Key Concepts and Major Developments for the 1450 to 1750 Time Period
Period 4: Global interactions c. 1450 to c. 1750
Key Concept 4.1. Globalizing Networks of Communication and Exchange
The interconnection of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres made possible by transoceanic voyaging marked a key transformation of this period. Technological innovations helped make transoceanic connections possible. Changing patterns of long-distance trade included the global circulation of some commodities and the formation of new regional markets and financial centers. Increased interregional and global trade networks facilitated the spread of religion and other elements of culture as well as the migration of large numbers of people. Germs carried to the Americas ravaged the indigenous peoples, while the global exchange of crops and animals altered agriculture, diets, and populations around the planet.
i. in the context of the new global circulation of goods, there was an intensification of all existing regional patterns of trade that brought prosperity and economic disruption to the merchants and governments in the trading regions of the indian ocean, learninG objectives for 4.1.i Mediterranean, sahara, and overland eurasia. sb-9 Assess how and why Latin America commercial exchanges have Western Europe influenced the processes of state Eastern Europe building, expansion, and dissolution. Middle East Sub-Sahara Africa econ-3 Assess the economic South Asia strategies of different types Southeast Asia of states and empires. East Asia econ-12 Evaluate how and to what extent networks of exchange have expanded, contracted, or changed over time. econ-13 Analyze how international economic institutions, regional trade agreements, and corporations — both local and multinational — have interacted with state economic authority. II. European technological developments in cartography and navigation built on previous knowledge developed in the Classical, Islamic, and Asian worlds, and included the production of new tools, innovations in ship designs, and an improved understanding of global wind and currents patterns — all of which made transoceanic travel and trade LEARNING OBjECTIVES FOR 4.1.II possible.
ENV-3 Explain the environmental ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, Western Europe advantages and disadvantages of INNOVATIONS IN SHIP DESIGN: major migration, communication, w Caravel and exchange networks. ww Carrack ENV-6 Explain how people used w Fluyt technology to overcome geographic barriers to migration over time. CUL-6 Explain how cross- cultural interactions resulted in the diffusion of technologies and scientific knowledge. ECON-10 Analyze the roles of pastoralists, traders, and travelers in the diffusion of crops, animals, commodities, and technologies. ECON-12 Evaluate how and to what extent networks of exchange have expanded, contracted, or changed over time.
III. Remarkable new transoceanic maritime reconnaissance occurred in LEARNING OBjECTIVES FOR 4.1.III this period.
ENV-3 Explain the environmental A. Portuguese development Western Europe advantages and disadvantages of of maritime technology Sub-Sahara Africa major migration, communication, and navigational skills and exchange networks. led to increased travel to and trade with West ENV-6 Explain how people used Africa and resulted in the technology to overcome geographic construction of a global barriers to migration over time. trading-post empire. CUL-6 Explain how cross- cultural interactions resulted B. Spanish sponsorship of Latin America in the diffusion of technologies the first Columbian and Western Europe and scientific knowledge. subsequent voyages Southeast Asia ECON-3 Assess the economic across the Atlantic and strategies of different types Pacific dramatically of states and empires. increased European interest in transoceanic travel and trade. III. Remarkable new transoceanic maritime reconnaissance occurred in Learning objectives for 4.1.III this period. (continued) (continued)
ECON-12 Evaluate how and to C. Northern Atlantic crossings Western Europe what extent networks of exchange for fishing and settlements have expanded, contracted, continued and spurred or changed over time. European searches for multiple routes to Asia. ECON-13 Analyze how international economic institutions, regional trade agreements, and corporations — both local and multinational — have interacted with state economic authority.
IV. The new global circulation of goods was facilitated by royal-chartered European monopoly companies that took silver from Spanish colonies in the Americas to purchase Asian goods for the Atlantic markets. Regional markets continued to flourish in Afro–Eurasia by using established commercial practices and new transoceanic LEARNING OBjECTIVES FOR 4.1.IV shipping services developed by European merchants.
SB-3 Analyze how state formation and A. European merchants’ Western Europe expansion were influenced by various role in Asian trade was South Asia forms of economic organization, such characterized mostly by Southeast Asia as agrarian, pastoral, mercantile, transporting goods from East Asia and industrial production. one Asian country to another market in Asia or SB-4 Explain and compare how the Indian Ocean region. social, cultural, and environmental factors influenced state formation, expansion, and dissolution. B. Commercialization and Latin America the creation of a global Western Europe SB-9 Assess how and why economy were intimately Middle East commercial exchanges have connected to new global Sub-Sahara Africa influenced the processes of state circulation of silver South Asia building, expansion, and dissolution. Southeast Asia from the Americas. East Asia SB-10 Analyze the political and economic interactions between C. Influenced by mercantilism, Western Europe states and non-state actors. joint-stock companies South Asia were new methods used Southeast Asia ECON-3 Assess the economic by European rulers to East Asia strategies of different types control their domestic and of states and empires. colonial economies and ECON-5 Explain and compare forms by European merchants of labor organization, including to compete against one families and labor specialization another in global trade. within and across different societies. ECON-6 Explain and compare the causes and effects of different forms of coerced labor systems. IV. The new global circulation of goods was facilitated by royal-chartered European monopoly companies that took silver from Spanish colonies in the Americas to purchase Asian goods for the Atlantic markets. Regional markets continued to flourish in Afro–Eurasia by using established commercial practices and new transoceanic Learning objectives for 4.1.IV shipping services developed by European merchants. (continued) (continued)
ECON-9 Explain and compare D. The Atlantic system Latin America the ways in which economic involved the movement Western Europe philosophies influenced economic of goods, wealth, and Sub-Sahara Africa policies and behaviors. free and unfree laborers and the mixing of African, ECON-11 Explain how the American, and European development of financial cultures and peoples. instruments and techniques facilitated economic exchanges. ECON-12 Evaluate how and to what extent networks of exchange have expanded, contracted, or changed over time. ECON-13 Analyze how international economic institutions, regional trade agreements, and corporations — both local and multinational — have interacted with state economic authority. SOC-2 Assess how the development of specialized labor systems interacted with the development of social hierarchies. SOC-7 Analyze the ways in which colonialism, nationalism, and independence movements have sustained or challenged class, gender, and racial ideologies. SOC-8 Analyze the extent to which migrations changed social structures in both the sending and receiving societies. V. The new connections between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres LEARNING OBjECTIVES FOR 4.1.V resulted in the Columbian Exchange.
ENV-5 Explain how human A. European colonization of the Latin America migrations affected Americas led to the spread of the environment. diseases — including smallpox, measles, and influenza — ENV-7 Assess the causes that were endemic in the and effects of the spread of Eastern Hemisphere among epidemic diseases over time. Amerindian populations and the ENV-8 Assess the demographic unintentional transfer of vermin, causes and effects of the including mosquitoes and rats. spread of new foods and agricultural techniques. B. American foods became Latin America ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, SB-3 Analyze how state staple crops in various parts Western Europe AmERICAN FOODS: of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Eastern Europe formation and expansion were w Potatoes Cash crops were grown Middle East influenced by various forms of ww Maize primarily on plantations Sub-Sahara Africa economic organization, such as Southeast Asia with coerced labor and ww Manioc agrarian, pastoral, mercantile, East Asia and industrial production. were exported mostly to Europe and the Middle ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, ECON-1 Evaluate the relative East in this period. CASH CROPS: economic advantages and w Sugar disadvantages of foraging, w Tobacco pastoralism, and agriculture.
ECON-5 Explain and compare C. Afro–Eurasian fruit Latin America ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, forms of labor organization, trees, grains, sugar, and DOmESTICATED ANImALS: including families and labor domesticated animals were w Horses specialization within and brought by Europeans w Pigs across different societies. to the Americas, while other foods were brought w Cattle ECON-10 Analyze the roles of by African slaves. pastoralists, traders, and travelers ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, in the diffusion of crops, animals, FOODS BROUGHT BY commodities, and technologies. AFRICAN SLAVES: ECON-12 Evaluate how and to w Okra what extent networks of exchange w Rice have expanded, contracted, or changed over time. D. Populations in Afro–Eurasia Western Europe SOC-2 Assess how the benefitted nutritionally from Eastern Europe development of specialized labor the increased diversity of Southeast Asia East Asia systems interacted with the American food crops. development of social hierarchies. SOC-7 Analyze the ways in which E. European colonization and Latin America colonialism, nationalism, and the introduction of European independence movements have agriculture and settlements sustained or challenged class, practices in the Americas gender, and racial ideologies. often affected the physical environment through SOC-8 Analyze the extent to deforestation and soil depletion. which migrations changed social structures in both the sending and receiving societies. VI. The increase in interactions between newly connected hemispheres and intensification of connections within hemispheres expanded the spread and reform of existing religions and created syncretic belief LEARNING OBjECTIVES FOR 4.1.VI systems and practices.
CUL-2 Explain how religious belief ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, REFORm systems developed and spread as a OF EXISTING RELIGIONS AND result of expanding communication CREATION OF SYNCRETIC BELIEF and exchange networks. SYSTEmS AND PRACTICES: ENV-4 Explain how environmental Middle East w The continuing importance of Sufi factors influenced human Sub-Sahara Africa practices contributed to the further migrations and settlements. spread of Islam in Afro–Eurasia as believers adapted Islam to local ENV-5 Explain how human cultural practices. migrations affected the environment. Middle East w The political rivalry between the ECON-8 Analyze the relationship Ottomans and Safavids intensified between belief systems and the split between Sunni and Shi’a. economic systems. Latin America w The practice of Christianity Western Europe continued to spread throughout Sub-Sahara Africa the world and was increasingly Southeast Asia diversified by the process of East Asia diffusion and the Reformation. Latin America w Vodun developed in Caribbean in the context of interactions between Christianity and African religions. South Asia w Sikhism developed in South Asia in the context of interactions between Hinduism and Islam. South Asia w While the practice of Buddhism Southeast Asia declined in South Asia and island East Asia Southeast Asia, different sects of Buddhism and Buddhist practices spread in Northeast Asia and mainland Southeast Asia.
VII.As merchants’ profits increased and governments collected more taxes, funding for the visual and performing arts, even for popular LEARNING OBjECTIVES FOR 4.1.VII audiences, increased along with an expansion of literacy.
CUL-8 Explain how economic, Western Europe religious, and political elites defined Eastern Europe and sponsored art and architecture. South Asia CUL-9 Explain the relationship East Asia between expanding exchange networks and the emergence of various forms of transregional culture, including music, literature, and visual art. VII. As merchants’ profits increased and governments collected more taxes, funding for the visual and performing arts, even for popular Learning objectives for 4.1.VII audiences, increased along with an expansion of literacy. (continued) (continued)
SB-1 Explain and compare how rulers constructed and maintained different forms of governance. SB-9 Assess how and why commercial exchanges have influenced the processes of state building, expansion, and dissolution.
Key Concept 4.2. New Forms of Social Organization and Modes of Production
Although the world’s productive systems continued to be heavily centered on agricultural production throughout this period, major changes occurred in agricultural labor, the systems and locations of manufacturing, gender and social structures, and environmental processes. Adapting to the Little Ice Age, farmers increased agricultural productivity by introducing new crops and using new methods in crop- and-field rotation. Economic growth also depended on new forms of manufacturing and new commercial patterns, especially in long-distance trade. Political and economic centers within regions shifted, and merchants’ social status tended to rise in various states. Demographic growth — even in areas such as the Americas, where disease had ravaged the population — was restored by the 18th century and surged in many regions, especially with the introduction of American food crops throughout the Eastern Hemisphere. The Columbian Exchange led to new ways of humans interacting with their environments. New forms of coerced and semicoerced labor emerged in Europe, Africa, and the Americas, and affected ethnic and racial classifications and gender roles.
I. Beginning in the 14th century, there was a decrease in mean temperatures, often referred to as the Little Ice Age, around the world that lasted until the 19th century, contributing to changes in agricultural practices and the contraction of settlement in parts of the LEARNING OBjECTIVES FOR 4.2.I Northern Hemisphere.
ENV-4 Explain how environmental factors influenced human Western Europe Eastern Europe migrations and settlements. ENV-8 Assess the demographic causes and effects of the spread of new foods and agricultural techniques. ECON-1 Evaluate the relative economic advantages and disadvantages of foraging, pastoralism, and agriculture. II. Traditional peasant agriculture increased and changed, plantations expanded, and demand for labor increased. These changes both fed and responded to growing global demand for raw materials and LEARNING OBjECTIVES FOR 4.2.II finished products.
SB-9 Assess how and why A. Peasant labor intensified ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, commercial exchanges have in many regions. INTENSIFICATION OF influenced the processes of state PEASANT LABOR: building, expansion, and dissolution. Eastern Europe w The development of frontier ECON-1 Evaluate the relative South Asia settlements in Russian Siberia East Asia economic advantages and w Cotton textile production in India disadvantages of foraging, w Silk textile production in China pastoralism, and agriculture. ECON-3 Assess the economic B. Slavery in Africa continued Sub-Sahara Africa strategies of different types both the traditional of states and empires. incorporation of slaves into households and ECON-5 Explain and compare forms the export of slaves of labor organization, including to the Mediterranean families and labor specialization and the Indian Ocean. within and across different societies.
ECON-6 Explain and compare the C. The growth of the Latin America causes and effects of different plantation economy forms of coerced labor systems. increased the demand for slaves in the Americas. ECON-10 Analyze the roles of pastoralists, traders, and travelers in the diffusion of crops, animals, D. Colonial economies in the ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, commodities, and technologies. Americas depended on a COERCED LABOR: range of coerced labor. w SOC-2 Assess how the development Chattel slavery of specialized labor systems w Indentured servitude interacted with the development Latin America w Encomienda and hacienda of social hierarchies. systems SOC-7 Analyze the ways in which w The Spanish adaptation of the colonialism, nationalism, and Inca mit’a independence movements have sustained or challenged class, gender, and racial ideologies. SOC-8 Analyze the extent to which migrations changed social structures in both the sending and receiving societies. III. As social and political elites changed, they also restructured ethnic, LEARNING OBjECTIVES FOR 4.2.III racial, and gender hierarchies.
SB-4 Explain and compare how A. Both imperial conquests ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, social, cultural, and environmental and widening global NEW ELITES: factors influenced state formation, economic opportunities w The Manchus in China expansion, and dissolution. contributed to the w Creole elites in Spanish America formation of new political ECON-3 Assess the economic and economic elites. w European gentry strategies of different types ww Urban commercial entrepreneurs in of states and empires. Latin America, Western Europe, East Asia all major port cities in the world ECON-6 Explain and compare the causes and effects of different B. The power of existing ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, forms of coerced labor systems. political and economic EXISTING ELITES: elites fluctuated as ww The zamindars in the Mughal Empire SOC-1 Analyze the development of they confronted new ww The nobility in Europe continuities and changes in gender challenges to their ability hierarchies, including patriarchy. to affect the policies of w The daimyo in Japan SOC-2 Assess how the development the increasingly powerful Western Europe, Eastern Europe, of specialized labor systems monarchs and leaders. South Asia, East Asia interacted with the development of social hierarchies. C. Some notable gender ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, GENDER and family restructuring AND FAmILY RESTRUCTURING: SOC-4 Analyze ways in which occurred, including w The dependence of European men legal systems have sustained demographic changes on Southeast Asian women for or challenged class, gender, in Africa that resulted conducting trade in that region and racial ideologies. from the slave trades. w The smaller size of European families SOC-7 Analyze the ways in which colonialism, nationalism, and Latin America independence movements have Western Europe Middle East sustained or challenged class, Southeast Asia gender, and racial ideologies.
Key Concept 4.3. State Consolidation and Imperial Expansion
Empires expanded and conquered peoples around the world, but they often had difficulties incorporating culturally, ethnically, and religiously diverse subjects and administrating widely dispersed territories. Agents of the European powers moved into existing trade networks around the world. In Africa and the greater Indian Ocean, nascent European empires consisted mainly of interconnected trading posts and enclaves. In the Americas, European empires moved more quickly to settlement and territorial control, responding to local demographic and commercial conditions.
Moreover, the creation of European empires in the Americas quickly fostered a new Atlantic exchange network that included the transatlantic slave trade and transpacific exchange network. Around the world, empires and states of varying sizes pursued strategies of centralization, including more efficient taxation systems that placed strains on peasant producers, sometimes prompting local rebellions. Rulers used public displays of art and architecture to legitimize state power. African states shared certain characteristics with larger Eurasian empires. Changes in African and global trading patterns strengthened some West and Central African states, especially on the coast; this led to the rise of new states and contributed to the decline of states on both the coast and in the interior. I. Rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their LEARNING OBjECTIVES FOR 4.3.I power.
CUL-4 Analyze the ways in A. Rulers continued to use ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, which religious and secular religious ideas, art, and RELIGIOUS IDEAS: belief systems affected political, monumental architecture w European notions of divine right economic, and social institutions. to legitimize their rule. ww Safavid use of Shiism CUL-8 Explain how economic, w Mexica or Aztec practice of human religious, and political elites defined sacrifice and sponsored art and architecture. Latin America w Songhay promotion of Islam Western Europe SB-1 Explain and compare how Eastern Europe ww Chinese emperors’ public rulers constructed and maintained Middle East performance of Confucian rituals different forms of governance. Sub-Sahara Africa South Asia ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, SB-2 Analyze how the functions East Asia and institutions of governments ART AND mONUmENTAL have changed over time. ARCHITECTURE: w Ottoman miniature painting SB-4 Explain and compare how social, cultural, and environmental w Qing imperial portraits factors influenced state formation, w Mughal mausolea and mosques, expansion, and dissolution. such as the Taj Mahal w SB-5 Assess the degree to which the European palaces, such as functions of cities within states or Versailles empires have changed over time. B. States treated different ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, SB-7 Assess how and why internal ethnic and religious groups DIFFERENTIAL TREATmENT OF conflicts, such as revolts and in ways that utilized their ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS GROUPS: revolutions, have influenced economic contributions the process of state building, w Ottoman treatment of non-Muslim while limiting their subjects. expansion, and dissolution. ability to challenge the w Manchu policies toward Chinese SB-9 Assess how and why authority of the state. w commercial exchanges have w Spanish creation of a separate influenced the processes of state República de Indios Latin America w Spanish and Portuguese creation building, expansion, and dissolution. Middle East of new racial classifications in SB-10 Analyze the political and South Asia the Americas including mestizo, economic interactions between East Asia mulatto, creole. states and non-state actors.
ECON-3 Assess the economic C. Recruitment and use of ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, strategies of different types bureaucratic elites, as BUREAUCRATIC ELITES OR of states and empires. well as the development mILITARY PROFESSIONALS: of military professionals, ECON-8 Analyze the relationship w Ottoman devshirme became more common between belief systems and w Chinese examination system economic systems. among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized ww Salaried samurai SOC-3 Assess the impact that control over their different ideologies, philosophies, and populations and resources. religions had on social hierarchies. SOC-5 Analyze ways in which Middle East religious beliefs and practices have East Asia sustained or challenged class, gender, and racial ideologies. I. Rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their Learning objectives for 4.3.I power. (continued) (continued) Western Europe Middle East SOC-7 Analyze the ways in which D. Rulers used tribute East Asia colonialism, nationalism, and collection and tax farming independence movements have to generate revenue for sustained or challenged class, territorial expansion. gender, and racial ideologies.
II. Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons, and armed trade to establish large empires in both LEARNING OBjECTIVES FOR 4.3.II hemispheres.
ENV-6 Explain how people used A. Europeans established Western Europe technology to overcome geographic new trading-post empires Middle East barriers to migration over time. in Africa and Asia, which Sub-Sahara Africa proved profitable for the South Asia SB-1 Explain and compare how Southeast Asia rulers and merchants rulers constructed and maintained East Asia involved in new global trade different forms of governance. networks, but these empires SB-2 Analyze how the functions also affected the power and institutions of governments of the states in interior have changed over time. West and Central Africa. SB-3 Analyze how state formation and expansion were influenced by various B. Land empires — Eastern Europe Middle East forms of economic organization, such including the Manchu, Mughal, Ottoman, and South Asia as agrarian, pastoral, mercantile, East Asia and industrial production. Russian — expanded dramatically in size. SB-4 Explain and compare how social, cultural, and environmental C. European states established Latin America factors influenced state formation, new maritime empires in Western Europe expansion, and dissolution. the Americas, including SB-9 Assess how and why the Portuguese, Spanish, commercial exchanges have Dutch, French, and British. influenced the processes of state building, expansion, and dissolution. ECON-3 Assess the economic strategies of different types of states and empires. ECON-12 Evaluate how and to what extent networks of exchange have expanded, contracted, or changed over time. III. Competition over trade routes, state rivalries, and local resistance all LEARNING OBjECTIVES FOR 4.3.III provided significant challenges to state consolidation and expansion.
SB-2 Analyze how the functions Latin America ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, and institutions of governments Western Europe COmPETITION OVER have changed over time. Middle East TRADE ROUTES: SB-3 Analyze how state formation and w Omani–European rivalry in the expansion were influenced by various Indian Ocean forms of economic organization, such w Piracy in the Caribbean as agrarian, pastoral, mercantile, and industrial production. ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, STATE RIVALRIES: SB-4 Explain and compare how social, cultural, and environmental w Thirty Years War factors influenced state formation, w Ottoman–Safavid conflict expansion, and dissolution. ILLUSTRATIVE EXAmPLES, SB-7 Assess how and why internal LOCAL RESISTANCE: conflicts, such as revolts and revolutions, have influenced w Food riots the process of state building, ww Samurai revolts expansion, and dissolution. w Peasant uprisings SB-8 Assess how and why external conflicts and alliances have influenced the process of state building, expansion, and dissolution. SB-9 Assess how and why commercial exchanges have influenced the processes of state building, expansion, and dissolution. SB-10 Analyze the political and economic interactions between states and non-state actors. ECON-3 Assess the economic strategies of different types of states and empires.