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Competition and the Mercantile Culture of the Gold Coast

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Competition and the Mercantile Culture of the Gold Coast COMPETITION AND THE MERCANTILE CULTURE OF THE GOLD COAST SLAVE TRADE IN THE ATLANTIC WORLD ECONOMY, 1620-1720 By Angela Sutton Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Vanderbilt University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree in DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in HISTORY August, 2014 Nashville, Tennessee Approved: Jane G. Landers, Ph.D. Richard J. Blackett, M.A. Catherine A. Molineux, Ph.D. Steven A. Wernke Ph.D. Copyright © 2014 by Angela Sutton All Rights Reserved ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Juggling the various elements and historiographies of this dissertation was challenging, and I could not have done it without the help of my various colleagues and friends from around the world who picked up the ideas I dropped when I had too many up in the air, and gently tossed them back to me to incorporate into the fold as I progressed. Thank you to my advisor, Jane Landers, for the consistent support and advice, and to my dissertation committee: Richard Blackett, Catherine Molineux, and Steve Wernke. Also to the Vanderbilt faculty who have taken the time to think about my work and mentor me in all things academic: Celso Castilho, Eddie Wright-Rios, Marshal Eakin, Moses Ochonu, Arlene Tuchman, Bill Caferro, Ronald Messier, William Fowler, and Chuck Orser. Also to my Vanderbilt graduate school friends who have influenced my work throughout the years: Nicolette Kostiw, Caree Banton, Erica Hayden, Steve Harrison, Jeremy Dewaal, Nick Villanueva, Clay Poupart, Adam Wilsman, Joanna Mazurska, Erin Woodruff Stone, David Wheat, Joanna Elrick, and Pablo Gómez. The numerous members of the Association of Caribbean Historians for their thoughtful feedback and generous sharing of sources both during the annual conferences and long after. My colleagues at the Wilberforce Institute at the University of Hull, England, who became friends and showed repeated interest in the success of my project long after the UNESCO conference in 2012. Thank you to Colin Nicolson, Alison Jasper, Tim Fitzgerald, and Richard Roberts of the University of Stirling, Scotland, for their mentorship, academic support, and friendship over the years. This dissertation owes a special debt to: The Vanderbilt History department for short-term research grants to England and Ghana. Also Hassan Ghani and Chris DeCorse for invaluable assistance in these locations. The Fulbright Commission and the Netherlands-America Foundation for their generous research fellowship, the employees of the Dutch National Archive and Royal Library in The Hague, Linda Pietersen and Marcel Oomen at the Fulbright office, and the members of my fellow Fulbright cohort who became friends and supported me and my project: Miriam Belblidia, Katie Jagt, Nadia Baadj, Steve Staggs, Steve Schrum, Henry Bundy, Paul Dwyer, Tom Henighan, and our honorary Fulbright and resident writer, Dina Nayeri. The KITLV at the University of Leiden, Netherlands, for hosting me for a year, providing collegial support and feedback through seminars, use of their library and holdings, as well as iii covering the costs of primary source reproductions. Henk Schulte Nordholdt, Rosemarijn Hoefte, Karwan Fatah-Black, and Yayah Seigers were especially helpful and generous in their support. Also to my friends in Holland who made the year of archival research a joy: Sanna Tauriainen, Jenni Torkkola, Mario Sainz Martinez, Niels Voorham, Sandra Milić, Tori Egherman, Smruthy Sachidanandan and her husband Vivek, Chris Saxe, Ben Falkenmire, Suzanna Tjoa and her group of writers, Pooyan Tamimi Arab, and Jon Reus. The ACLS/Mellon Foundation for the support to write without distractions through the Dissertation Finishing Fellowship. Vanderbilt Arts & Sciences for the grant to visit Sweden's National Archive and to the helpful and hard-working employees at this archive. Also to Ross Carter for hosting me in his lovely home outside of Stockholm for the duration of my research there. The Max Kade Center for support to visit the Prussian Privy Archives in Berlin, and those who assisted with finding appropriate sources and the reproduction of them there. Also thank you to Adam Smith of the University of Leipzig for transcribing and translating a number of these sources throughout his career, making my work far less onerous. My friends in Britain who have loaned their sofas and spare rooms and made me bottomless cups of tea in between research trips: Tom Kirk, Kenno Reid, Alex Dickson, Jenny Haston, Hannah Given, Morven Larkin, Karen Harper, Kaisa Maenpaa, Markus Kuokkanen, Kirsty Logan, Danny Cummins, Nicola Meikle, Annmarie Peckham, Karen McArthur and her lovely parents Alasdair and Judy, Ivana Curuvija, Sandy Wenger, Lauren MacDonald, Kirsty Gallery, Alexander Belic, Sam Jones, Jake Salvador, Emma Tulloch, Ailsa, Wendy, and Lily Nicol, and the rest of the unbelievable Bilston Crew. All of the roommates in the Netherlands and in Nashville who have tolerated my intolerable times throughout the dissertation-writing process: Ipsita Chatterjea, Matt Crump, Ali Sevilla, Toby Paramore, John Hoogstrate, Haley Dreis, and Walter Lane, my deepest thanks and apologies. My family: Brian, Annegret, and Christopher Sutton, and Ulricke and Axel Albert. Anyone I have forgot, for I am sure there are many. Please know your help is appreciated. And finally to my partner, Sean Jamal Cardell, who did the bulk of the emotional heavy lifting: all my thanks and love. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................iii LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................................vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS......................................................................................................viii Chapter INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1 Overview..............................................................................................................................2 A Note About the Archives and Sources.............................................................................5 Terminology.........................................................................................................................8 Historiography...................................................................................................................10 The History of the Anglo-Dutch Rivalry...........................................................................14 History of the Swedish, Danish, and Prussian Companies................................................15 Monopoly and Mercantilism..............................................................................................15 Methods.............................................................................................................................18 Contributions.....................................................................................................................19 I. DUTCH ENTRY TO THE ATLANTIC WORLD AND SLAVE TRADE......................23 The First Europeans in West Africa...................................................................................23 The Founding of the WIC and Dutch Plans for the Gold Coast.........................................32 Dutch Privateering and the WIC........................................................................................36 The Dutch in Brazil and the Foundations of Dutch-Africa................................................37 Dutch WIC Trade on the Gold Coast and the Treaty of Axim .........................................44 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................53 II. GOLD COAST AFRICANS, WAR, AND THE ANGLO-DUTCH RIVALRY..............56 Gold Coast Polities and Trade Politics..............................................................................58 Power Relations Between and Among Africans and Company Slavers ...........................64 Consequences of the First Anglo-Dutch War (1652-1654) on the Gold Coast ................68 The Second Anglo-Dutch War (1655-1657) and its Consequences..................................72 The Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672-1674) and the Gold Coast.........................................78 The Komenda Wars, 1694-1700........................................................................................81 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................91 v III. EUROPEAN-AFRICAN EXCHANGE, SMALL COMPANIES, AND THE CREATION OF A COMPETITIVE MERCANTILE CULTURE...........................93 Local Interaction and Power with the Swedish African Company....................................95 Brandenburg in Africa: The Beginnings............................................................................98 Prussian Business Tactics and West African Culture......................................................101 The BAC and European Rivalries in West Africa...........................................................106 West Africans in the BAC/WIC Disputes.......................................................................112 Privateering as a Tactic of Competition..........................................................................116 West African Revolts and Scapegoats of the BAC.........................................................118
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