA, the CIA, and Foreign Intelligence during the Apollo Era 34 3 Expanding Interaction in Old and New Areas 68 4 Restrictions on Remote Sensing from Space 103 5 Concerns over Human Spaceflight Program Experiments and Lunar and Astronomy Program Technologies 150 6 The Shuttle: NASA’s Radically New Partnership with the National Security Agencies 188 7 The National Security Agencies Abandon the Shuttle 218 8 NASA’s Applications Satellites and National Security Requirements 244 Conclusion 277 Notes 283 Bibliography 323 Index 335 Illustrations Illustrations follow page 134 1. T. Keith Glennan, NASA’s first administrator 2. First-generation Tiros weather satellite 3. James Webb, NASA’s second administrator 4. Lunar Orbiter 5. Robert Seamans, NASA associate administrator from 1960 to 1965 and deputy administrator from 1965 to 1967 6. Landsat 1 7. Test launch of a Poseidon submarine–launched ballistic missile in the 1970s 8. James Fletcher, NASA administrator from 1971 to 1977 and 1986 to 1989 9. Skylab, America’s first space station 10. SEASAT-A 11. Hans Mark, NASA deputy administrator from 1981 to 1984 12. Tracking and Data Relay Satellite-5 13. James Beggs, NASA administrator from 1981 to 1986 14. Polishing the Hubble’s primary mirror 15. X-37 ix Acknowledgments Many people have helped me greatly in the research and writing of this book. At the top of the list is Michael Neufeld, my colleague at the Na- tional Air and Space Museum. His encouragement, guidance, and sup- port throughout the project have been of immense value. Jeffrey Richel- son, senior fellow at the National Security Archive, provided excellent comments on all the draft chapters. The staffst a the many declassification offices to which I submitted numerous requests worked long and hard locating and reviewing the records that form the basis of much of this book. Two merit particular mention: the Washington Headquarters Services, Records and Declassi- fication Division of the Office of the Secretary of Defense and the Infor- mation Access and Release Team of the National Reconnaissance Office. Judith Barnes and the Transfer and Disposition Office at the Wash- ington National Records Center in Suitland, Maryland, helped me during my many visits in the huge task of determining exactly which records remained at that facility and which had been already transferred to the National Archives in College Park, Maryland. David Fort, deputy director of the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) and Mandatory Declassifica- tion Review (MDR) Division at College Park, processed many collections xi of records at my request and enabled me to review records I otherwise would not have been able to access. Meredith Babb, Nevil Parker, Elaine Durham Otto, and the other staff at the University Press of Florida have been superb. Their guidance and contributions have greatly improved this book. Lastly, I would like to thank my wife, Jeanne Delasko, for her love and support during the many years I worked on the book. xii · Acknowledgments Abbreviations AAP Apollo Applications Program BoB Bureau of the Budget CIA Central Intelligence Agency CREST-NARA CIA Records Search Tool, National Archives and Records Administration DCI Director of Central Intelligence DDR&E Director of Defense Research and Engineering DDS&T Deputy Director for Science and Technology DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program DoD Department of Defense ELV Expendable Launch Vehicle ESSA Environmental Science Services Administration FMSAC Foreign Missile and Space Analysis Center MSFN Manned Space Flight Network MSFPC Manned Space Flight Policy Committee NACA National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration xiii NGSP National Geodetic Satellite Program NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NORAD North American Air Defense Command NRO National Reconnaissance Office NSAM National Security Action Memorandum PSAC President’s Science Advisory Committee SACC Survey Applications Coordinating Committee SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar STADAN Satellite Tracking and Data Acquisition Network xiv · Abbreviations Introduction The Soviet Union’s successful launch of Sputnik 1 in October 1957 and that of Sputnik 2 the following month led to intensive debate in the United States on how to respond. President Dwight Eisenhower and his administration initially downplayed the significance and tried to reas- sure the nation that America was not militarily inferior to the USSR. However, many politicians, journalists, scientists, and others argued that the Soviet accomplishment was a great propaganda victory and proved the Cold War adversary was ahead in critical military technologies such as the intercontinental ballistic missile. They believed that America was now in a race for control of space and must win it whatever the cost.1 Eisenhower directed the acceleration of the nation’s missile programs and took some other limited steps, but he continued to adamantly op- pose any large increases in spending. These actions were taken against the backdrop of America’s attempt to launch its first satellite in Decem- ber, which resulted in national humiliation when the launch vehicle ex- ploded on the pad. The nation finally succeeded in placing a spacecraft in orbit on 31 January 1958, but this did not quiet the administration’s critics.2 Pressure grew to place the space program in one agency, and the mili- tary services and others soon set forth competing proposals. Eisenhower 1 directed the recently created President’s Science Advisory Committee (PSAC) to assess what the space program should be and what organiza- tion should lead it. In its late March 1958 report, PSAC initially noted that there were four factors driving the United States into space: the urge to explore the unknown, defense objectives, national prestige, and scientific observation and experimentation. PSAC rejected Air Force and Army arguments for control of the space program and recommended es- tablishment of a new civilian agency to run the non-defense part. Eisen- hower endorsed the report, stating: “These opportunities reinforce my conviction that we and other nations have a great responsibility to pro- mote the peaceful use of space and to utilize the new knowledge obtain- able from space science and technology for the benefit of all mankind.”3 Eisenhower quickly submitted the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 to Congress. The new agency was designated the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and it would take over the personnel and facilities of the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics formed in 1915: the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory in Virginia, Ames Aeronautical Laboratory in California, Lewis Flight Pro- pulsion Laboratory in Ohio, High Speed Flight Station at Edwards AFB in California, and Wallops Island launch complex in Virginia.4 It was very important for propaganda purposes to contrast NASA and its aeronautical and space programs with the Soviet Union’s secretive and military-oriented efforts. The legislation stated that the U.S. policy was “activities in space should be devoted to peaceful purposes for the