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Journal of Archaeology Copyright 2019 ISBN 1524-4776

ARCHAEOLOGY OF BETWEEN AND THE NORTH AMERICAN COAST OF 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES: SHIPWRECKS, MATERIAL CULTURE AND TERRESTRIAL PERSPECTIVES

Jean Soulat Laboratoire LandArc – Michel de Boüard, Craham UMR 6273 Groupe de Recherche en Archéométrie, Université Laval, Québec 29, rue de Courbuisson 77920 Samois-sur-Seine – [email protected]

John de Bry Center for Historical Archaeology 140 Warsteiner Way, Suite 204 Melbourne Beach, 32951 – USA [email protected]

The archaeology of piracy in the 17th and 18th centuries remains a poorly developed discipline in the world. American universities in connection with local authorities were the first to fund and support such research programs on the east coast of the and the Caribbean. The study of the shipwreck of Edward Teach (), the Queen Anne's Revenge 1718, is a very good example of this success. However, a work of crossing archaeological data deserves to be carried out for all the sites brought to light, in particular in the Caribbean area, on the North American coast, without forgetting the . The synthetic work of Charles R. Ewen and Russell K. Skowronek published in 2006 and 2016 by the University of Florida is an important first step. They treat shipwrecks as well as land occupations, and go back for a long time on the percceived ideas related to the true image of Pirates. However, there is a lack of material culture studies from these sites probably related to the lack of scientific publications of these objects. French archaeology is now interested in these issues and is beginning to organize archaeological missions to study artifacts and conduct underwater archaeology surveys and excavations, dominant in this discipline. This article makes a state of the archaeology of piracy in the geographical area mentioned and tries to develop a synthesis of the study of artifacts in connection with the presentation of future research to be conducted in , in the as well as in the Indian Ocean.

L’archéologie de la piraterie des XVIIe-XVIIIe siècles reste une discipline peu développée dans le monde. Les universités américaines en lien avec les autorités locales ont été les premières à fédérer des programmes de recherche sur la côte est des Etats-Unis et dans les Caraïbes. L’étude de l’épave du pirate Edward Teach (Barbe Noire), le Queen Anne’s Revenge 1718, est un très bel exemple de cette réussite. Cependant, un travail de croisement des données archéologiques mérite d’être effectué pour tous les sites mis au jour, en particulier dans l’espace caribéen, sur la côte nord-américaine, sans oublier l’océan Indien. Les travaux de synthèse de Charles R. Ewen et Russell K. Skowronek publiés en 2006 et 2016 par l’Université de Floride représentent une première étape importante. Ils traitent autant des épaves que des occupations terrestres, et reviennent longuement sur les idées reçues liées à la figure du Pirate. Cependant, on constate l’absence d’études de la culture matérielle provenant de ces sites probablement en lien avec le manque de publications scientifiques de ces objets. L’archéologie française s’intéresse désormais à ces problématiques et commence à monter des missions archéologiques d’étude du mobilier et de terrain afin de prendre le relais de l’archéologie subaquatique, dominante dans cette discipline. Cet article fait un état de l’archéologie de la piraterie dans le secteur géographique évoqué et tente d’élaborer une synthèse de l’étude du mobilier en lien avec la présentation des futures recherches qui vont être menées à Saint-Domingue, dans les Petites Antilles et dans l’océan Indien.

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La arqueología de la piratería en los siglos XVII y XVIII sigue siendo una disciplina poco desarrollada en el mundo. Las universidades estadounidenses relacionadas con las autoridades locales fueron las primeras en federar programas de investigación en la costa este de los Estados Unidos y el Caribe. El estudio del naufragio del pirata Edward Teach (Blackbeard), el Queen Anne's Revenge 1718, es un muy buen ejemplo de este éxito. Sin embargo, un trabajo de cruce de datos arqueológicos merece ser llevado a cabo para todos los sitios sacados a la luz, en particular en el espacio del Caribe, en la costa de América del Norte, sin olvidar el Océano Índico. El trabajo sintético de Charles R. Ewen y Russell K. Skowronek publicado en 2006 y 2016 por la Universidad de Florida es un primer paso importante. Tratan tanto los pecios como las ocupaciones de la tierra, y regresan durante mucho tiempo a las ideas recibidas relacionadas con la figura del pirata. Sin embargo, hay una falta de estudios de cultura material de estos sitios probablemente relacionados con la falta de publicaciones científicas de estos objetos. La arqueología francesa ahora está interesada en estos temas y está comenzando a montar misiones arqueológicas para estudiar muebles y terrenos para apoderarse de la arqueología submarina, que es dominante en esta disciplina. Este artículo hace un balance de la arqueología de la piratería en el área geográfica mencionada y trata de desarrollar una síntesis del estudio de los muebles en relación con la presentación de investigaciones futuras que se realizarán en Santo Domingo, en la Pequeña Indias occidentales y en el océano indico.

Introduction scientific programs bring key information For several decades, archives and to the best knowledge of these sailors, historical documents have highlighted former military or merchants, having been piracy and its actors during this golden age attracted by a more independent life. between the 1650s and 1730s, often In pursuit of the University of described as the culmination of this Florida publications with the two books led phenomenon along the shores of America, by Russell Skowronek and Charles Ewen in the Caribbean or in the Indian Ocean. at the University Press of Florida: X Marks These pirates, generally of European the Spot - The Archaeology of Piracy in origin, make known their malicious act in 2006 and Pieces of Eight - More the warm waters of the West and East Archaeology of Piracy in 2016, a French- Indies. When most of these international team is developing a research remain virtually unknown, some become program entitled Archéologie de la true emblematic and historical characters Piraterie des XVIIe-XVIIIe siècles who have marked their era. Their catch, (Archaeology of Piracy in the 17th-18th journeys, feats of arms, alliances, deaths centuries), initiated in January 2018 are recounted by contemporary storytellers (Figure 1). This research program, which and writers like but also by brings together French, American, Chilean, sailors or surgeons who have rubbed Malagasy and Mauritian archaeologists shoulders like Alexandre-Olivier and historians, develops archaeological Oexmelin. However, the aspects of their investigations in terrestrial and underwater daily life on board or on land, the detailed contexts. In March 2019, a mission of knowledge of their ship, their cargo and inventory and study of artifacts from the , places of landing and port cities pirate shipwreck of Speaker, discovered in sometimes remain little mentioned in the 1979 and wrecked in 1702 on the east literature, for lack of fiction, certainly, but coast of Mauritius, took place at the too often far from reality. The archaeology Museum National History of Mahébourg of piracy can be a way to better understand (Mauritius) with the collaboration of the the lifestyle of these seafarers. Not Mauritius Museums Council and the very developed in France and in Europe, Mauritius Marine Conservation Society this recent discipline in archaeology has (Soulat et al., 2019, forthcoming). In order led for nearly 50 years of research and to communicate on the research carried out archaeological excavations between the by the various actors of the archaeology of east coast of the United States, the piracy, an international scientific work in Caribbean and the Indian Ocean. These French is being published by Editions

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Mergoil (Soulat director 2019, Finally, a project of archaeological forthcoming) while a valuation review on surveys, terrestrial and underwater, is the same theme, intended for a wider being prepared for Sainte-Marie Island in audience, was published in July 2019 (Les Ambodifototra Bay in . Dossiers d'Archéologie, No. 394, 2019).

Figure 1. Logo of the Archaeology of Piracy of the 17th-18th centuries research program (Conception J. Soulat).

1. History of the archaeology of piracy The legendary sites of in Since the 1980s, archaeologists , Island in and interested in this archaeology of piracy Sainte-Marie Island in Madagascar have have been focusing on very specific issues. attracted and still attract researchers. On the one hand, the identification of a Secondary sites such as bastions and pirate site and its definition. Of course colonial fortifications may also have been shipwrecks come immediately to mind, but confronted with piracy including regular how do you recognize a pirate ship from a raids. Apart from the study of sites, the merchant or war ship? Several factors analysis of material culture could be at the come into play and a multidisciplinary heart of the discipline. However, to date, methodology combining the analysis of this is not the case since almost no archival documentation, naval architecture published article focuses on this issue and and material culture today makes it easier especially to recognize or deny the to identify (Page, Ewen 2016: 265-269). existence of a material culture specific to But apart from the shipwrecks, are there the practice of . Two partially several categories of pirate sites? Yes, but studied sites are an exception. The first is it has not always been easy to recognize Port Royal which has been the subject of them. Thus, among the recognized land many academic memoirs on material settlements, we can evoke ephemeral culture from the five buildings excavated coastal occupations (makeshift camps, during the 60s and 90s. According to huts, etc.), ports, zones or even Donny Hamilton, who was responsible for places of pillage (Skowronek 2016: 8-10). the 1980-1992 excavation, Port Royal is

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry first and foremost a commercial center that craze in this area. Partially submerged by can later be described as a pirate port an and that occurred in (Hamilton 2006a: 15). Indeed, with the 1692, archaeology has revealed a large part exception of the remains of captured pirate of this trading post of the . A ships like the Great Ranger of the pirate first excavation campaign was conducted , nothing was found between 1966 and 1968 by Robert F. Marx in the ruins of Port-Royal that could be for the Jamaica National Trust attributed to or acts of piracy Commission (Marx 1967). During this (Skowronek 2016: 10). The second is the search, the remains of fish and meat shipwreck of the Queen Anne's Revenge, markets, two taverns, a shoe repair shop, a ship of the pirate Edward Teach carpentry workshop and perhaps a tin or (Blackbeard), which, through the goldsmith workshop and two shipwrecks publication of a first book in 2018 on the dating from the disaster of 1692 and excavation since 1996, highlights a another that would have sank in 1722 were significant part of the presentation and the also located in the already excavated area analysis of discovered artifacts (Wilde- located along the western outskirts of the Ramsing, Carnes-McNaughton 2018: 74- city. Between 1969 and 1972, the 165). In an article published in 2016, excavation by Philippe Mayes around the authors Mark U. Wilde-Ramsing and church of St. Paul (Mayes, Mayes 1972) Linda F. Carnes-McNaughton focused on and the excavation of Anthony Priddy on French-made objects from the shipwreck New Street (Priddy 1975) have uncovered (Wilde-Ramsing, Carnes-McNaughton new vestiges. These excavations in the 2016). heart of the old city plan before 1692 have left the remains of an old shipyard and the 1.1. The birth of discipline remains of a tavern. Between 1981 and The rarity of the works published in 1990, two other campaigns were led by the archaeology of piracy in the 17th-18th Donny Hamilton of the Institute of centuries can be explained by three factors: Nautical Archaeology (INA) of Texas A & the difficulty of identifying pirate sites, the M University (Hamilton, Woodward 1984; youth of this discipline, which was really Hamilton 2006a and 2006b). born in the mid-1960s, but above all the These archaeological digs have question of ethics since the folklore around identified five houses and two main the pirate and its treasure for centuries thoroughfares, Lime Street and Queen attracts shipwreck hunters and other looters Street, containing a large amount of objects in search of the loot that could offer these from the colonial era that informs the daily particular sites. As a result, this lives of the population living in the phenomenon has long distanced academics Caribbean. In 1982, the discovery of an and professional archaeologists and the unpublished plan of Port Royal dated 1724 case of explorer and treasure hunter Barry confirms that the wreckage found in 1967 Clifford who originated two discoveries of is that of the Great Ranger of pirate pirate shipwrecks in 1984 (Whydah Bartholomew Roberts (Hamilton 2006a: or Gally) and in 2010 (Fiery Dragon) is a 21-26). At that time, a limited study of the living proof of this. However, from the wreckage was undertaken. It was not until 1960s, new discoveries made by teams of 2012 that a new campaign confirmed that it American archaeologists succeed in was the Great Ranger. Led by three de-mononizing the archaeology of piracy. students from Texas A & M University, The underwater excavation of a the search was partially conducted due to a neighborhood of the pirate city of Port reduced budget and 30 days of intervention Royal in Jamaica, currently located in (Gulseth 2016). To date, the shipwreck has Kingston Harbor, has clearly launched the not been exhaustively searched. The work

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry on Port Royal is therefore the oldest thirty years ago, the first one has never underwater excavation ever carried out on been searched exhaustively and has been a land-based pirate settlement. They have the subject of only two scientific articles developed a real craze for American (Lizé 1984, 2006) while the second was universities around the discipline as shown excavated entirely with very important by the many academic publications by financial means but without the application Texas A & M University. Through the of a real archaeological protocol during the media coverage of the Port Royal search. The absence of scientific articles or excavations, archaeology has begun to take even an archaeological and synthetic a serious interest in these particular monograph is quite revealing. Apart from a contexts that have also attracted many few scientific articles, notably that of treasure hunters in search of the famous Christopher E. Hamilton in 2006, Whydah pirate shipwrecks. is known only through popular works such Contemporary excavations of Port as the shipwreck discovery and expedition Royal by the INA, two discoveries of (Clifford, Perry 1999) or the 2007 National pirate shipwrecks attested by the archives Geographic exhibition catalog (Clifford, and confirmed by archaeology were made Kinkor 2007). Nevertheless, although during the 80s. Found and partially incomplete, these two examples allowed searched between September and the rise of the archaeology of piracy December 1980 by the French team under through the launch of American university the direction of Jacques Dumas and Patrick projects on the search for pirate Lizé, the first shipwreck is the one of the shipwrecks. After the Whydah excavations Speaker who sank off the coast of that ended in 1989, it took almost ten years Mauritius in 1702 (Lizé 1984, 2006). This for another famous pirate shipwreck to be one will be the subject of a partial search unearthed. On December 17, 1996, the between 1990-1991 by the team of Erick North Carolina Office of State Surcouf and Thierry Proust before a storm Archaeology's Underwater Archaeology destroyed the site (Surcouf, Proust 1991). Branch discovered the wreckage of an The second is that of the ship Whydah unidentified ship codenamed 31CR314. Its Galley, sunk off , , location and the type of vessel concentrate in 1717, whose remains were found on suspicion on the French ship La Concorde July 24, 1984 by the American team of the renamed the Queen Anne's Revenge by the controversial . It was pirate Edward Teach, better known as formally identified by the discovery of the Blackbeard, who was shipwrecked off bell in the fall of 1985 which included the Beaufort in 1718 in North Carolina. North inscription THE † WHYDAH † GALLY † (Figure 3). After several excavation 1716 (Clifford, Perry 1999) (Figure 2). campaigns carried out between 1997 and The management of the site by Barry 2006, which excavated only 60% of the Clifford has created many controversies site, and the analysis of the artifacts found and most historians and archaeologists who between 1997 and 2016, the wreckage was worked on the Whydah no longer officially identified in 2012 by American collaborate with him because of ethical authorities. The work around Queen Anne's problems related to unscrupulous practices, Revenge and the creation in 2006 of a between estimation of artifacts, research center, the QAR Project, misinterpretations and excessive media dedicated to the study of the shipwreck and coverage (Elia 1992). Even if these two its artifacts, led new archaeologists to shipwrecks were discovered more than become interested in this discipline.

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Figure 2. Bell from Whydah Galley (Whydah Pirate Museum / National Geographic Society).

Figure 3. Reassembled from one of Queen Anne's Revenge cannons (courtesy of DNCR).

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1.2. American monopoly: for better and University, etc. For example, the Queen for worse Anne's Revenge study was initiated in 1996 With the Great Ranger shipwrecks by East Carolina University in association in Kingston Harbor/Port Royal, Whydah with the North Carolina Office of State Galley off Cape Cod and Queen Anne's Archaeology's Underwater Archaeology Revenge at Beaufort Inlet, as well as the Branch and the North Carolina Department establishment of Port Royal, American of Natural and Cultural Resources. In archaeology is seen as holding a certain 1999, after working on the shipwreck of monopoly on discipline while the historical Whydah, Barry Clifford's team became treatment of this phenomenon affects many interested in the pirate marker on Sainte- nationalities especially British, French, Marie Island, near Madagascar, precisely Spanish or Dutch. Yet tainted by the in the Pirate Bay, near the Isle, island near controversies surrounding Barry Clifford's the village of Ambodifototra (Figure 4). explorations, the archaeology of piracy is The goal was to find the wrecks of the essentially American because of the pirate 's , willingness of universities on the east coast and the pirate William Condon's Fiery of the United States to develop underwater Dragon aka , ships archaeology departments, the most wrecked in the area in the early 18th common natural environment for the study century. Disturbed by an unstable political of pirate contexts. The best showcase for climate, it was not until 2010 that the first American underwater archaeology, coming prospecting campaign was put in place. out of the frame of the piracy, remains the Barry Clifford, accompanied by John de colossal work carried out on the shipwreck Bry and Marco Roling, discovers the Fiery of La Belle, a ship from Rochefort Dragon, sunk in 1721, with more than (southwestern France) part of the 2,000 objects to be studied and analyzed expedition of Robert Cavelier de La Salle (De Bry, Roling 2011). Nevertheless, the lost during a storm in early January or investigations seem to attest the presence February 1686 in Matagorda Bay, of Texas of two shipwrecks one on top of another, (Bruseth, Turner 2005; Bruseth et al., the Fiery Dragon and a possible Asian 2017). Discovered through a research prize. In 2015, a new campaign was program that aimed to inventory the organized to continue the excavation of the shipwrecks of the 16th and 18th centuries shipwreck and conduct geophysical along the Texas coast, this wreckage was surveys in the bay, including on the île aux searched between 1995 and 1997 by Forbans (Pirate Island). It was in a 2015 professional archaeologists under the campaign that an ingot, supposedly direction of James E. Bruseth of the Texas and marked with various symbols and Historical Commission. Thanks to the numbers, was discovered and which construction of a monumental cofferdam aledgedly belong to the shipwreck of the which allowed to exacavate the shipwreck Adventure Galley. under near-dry conditions. Driven by this An incomplete report explaining particular case, the American development the methodology but not the results of this of this archaeology of underwater piracy is new campaign is online (Collective report at the same time linked to the proximity 2017). Following the 2010 and 2015 US between the universities of the east coast of campaigns, a UNESCO team (STAB) led the United States and the location of the by Michel L'Hour visited the site in June sites in Caribbean space, but it is mainly 2015 to review the identification of the carried by the underwater archaeology Fiery Dragon and to authenticate the Fiery departments of these universities such as Dragon’s silver ingot (L’Hour 2015). For the Institute of Nautical Archaeology of the latter, an analysis on the spot made it Texas A & M University, East Carolina possible to show that it was a lead ingot,

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry and not silver, probable ballast, without a ship sank in 1699 belonged to the pirate direct link with a shipwreck, even less the William Kidd. More recently, an American Adventure Galley. Regarding the Fiery team from the River Systems Institute and Dragon, the analysis of the wood samples the Center for Archaeological Studies of collected by the UNESCO team revealed Texas State University under the direction that it was teak rather than oak or pine, of Frederick H. Hanselmann is working on which could indicate an Asian one of the lost boats around 1671 in construction. The UNESCO mission report Panamá, which would have been one of therefore concluded that the ship had not Henry's five pirate ships. Morgan used to been manufactured in a European shipyard lead the Panamá sack (Hanselmann et al. and was therefore unlikely to be the Fiery 2016). Research conducted in laboratory Dragon, a ship of Dutch origin. However, environment revealed that the ship was in this statement remains open to discussion. fact the Nuestra Señora de Encarnación In June 2007, Indiana Bee archaeologists sunk in 1681. It was part of the Tierra under the direction of Charles Beeker, in Firme fleet sailing from Cartagena partnership with the Children's Museum of () to Portobello (Panamá). In the Indianapolis and the Dominican final analysis it is not the wreck of a pirate organization Officina Nacional de ship. Finally, a team of East Carolina Patrimonio Cultural Subacuatico, University archaeologists led by Bradley discovered the Quedah Merchant pirate Rodgers has been conducting research ship off the coast of the Dominican since 2017 on the shipwreck of an alleged Republic (Beeker, Hanselmann 2009; Dutch pirate vessel or ship that Hanselmann, Beeker 2016). Lying under 3 was wrecked in in 1619 (Press m of bottom near the Catalina Island, this article).

Figure 4. Map of the Port of Sainte-Marie Island of Madagascar (Reynaud), 1733, GE SH 18 PF 217 DIV 8 P 2/1 (Bibliothèque nationale de France).

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This American monopoly obviously dedicated to the excavations of the translates into the media coverage of these shipwreck of Queen Anne's Revenge. The archaeological sites through National emphasis is deliberately placed on Geographic and Discovery Channel discovery and excavation methods while a documentaries, but also through academic large part of the book is devoted to the publications such as the University Press study of artifacts with comparative of Florida or the University of North analysis. The book appears both as a Carolina Press. Two collector-led scientific production while remaining collective books were both led by Russell accessible to a wide audience. In August Skowronek and Charles Ewen at the 2019 a book by archaeologist Frederick H. University Press of Florida: X Marks the Hanselmann on research conducted on the Spot - The Archaeology of Piracy in 2006 Quedah Merchant, last ship of the pirate and Pieces of Eight - More Archaeology of William Kidd sunk in 1699 off the coast of Piracy in 2016. The publication of 2006 is the , has been to be considered as the first collective work published (Hanselmann 2019). of synthesis which gathers contributions on the archaeology of the piracy. Thanks to 2. Discoveries of pirate shipwrecks Skowronek and Ewen, the archaeology of between Caribbean Sea and the North piracy makes it possible to visualize the American Coast different types of existing sites, from land Among the pirate sites proven by settlements (ephemeral coastal archaeology, shipwrecks appear to be the occupations, ports, smuggling areas or most convincing. Even if the sample places of pillage) to shipwrecks. The book remains rather weak with less than half a is divided into three parts according to the dozen shipwrecks identified for the golden proposed articles: the Pirates Lairs, the age of piracy, between 1650 and 1730, it is pirate ships and their prizes, and the these time capsules that will be the most parallel between the fiction and the reality. telling. Their identification is of course Regarding the 2016 book, these three parts linked to a comprehensive review of were not kept. Emphasis was placed on archival documentation and stories of investigating pirate shipwrecks, on pirate seafarers according to the geographical folklore and archaeology, and on area targeted. These shipwrecks are methodology for identifying pirate sites. In scattered in a fairly wide area stretching 2007, National Geographic showcases the from Cape Cod in Massachusetts on the discoveries from the Whydah shipwreck east coast of the United States to Mauritius dig. Under the direction of Barry Clifford, in the Indian Ocean, passing of course by excavator, a museum was inaugurated on the Caribbean. Nevertheless, other Cape Cod and an exhibition catalog titled potential sectors could soon see the day Real Pirates: The Untold Story of the with the discovery of new wrecks in South Whydah from to Pirate Ship, America, precisely in the Strait of 1717 was published. However, the Magellan, or along the French Atlantic scientific contribution of the book is of coasts. limited scope since no information on the Four pirate shipwrecks are conduct of the search or on these results concentrated between the east coast of the are present. The catalog is satisfied to United States and the Caribbean (Figure show the photographs of about fifty objects 5). These ships were wrecked in a rather out of 200,000 discovered without giving short chronological space, under thirty any details. Finally, published in 2018 by years, between the years 1699 and 1722. Mark U. Wilde-Ramsing and Linda F. They are all associated with a pirate Carnes-McNaughton at the University of famous for his misdeeds: Scottish pirate North Carolina Press, a scientific work is captain William Kidd who abandoned in

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1699 the Quedah Merchant near the port of Anne's Revenge scuttled in Beaufort Bay, Santo Domingo in (Dominican North Carolina in 1718 or Bartholomew Republic), pirate captain Roberts and his ship the Great Ranger also known as Black Sam and his ship, the sank in Port Royal Bay in Jamaica in 1722, Whydah Galley, which sank off Cape Cod following a hurricane that place shortly in 1717, the famous Edward Teach after arriving in the harbor. nicknamed Blackbeard and his Queen

Figure 5. Location map of pirate shipwrecks identified and attested by archaeology (map by J. Soulat).

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The analysis of these different On January 30, 1698, William Kidd contexts is an opportunity to understand aboard the Adventure Galley and his 34 the history of each shipwreck through the cannons took near the port of Cochin in career of these pirates. The location and Kerala the Quedah Merchant under the the comparative study of these command of Captain John Wright with a archaeological sites using the site plans of hundred men on board. It was a 500-ton the remains allows to visualize the French merchant ship built in Bombay conservation of the structure of the ship, (Mumbai) at the end of the 17th century. the distinction of the artillery and the Commissioned by a consortium of distribution of the artifacts within the Armenian merchants, nearly half of the shipwreck by functional categories while cargo on board belonged to Muklis Khan, a studying its quantitative representation. nobleman of the Great Mogul's court. Once Searches are based on existing captured, William Kidd and his ships made documentation and therefore depend on the their way to , passing accessibility of bibliographic references. through Sainte-Marie Island, near For Quedah Merchant and the Great Madagascar. While in Sainte-Marie the Ranger, access to search reports was not Adventure Galley sank while the majority possible. The information is therefore of his crew mutinied aided with four guns. based solely on published articles. For Kidd and the remaining sailors reloaded Whydah Galley, information relating to the the Quedah Merchant renamed Adventure discovery and excavation of the wreckage Prize and set sail for the Caribbean. Upon has been published several times and the arriving in Anguilla, Kidd learned that he excavation report has been consulted. was wanted for piracy. He sailed through Finally, for Queen Anne's Revenge, the the Greater Antilles, constantly seeking synthesis builds on the many existing discrete places to anchor his ship and trade publications and reports available on the with local traders for supplies. Before QAR Project website. leaving for New , Kidd left one of his ships, the Quedah Merchant, near 2.1. Quedah Merchant 1699 (Catalina Catalina Island southeast of Santo Island, Dominican Republic) Domingo under the custody of Henry To fully understand the story of the Bolton. The latter stated that he had left the Quedah Merchant or Cara Merchant, it is ship in a river opposite the island and two necessary to reconsider the story of the months later it burned and sank, in 1699. famous Scottish pirate William Kidd who On his return to , Kidd was started in in 1695. Kidd set up a taken to London, tried and hanged for company involving Lord Bellomont, an piracy and for murdering his important colonial merchant who soon on May 23, 1701, despite the agreement he became the governor New York and had made with British political power. Massachusetts. William III would also The discovery of the wreck of the have been involved as stipulated by Kidd's Quedah Merchant occurred in June 2007 letter of Mark bearing the King's seal. in a few meters from the Rocky Shoreline Kidd, backed by his investors, had to hunt near Catalina Island by a team of Indiana and then capture pirates and enemy ships, University archaeologists led by Charles with profits from loot spread among the Beeker, in partnership with Children's crew members and, naturally, investors. He Museum of Indianapolis and the commanded the Adventure Galley, and set Dominican organization Officina Nacional sail for the Indian Ocean as early as de Patrimonio Cultural Subacuático September 6, 1696. For over a year, Kidd (ONPCS) (Beeker, Hanselmann 2009). Its and his crew strived to make a name for location was during the first prospecting themselves. campaign between May and June. The ship

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry lay under 3 meters of clear water. Kidd's the missing cargo certainly contributed to writings provided crucial information on explaining the gap between the two stacks the location of the ship and its load of firearms. The distribution of site containing a large number of firearms on characteristics suggests the location of board the ship, the cargo of several tons of these bulk cargoes. The guns being more scrap from Madagascar and a cargo of difficult to manually handle, they could be sugar and sugar-stone salt. The quantity of stacked directly under two cargo hatches. artillery is much greater than one would Sugar, much easier to load than cannons, expect to find on a merchant ship. may have been placed between and around Moreover, according to the archives, there the armament piles. The structural wood is no record of other shipwrecks in the was analyzed and the results revealed that area. Referencing data made it possible to it was teak, native wood from Asia formally identify the Quedah Merchant. (Thailand, Myanmar, Laos or India). The The first excavation campaign took discovery of teak hull remains is therefore place between May and June 2008. Charles crucial for the identification of the ship. Beeker and Frederick Hanselmann Based on the characteristics published two articles on this campaign, observed at the shipwreck site and the first in 2009 and the second almost contemporary accounts, a possible similar in 2016 (Beeker, Hanselmann reconstruction of the demolition process 2009; Hanselmann, Beeker 2016). The has been proposed (Hanselmann, Beeker wreckage delivered 26 guns measuring 1.8 2016: 120-121). When Henry Bolton took to 2.1 m long, with the exception of three charge of the ship, it is quite possible that 2.44 m long, three anchors and a well- part of the cargo was removed before it preserved wooden structure (Figure 6). was set on fire. Bolton may have recovered The three largest cannons are undoubtedly the guns on the deck, but he may not have from Adventure Galley based on records of wanted to make the effort to remove the artillery exchanges between the two ships guns stored in the hold. It can also be (Hanselmann, Beeker 2016: 121-122). The suggested that Bolton burned the ship for majority of the cannons are stacked 2m fear of being captured by the , high, reflecting their arrangement as cargo with the deployed guns still in place. As a in the hold, and it appears that other result, these weapons may have fallen cannons have been concealed beneath this overboard during the fire. main pile. Functional anchors would not The lack of evolution between the have been stored under firearms because two issues evoked by Beeker and they needed to be accessible in the event of Hanselmann appears to reveal a project a storm. Kidd indicated that he had that has not progressed since 2008. The acquired 14 or 15 spare anchors, so authors did not seem to have had the additional anchors should be placed in this opportunity to rework the subject, nor to stack. The scrap may have been placed at present research perspectives on the study the bottom of the hold because it would of material culture. This lack could be retain its value even if it became wet. The explained by three factors. On the one guns, on the other hand, would not work hand, difficult access to the site due to the properly if they were corroded by complex weather conditions due to the seawater, which could explain their intensity of the waves. Thus, these poor stacking on other iron objects. conditions could explain the absence on Nevertheless, their head-to-tail position by the site of objects of daily life, lighter, and couple could also reveal their use as a therefore more easily movable outside the fixed anchor point. The spatial analysis of area of excavation. The potential looting of the site clearly indicates that there was the wreck because of its shallow depth room for other assets and that the nature of could also explain the absence of objects.

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On the other hand, the lack of cannons, Frederick H. Hanselmann just came out new search campaigns could be linked to a and covers excavations and analysis lack of funding from the University and conducted (Hanselmann 2019). public authorities. A book by archaeologist

Figure 6. Map of the Quedah Merchant 1699 shipwreck by Indiana University (from Beeker, Hanselmann 2009 ; J. Soulat infographic).

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2.2. Whydah Galley 1717 (Cape Cod, Welsh carpenter forcibly recruited in Massachusetts, USA) December 1716. Bellamy and 144 As for Quedah Merchant and crewmen perished in this sinking and 62 William Kidd, Whydah Galley is also bodies were recovered. linked to a famous pirate, Samuel Bellamy. The shipwreck was discovered 455 Originally from Canterbury (Kent), Samuel meters from Marconi Beach in Wellfleet, Bellamy was a British seaman who Massachusetts on 24 July 1984 by traveled early in his Atlantic career to New controversial explorer Barry Clifford and England to Eastham near Cape Cod. He his team. Located between 6 and 9 meters enlisted in piracy with deep, the remains of the ship which and Olivier Le Vasseur aka La Buse. Black stretched about thirty meters long quickly Bellamy took control of the squadron when delivered a first cannon. The wooden Hornigold refused to attack his British structure of Whydah did not survive the compatriots. With La Buse they captured destruction. Part of it was thought to be several ships in 1716. In January 1717, the recoverable because the vessel was stuck two pirates separated. In February 1717, in the sandbank. Thus, at first, this absence after three days of pursuit in , did not allow archaeology to confirm the Whydah Galley, a slave ship, was taken by historical data. The orientation of the Bellamy. It consisted of a 300-ton fast shipwreck is explained by the direction of three-master, carrying oars easy to the wind and the action of the waves when maneuver and armed with 18 guns. The the ship was forced to run aground near the name Whydah came from the African slave shore. The shipwreck was searched trading house or Whydah, in between 1984 and 1989. In 1985, the present-day Benin, well known to the discovery of the ship's bell with the British. After leaving London in 1715, inscription THE † WHYDAH † GALLY † Captain Lawrence Price sailed to the coasts 1716 formally identified the wreck. of West where he embarked 367 Modifications were made to the slaves. Before being captured by Bellamy, vessel when it was taken by Bellamy. Whydah Galley was returning from Thus, to improve the combat, at least ten Jamaica after selling his cargo of slaves additional guns were added as we note on and sailing to London. At that time, this the wreck since there is not 18 cannons but ship was loaded with ivory, gold powder, more than 28 which corresponds to the sugar and indigo. Captain Price having archives consulted. According to their state surrendered himself he was rewarded with of conservation, 12 guns could be £ 20 for his needs and benefited from measured and 15 others could be studied in Bellamy's ship La Sultane, which had been a preliminary way because their concretion taken near Saba Island a few months was too dense. The distribution of guns on before. Bellamy added at least ten more the site could correspond to a ship lined cannons to Whydah. The booty amounted with the rear of the three smallest 3-pound to 20,000 pounds Sterling and each of the guns and the bow with two guns, four 180 crewmen received 50 pounds. After heavier guns of maximum 6 pounds several prizes, Bellamy made his way to located in the middle of the ship, and 17 . On April 26, 1717, more common 4-pounder cannons placed following a strong storm, the Whydah was the full length of the ship (Hamilton C. E. stranded on a sandbank close to shore off 2006: 150). The locations of the guns on the coast of Cape Cod. After a week, aid the site are in accordance with the arrived on the scene to intervene but the historical documentation for the ship's ship had already been engulfed. Only two armament. Archaeological excavations men were able to reach the shore by have so far revealed rigging elements, such swimming, including Thomas Davis, a as self-raising lines and other ropes, warp

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry plates, garbage bags, lead pieces, blocks were discovered including compasses, and anchors. sectors, mortars, etc. As for armaments, During the 1988 campaign, which there are 86,271 musket balls, 28 cannons lasted 113 days, including 86 days and 78 components, 156 cannonballs, 341 dedicated to the search, 20,851 objects individual hand-held firearms and were discovered, including guns, anchors, associated elements, 24 knives and coins, musket balls and various objects accessories. Many personal items were (Halmilton C. E. 2006: 134). Due to the found during the search: 238 clothing harsh climatic conditions and the current, accessories (buttons, buckles, staples, etc.), the heavier objects stayed in place while 22 elements of adornment (rings, etc.) and the glass and ceramic were moved. Even 29 objects related to entertainment (game though musket rounds and coins appear pieces, pipe, etc.). For the artifacts on less dense, their block concentration has board, several categories appear: 23 pieces been sufficient to be spared. By drawing of tableware, 179 utensils related to the the distribution of silver objects in relation kitchen, 42 furnishing supplies to the remains of pewter and copper (candlesticks, drawer handle, etc.). 42 clothing (including buttons, cufflinks and remains of fauna were located (food or buckles), we note that their concentration unwanted animals). Remains of is located near the stern of the ship while merchandise have been identified through that of objects pewter and brass is more in the discovery of 12 seals, 9 elements the center of the shipwreck. It is possible related to containers, and 265 that the silver clothing accessories were manufactured remains of lead, in particular included in the valuations and stored ingots. Finally, 217 elements related to the separately. High-value silver objects could structure of the ship were excavated be stored in the cabin where the captain, (pulley, anchors, bells, hinges, fittings, quartermaster and other officers of the ship etc.). could reside. The article by Christopher E. 2.3. Queen Anne's Revenge 1718 Hamilton, published in 2006 in X Marks (Beaufort, North Carolina, USA) the Spot; the Archaeology of Piracy, Unearthed by two successive evokes 100,840 objects that are divided hurricanes in 1996 in Beaufort Bay off into 25 categories (Hamilton C. E. 2006: North Carolina (USA), the wreck of Queen 144-145, table 8.1.). Of this type of Anne's Revenge was the ship of the famous artifacts, three types of objects account for English pirate Edward Teach better known a large share of the total: 86,271 rounds / as Blackbeard. For nearly 18 years, the grape bullets (85.5%), 7,000 pieces of gold search of the ship was the subject of a dust (7%) and 5,658 coins (5.5%). %). research program set up in 1997 by the These three categories therefore account QAR Project with private funding and led for 98,929 of the artifacts (98%), leaving by the Underwater Archaeology Branch of 1,911 other objects (2%) divided into 22 the North Carolina Department of Cultural different categories. Within the discovered Resources (Wilde-Ramsing, Carnes- objects, there are 35 fishing weights and 23 McNaughton 2018: 55-59). The purpose of tools related to the maintenance of the ship the project was to thoroughly excavate the in particular to the activity of the carpenter. wreck and analyze the archaeological Among them, there are caulking chisels, remains to better understand the history of punches, hammers or tools related to the the ship and the daily life of its crew forge to repair the metal parts. Also related to the fate of Teach. belonging to the tools, 90 wooden or bone Born in 1680 in (England), handles have been inventoried. 28 Edward Teach enlisted in an English instruments of navigation and surgeon privateer ship between 1702 and 1713

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry during the War of Spanish Succession. defeated, the Grand Allen, HMS This activity was not as lucrative as he Scarborough or the Adventure. On the way would have hoped, he chose to resign and to one of his expeditions to Spanish engage a few years later, around 1716, as a America, he found on his way a 10-gun pirate with Captain Benjamin Hornigold, pirate sloop commanded by Major Stede quickly becaming one of the lieutenants. Bonnet. As a result of this meeting, the two After several raids, the two pirates took in pirates decided to sail together, creating an November 1717 a French privateer frigate, alliance that was, however, quite short- La Concorde, commanded by Captain lived. It ended a few weeks later, but the Pierre Dosset, in the Grenadines, off old friends remained in the same waters. In Bequia, south of . Built in the spring of 1718, prizes were chained Nantes in 1710 for the ship owner René and led to pirates in Charleston Bay, South Montaudoin, the frigate was of 280 tons Carolina. The whole area was ransacked. burden and was armed with 26 guns. She Teach blocked all Charleston's port and made a first expedition between July 21, commercial activity for a week. 1710 and November 2, 1711 during the Blackbeard raised his blockade against a War of Spanish Succession. She was rich currency of exchange. At that time, an turned into a slave ship, when the treaty of alliance of four ships under Teach's Utrecht allowed the resumption of the command anchored in the waters of the maritime trade, and carried out three harbor. The alliance traveled up the coast expeditions, in 1713, 1715, then in 1717 of North Carolina by cabotage to Beaufort (Mettas: 16,37, 56). La Concorde was Bay. However, in order to avoid sharing armed for the trade and did not have to his loot from an estimated 1,000 to 1,500 carry all its capacity of armament. She had pounds sterling, Teach made the decision only 16 guns at that time instead of 26 to weigh down his cargo so that the Queen when she was captured in November 1717 Anne's Revenge bogged down in one of the by Teach. At the time of her capture by many sandbanks in the bay. He asked two Teach the fact that La Concorde was a of these acolytes to help him, private frigate during the War of Spanish and , whose sloop of the latter Succession was important. He had fought also ran aground on another sandbar. within the British ranks during this conflict Blackbeard recovered one of the sloops and had probably had to face French with 40 men, leaving Queen Anne's frigates of this type. He must have known Revenge. He then got rid of 17 men on a its qualities and it is perhaps, not by deserted island. The latter would probably chance, had made La Concorde his have died of hunger and thirst if Stede flagship. Similarly, it may be argued that Bonnet had not come to their aid two days the name Queen Anne's Revenge evokes later. this conflict (Queen Anne's War for the In November 1718, British), to which Blackbeard had Governor Alexander Spotswood made the participated a few years earlier. The decision to stop the actions of the pirates, capture of an old French privateer ship that including Teach. He pursued two British participated in this war was probably a ships, the Lyme and Pearl, whose captain revenge for him (Revenge), a name was Lieutenant . On frequently used by pirates. November 17, 1718, Maynard sailed to Once taken and renamed Queen Ocracoke Bay, where he saw the Anne's Revenge, Teach added 14 guns to Blackbeard and his shp. On November 22, the existing 16, bringing the number of 1718, the sloops came closer to the fring guns to 30. A few months later, Teach range of Teach's ship. He took the front separated from Hornigold to conduct his and sent a first flank that fatally hit the attacks alone. Many prey were hunted and Lyme, killing her commander and several

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry crew members. Teach then fired at the investigate the site because of the many Pearl, killing 20 of Maynard's men. The active hurricanes. It was only between Pearl approached the sloop. Blackbeard 1998 and 1999 that two successive and Maynard found themselves face to campaigns were conducted with the help of face, each armed with a saber and a pistol. the Underwater Archaeology Branch of the Teach was hit first but a violent saber fight North Carolina Underwater Archaeology ensued and turned to his advantage. At the Center. However, the first items collected, moment of a fatal blow to his adversary, although reminiscent of a ship from the Blackbeard was surprised by a stab in the early , there was no indication neck given by a sailor. Continuing the fight that it was Blackbeard’s ship. Between in spite of the pain and the multiple 2006 and 2008, the entire area of the site wounds, Teach received another stab from was finally visible, which made it possible a second sailor, then Maynard wounded to measure and consider the total length of him mortally with a pistol shot. The pirate the ship (Figure 7). In 2009, the quantities collapsed. There were about 25 wounds on of clues excavated and the resulting him, 5 of them shot. Lieutenant Maynard analyses, particularly within the 36.6 cut off his head and exhibited it on top of meter-long archaeological site, helped to the main mast to serve as a warning to all specify the type of ship. The discovery of pirates in the Caribbean and elsewhere. the bell marked with the inscription IHS Caught in a sandbank in Beaufort MARIA ANO 1705 appeared Bay, off North Carolina and a few miles characteristic of a French frigate while the from the coast, Queen Anne's Revenge was diverse origin of the cannons in situ located amidst a dozen other shipwrecks directed the identification towards a pirate dating back from the 18th century to the shipwreck. Finally, these elements twentieth century. Indeed, the bay has associated with the location of the remains always been known as a cemetery of in the area may well identify La Concorde, shipwrecks because of the stagnant the French frigate that became a slaver sandbanks whose locations vary according renamed Queen Anne's Revenge. to the tides and the swell, a fact that did not Following the ship's anchor, it was not facilitate the research carried out since until September 4, 2011, that the North 1978 by David Moore, archaeologist and Carolina authorities formally declared that historian at the North Carolina Maritime this wreck was indeed that of the pirate Museum. Thanks to several hurricanes, the Blackbeard. To date, 60% of the shipwreck shipwreck was discovered in 1996 area has been excavated and nearly following the intervention of Intersal 250,000 objects and debris have been divers at the 31-CR-314 site, which was recovered. Since June 11, 2011, the located at a depth of 20 meters. artifacts discovered are exhibited at the Unfortunately, after November 1996, it North Carolina’s Maritime Museum in took a few more years to thoroughly Beaufort.

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Figure 7. Plan of the shipwreck of the Queen Anne’s Revenge in October 1998 (courtesy of DNCR).

2.4. Great Ranger 1722 (Port Royal, sailed along the African coast. The pirates Jamaica) reached an agreement with Michael Gee, The Great Ranger was one of the captain of the Onslow, frigate of the British three main ships in the fleet of nine ships of 410-ton, 26 belonging to the famous pirate guns and 50 men. Captain Gee received the Bartholomew Roberts nicknamed Black former French ship Royal Fortune. Bart. Born in , , Upgrades took place, including the Roberts captured and looted more than 400 addition of 14 guns. Roberts then went to ships in less than three years, from June the West Indies and took fifteen ships, 1719 to February 1722, carving out a place English, French and Dutch. On January 11, in history as the most successful pirate 1722, the Royal Fortune and the two captain. He inherited the Royal Rover from Rangers sailed as far as Senegal to pirate captain who died in Whydah. Roberts learned of two 50-gun 1719. The Royal Fortune, the Little Ranger frigates under the command of Chalenor and the Great Ranger were the three ships Ogle. The proximity of the two ships of the under his command during his last fight did not prevent the Royal with Captain Chalenor Ogle of the Royal Fortune and the Great Ranger from sailing Navy and his ship the HMS Swallow. In slowly along the coast, multiplying their 1720, a French light frigate the Comte de prizes. Onslow replaced the Ranger. The Toulouse, a 16-gun Saint-Malo ship, was winds pushed the pirate squadron to Cape modified by Roberts by adding eight guns Lopez. It was there that the Navy frigates and renaming it Great Ranger. A second joined them on February 22, 1722. ship, a French sloop, formerly the St. Swallow first captured Onslow and then, in Agnes of Nantes, was renamed Little a final action, attacked Royal Fortune. Ranger. In August 1720, Roberts' ships Roberts was killed during the fight.

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After having hanged about fifty along what had been the city's harbor on pirates at the fortress of Cap Corse (Cape Fishers Row. In March 1967, Marx or Cabo Corso), Captain Ogle crossed the discovered wooden fragments thinking Atlantic with his three pirate prizes, they belonged to a building. Later, he stopping in and Port Royal to sell discovered that they came from the goods on August 14th. 1722. From August wreckage of a ship that he believed had 16 to August 27, Lieutenant Isaac Sunn sunk during the hurricane of 1722, so he was instructed to remove the goods from called it "the wreck of 1722". The remains the pirate ships for sale ashore. Before it of this ship were those of the Ranger. A could finish, a hurricane struck the island plan drawn up by Marx shows how the two on August 28, 1722. About a month after sections of the ship are separated by ballast the disaster, a letter from the Governor of and wood. Marx thought the pieces of Jamaica, Sir Nicholas Lawes, addressed to wood were part of the ship's cargo. With the Office, reported 50-ship loss of the wreckage above the sunken city, it was the 73 recorded. They had sailed through difficult to differentiate the artifacts from the storm, two others had been stranded on the Great Ranger from that of the city of the shore and ten of the lost ships were Port Royal. Marx estimated that most of recovered. Among the victims of this the shipwreck was 15 meters long, of hurricane were the Royal Fortune and the which only skittles, frames, and lower Little Ranger. They were blown across the futtocks remained. Most of the ship's hull harbor and broken into pieces on the rock contained ballast rock that was concreted of Salt Pond Hill. The Great Ranger, with 150-pound mortar rounds that were however, was one of the few ships to also used as ballast for the ship. While survive the storm even though it was badly searching in a little academic way, Marx damaged. Sailors of the Royal Navy had recovered a number of objects recovered what they could in the port to including four whale teeth, cannonballs, repair the Swallow. Ogle's crew tried to musket balls, a small tin teapot, a pewter repair the Great Ranger until mid-October mug, a large Dutch stoneware pitcher, then sold it to a Port Royal buyer. buttons, buckles, cooking utensils, flasks, A map drawn in 1724 by a pulleys and blocks (hoists). A piece of lieutenant of the Royal Navy presents the French shield dating from 1721 is also part Bay of Chocolata Hole off Port Royal. of the lot and makes it possible to date This map was made to help captains appropriately the wreck sunk during the maneuver in the harbor following the new hurricane of 1722. When Marx concluded developments made. Until 1735, Port his search on the Ranger, he filled the zone Royal did not have a suitable wharf for with sediments and ballast so to avoid careening and refitting large ships. One of damaging the wooden structure. the wrecks shown on this map marked with In the summer of 2012, a team of the letter "P" is that of the Great Ranger. students from the Texas A & M University The discovery of this map in 1982 by received a permit from the Jamaica Donny Hamilton, archaeologist and National Heritage Trust to conduct an responsible for the underwater excavations archaeological dig on the Great Ranger of Port Royal is what triggered the current and to search for the Royale Fortune and research on the Ranger. How did she end Little Ranger (Gulseth 2016: 105). A up in the bay two years later? Was she still mission of only 30 days and a modest being repaired? budget limited the results. The cabin It was the excavations of Robert measured exactly one French foot, Marx in Port Royal between 1966 and identifying it as a French-made ship. The 1968 that made it possible to highlight this search method recommended the wreck. Marx's excavations took place installation of six squares from A to F.

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Only 10 meters of the pirate ship were left historical common points, it is necessary to reasonably intact. A mound of rocks and advance other elements which make it eight mortar rounds are all that remains of possible to better apprehend the the ballast. 37 large, widely spaced timbers phenomenon of the piracy at this period. emerge from the mound of rock and sand. At first, it is intriguing to see that A number of these floor frames were three out of four ships are French (Quedah assembled with large framing pins. These Merchant, Queen Anne's Revenge and iron ties have a diameter of 3 to 3.5 cm and Great Ranger) with the exception of go through two and sometimes three Whydah Galley who is English. When we frames at a time. This type of rigging look at the nationality of the three pirates, system in a highly framed frigate would Kidd, Teach and Roberts, all British, we have given the ship a sturdy hull and know that depending on the circumstances, would be reminiscent of the construction some preferred to attack foreign ships even of the Queen Anne's Revenge pirate ship if it was never a rule in itself since Roberts from Blackbeard, also of French or Bellamy regularly attacked English manufacture. ships, besides subject of discord between In order to collect as much data as this last one and Benjamin Hornigold. We possible while having minimal impact on also note that the types of prizes are varied the site itself, the team used an underwater since the Quedah Merchant of Bombay dredge to remove sand that covered parts was a merchant ship of 500 tons, just like of the wreck. Only 20 objects were Whydah, merchant and slaver of 300 tons collected. Among them, eight objects were while La Concorde of Nantes (Queen pieces of the ship itself, including a Anne's Revenge) and the Comte de fragment of guidewires, part of a rigging Toulouse of Saint-Malo (Great Ranger) block, iron fasteners, a skid plate and a were privateer frigates. lead scupper. Some of the other artefacts In any case, once the capture was found during the search were more likely made, the pirate captain decided to make to be intrusive. An onion-shaped bottle for changes in the artillery, systematically wine or spirit was found on the surface of adding new guns but always small calibers. the wreck. Another was later located in the Thus, Kidd transferred four guns between same position. It is hard to believe that the Adventure Galley and the Quedah these complete bottles had just been Merchant, Bellamy modified the Whydah deposited on the surface of the wreck since Galley from 18 to 28 guns, Teach added 14 1720. It seems more likely that a storm guns to the Revenge which carried only 26 carried them from the sunken city and that guns, while Roberts modified the Ranger they ended up on the site of shipwreck. from 16 to 24 guns. As such, it would be relevant to know the origin of manufacture 2.5. Synthesis of these additional guns to try to track the The four shipwrecks discussed prizes made by these pirates. For example, above are dated between the years 1699 Queen Anne's Revenge, as well as the and 1722 during the . Whydah, are known to have a wide variety Two come from the American East Coast of guns with artillery being English, while the other two come from the Swedish or Dutch. As with valuable wares, Caribbean Sea. All four are related to the the cannons of these catches were always activities of a pirate known enough to be scrutinized in an attempt to maximize and part of the pirates short list cited by Daniel strategically increase the ship's firepower. Defoe alias Captain in his Regarding the excavation of these General History of the most famous shipwrecks, it is known that climatic pyrates published in 1724. Apart from conditions have made their study very these chronological, geographical and complex both because the remains are

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry under severe strain and especially because establishments, the harvested artifacts may regular hurricanes in the targeted areas do vary significantly depending on the not facilitate underwater work. Thus, for functional categories represented. Like different reasons, two shipwrecks out of individuals, the analysis must also take into four were excavated and studied account that those post-medieval artifacts exhaustively, Whydah and Queen Anne's were constantly moving from a European Revenge, although with the latter only 60% sphere that developed on the old continent of the entire site was investigated. They to new geographical and maritime areas delivered a large number of objects and like the , the Caribbean and the remains, between 200,000 and 400,000 Indian Ocean. An adaptation of the items for each case. In the publications on artifacts can always be considered the Quedah Merchant, the absence of depending on the environment in which it "light" or personal objects is explained by develops. The archaeology of this material the waves that moved the artifacts out of culture is therefore above all an the zone, these reasons remaining to be archaeology of economics, commerce, and verified. However, for the Great Ranger, conflict with goods and people passing the two 1967 and 2012 excavation through. This is confirmed by Donny campaigns revealed only a portion of the Hamilton's very accurate observation of shipwreck, without guns, and with very Port Royal, a historically pirate city par few objects. This absence could easily be excellence, where he explains that apart explained since a lieutenant of the Royal from the pirate wreck of Bartholomew Navy had the objective of completely Roberts' Great Ranger, there is no real emptying the ship of its merchandise, relic and artifacts reminiscent of piracy operation interrupted by a hurricane in (Hamilton D. 2006: 26). Thus, the port city 1722, but the guns had probably already remains primarily a trading hub of the been removed from the ship. Caribbean and in a second time a city where buccaneers gathered. In this context, 3. Study of material culture from piracy it is clear that the study of objects "related sites to piracy" is part of an international The examination of the phenomenon of contacts with the archaeological artifacts from these sites integration of objects of different identified as pirate should allow to nationalities combining European artifacts understand what was the daily life of these with oriental and Asian elements. We pirates in the 17th and 18th centuries was know that most pirates were from Europe, like, including adaptation to their new especially England, as far as the most environment. Life aboard pirate ships is the famous are concerned. However, in one that archaeology provides the best connection with the geopolitical changes, information because of the six examples some of them could have been born listed that yielded a large quantity of overseas on the American coast or in the objects. But the organization and Caribbean or in the Indian Ocean. development of these buccaneers on land Regarding dating, these artifacts are part of in ephemeral establishments or merchant a chronological horizon of 80 years that port cities like Port Royal in Jamaica are extends between the years 1650 and 1730, less well known. Did the life on board or so between the second half of the 17th and ashore of these ruffians differ from that of the first third of the 18th century. other embarked or dismounted seamen? Whether pirates or sailors, these seafarers 3.1. Is there a material pirate culture? crossed the oceans and were therefore in One of the main problems that the perpetual motion. Depending on the study of artifacts discovered on pirate archaeological sites, shipwrecks or land archaeological sites offers remains the

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry existence or not of objects specific to Even if this representation could have been piracy and thus the highlighting of a real more convincing and very practical to help pirate material culture. Can we talk about the commercial operation around the pirate objects in the same way that we franchise , it evoke the presence of pirate shipwrecks? remains nevertheless a mere fabrication far In reality, it is the context that from the historical and archaeological makes it possible to determine whether the reality. There are also representations of material culture of this period can be death with the figuration of skull on many related to any activity of piracy. As media dated to the seventeenth and mentioned above, the identification of an eighteenth centuries but it has no direct archaeological site or context as being relationship with piracy. In this sense, one peculiar to piracy depends on its relative can evoke rings of faith, tokens in honor of connection to a famous pirate or to a group the commemoration of St. Lambert of of individuals related to filibustering. The Maastricht, rosary beads or some history of piracy is therefore conditioned crucifixes. by this phenomenon, just as archaeology However, it is clear that some is. Contemporary stories and cartographic objects or assemblage of objects appear to or military archives work in this direction. be very representative and reflect a "pirate As such, we must not forget that we do not phenomenon". We can cite the silver or know the identity and history of a small real pieces-of-eight as evoked by minority of pirates who were active in the Alexandre-Olivier Oexmelin in his journal seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in (Oexmelin 1678, edition 1930, 1995: 23) this case a hundred captains. But the list and popularized by Robert Louis can be lengthened because the Stevenson in his . We meet archaeological discovery of a new wreck them especially on all the pirate can eventually lead to identify the story of shipwrecks. Concerning the assemblages, an unknown poorly highlighted when they are heterogeneous, they can be or known in existing inventories. symptomatic of different prizes as one can Moreover, the objects found on see it on certain wrecks where the pieces of these pirate sites do not become pirates. artillery vary in medium (cast iron or This is a concept that does not really make bronze), of caliber or origin with various sense. These typical artifacts of the modern shields present on the guns. You can find period or post-medieval (European site) this variety in the tableware or goods such and colonial (American site, Caribbean or as tin plates with London stamp, pitchers Indian Ocean) which evolved from now on from La Rochelle or tableware Chinese in a pirate context do not morph so far. porcelain. There is therefore no real pirate material In the search for pirate shipwrecks, culture but simply objects of everyday life it is the artifacts on board that can identify used by pirates in particular contexts. The a particular ship and thanks to the presence of a material pirate culture discovery of the bell that bears her name as appears as a concept totally manufactured it is the case for the ship of Samuel by nineteenth and twentieth century Bellamy the Whydah Galley, sunk 1717 off narratives and especially Hollywood film Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Some fictions. Translating this invention, the archaeologists have hypothesized to presence of the skull and crossed bones attribute personal items to famous pirates. assigned to certain pirate flags, which As such, one can evoke the alleged gun of reflects an historical reality, is found Samuel Bellamy from Whydah Galley joyfully on many other artifacts such as the (Clifford, Kinkor 2007: 66-67) (Figure 8), button of a jacket, the lock entrance of a or the buckle of Stede Bonnet found on the chest, a coin or the stern of a ship, etc. Queen Anne's Revenge, ship of Teach sunk

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry in 1718 off Beaufort (North Carolina) The board, and two brass buckles relatively proof for this type of interpretation is the close to the one from Queen Anne's example of the brass buckle with two Revenge were discovered during the Port initials "SB" on the underside of the Royal underwater excavations revealed buckle, are interpreted by some as the initials under the "SB" coping for one initials of the pirate Stede Bonnet (Wilde- (Figure 9) and "RP" for the other Ramsing, Carnes-McNaughton 2018: 144) (Thornton 1992: 134, fig. 32). In these two while for others, they could simply evoke a cases, it seems very risky to propose the member of the crew of the pirate company name of a potential owner, and even more from the same crew as that of Teach such a pirate. as Samuel Booth or another sailor on

Figure 8. Samuel Bellamy Pistol from Whydah Galley 1717 (Whydah Pirate Museum).

Figure 9. Buckle with SB initials from Port Royal, Jamaica (by J. Soulat after Thornton 1992, Helen Dewolf).

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3.2. Daily life through functional tools, shoemaking, ironwork), navigational categories instruments (compass, sector, carpenter's Objects discovered on an rod, sounding weight), various containers archaeological site are systematically (pottery or metal, various utensils, food classified by functional category. The scraps, metal plates, pitchers, various modern or colonial period is no exception, glassware, cutlery), the apothecary as are the pirate sites. There are nine (various containers and surgical and functional classes among the most medical utensils) and the sphere of trade represented, which can be associated with and goods (ceramic containers for shipwrecks and land-based sites (Figure transport, lead shipping seal, scales, 10). In this context, it is necessary to weights, coins, ingots, beads, shackles, highlight armaments (artillery, portable Chinese porcelain). These categories are weapons, various ammunition), personal found in shipwrecks but also on land sites. effects (clothing accessories, jewelry, This classification makes it possible to cutlery, hygiene, tobacco, objects of piety, clearly visualize the different aspects of gaming piece, musical instruments), ship everyday life around the pirates. Some furniture (ballast, bell, caulking, categories will be detailed in the following candlestick, hardware, various carpentry pages.

Armament Artillery, portable armament, ammunition. Personal Clothing accessories, jewelry, cutlery, hygiene, tobacco, effects piety, gaming pieces, musical instruments. Ship furniture Ballast, bell, caulking, candlestick, hardware, tools (carpentry, shoe repair, ironwork). Navigation Compass, sector, carpenter's rod, sounding weight Dishes, utensils, plates, dishes, pitchers, glassware, Containers cutlery, teapot, food scraps, etc. Apothecary Various containers, surgical and medical utensils Trade and Lead shipping seal, scales, weights, coins, ingots, pearls, goods shackles, Chinese export porcelain

Figure 10. Functional categories of artifacts from pirate sites.

3.2.1. Armament ships taken by the pirates were Majoritarian on the pirate systematically rearmed by adding shipwrecks, contrary to terrestrial additional guns. Captain William Kidd, in establishments, the armament is 1698, transferred four guns between distinguished in two big categories: the Adventure Galley and Quedah Merchant, artillery and the portable armament. Samuel Bellamy modified his Whydah Among the artillery, there are of course the Galley from 18 to 28 guns in 1717, Edward guns of different calibers and materials, the Teach added in 1717 14 guns to Queen cast iron balls (simple, rowed or chained) Anne's Revenge which had only 16, while and the grape (pellets, nails and fragments Bartholomew Roberts modified the Ranger of glass). The artillery aboard the pirate from 16 to 24 guns in 1720. As for the ships consisted of mismatched naval guns, valuable goods, the guns of these prizes cast iron or bronze, of more or less were always scrutinized in order to try to important caliber and especially of diverse increase as much as possible and origin, witness of the prizes made. The strategically, the firepower of the ship. On

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry the Whydah Galley, the distribution of because they most probably include guns on the site could correspond to a ship remains of shot and buckshot. Finally, trimmed behind the three smaller 3-pound grenades were also common on ships, guns and two-gun on the bow, four heavier especially pirate ships. They could look guns of up to 6 pounds in the middle of the like a cast iron cannon ball containing the ship, and 17 more common 4-pounder powder inside with a bamboo or wood cannons placed along the full length of the wick system for ignition. ship (Hamilton CE 2006: 150). The Queen Portable weapons also include Anne's Revenge study found that of the 24 knives, swords, daggers and other single or guns sampled (out of 30 in total), 17 were double edge weapons. Most have not six pounds, one or two nine pounds, four retained their blade but only their brass with four pounds, two pounds, one pound, handle and guard. Whether on the Whydah and two of a half-pound. All these guns or the Revenge, the discovered swords are were cast in England or Sweden. Whether regulatory weapons of the British and on the Whydah or the Revenge, we note French colonial naval infantry probably that the calibers do not exceed 6 pounds, belonging to officers of these military which shows that these guns were mainly corps present aboard ships of the Royal used for close range firing. Navy or French Royal Navy working in The portable armament includes, Caribbean waters (Clifford, Kinkor 2007: depending on the site, firearms with 44, 58-59; Wilde-Ramsing, Carnes- individual armament (pistols and muskets), McNaughton 2018: 115). These the pivoting guns (scythes or peterero), the ceremonial swords developed in the last balls mad of lead but also the grenades, third of the 17th century, lasting until the and the white weapons with the swords, middle of the 18th century, began to be daggers and other single of double edge abandoned by the officers during the first weapons for hand to hand combat, such as third of the 18th century due to their boarding. In the firearms, the wrecks weight and very massive aspect. sometimes deliver pivoting cannons fixed to the rail of the bridge is the case of 3.2.2. Personal effects Whydah and Revenge. This portable and Personal effects collected belonging swiveling artillery was very mobile and to the pirate captain who therefore owned could be moved quite easily over the deck one or more pieces of clothing. Thus, this of a ship. This mobility resulted in the broad functional category involves installation of these guns where they were associating several types of objects specific most needed while the big guns were to clothing accessories (buttons, buckles, useless if they were on the wrong side of shoes, etc.), to ornamental elements (rings, the ship. Outside the artillery, guns and bracelets, earrings, medallions, etc.) or to muskets appear more common on these various and personal utensils (knives, sites. However, the wrecks offer all too combs, ear-spoons, sewing kits, objects of rarely the wooden parts of these weapons piety). Within these various utensils, the in contrast to ornamental side plates of sewing kit is distinguished by thimbles, bronze or iron with firing mechanism. As needles and pins or needle boxes, while the with cannons, these muskets could also objects of piety can be represented by have various origins, usually English or rosaries, crucifixes or medals, often of French. In addition to these weapons, saints. Finally, we can evoke the sphere of ammunition made from shots and lead relaxation and entertainment with smoking pellets is extremely common: 250,000 pipes, playing pieces or musical rounds on the Revenge, over 80,000 on the instruments. This particular type of artifact Whydah. For the Revenge and the Whydah, are found and excavated as much on one must surely relativize these figures shipwrecks and as on terrestrial sites. Even

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry if they are much rarer compared to Kinkor 2007: 94). TEYE is interpreted as a weapons, the intra-site synthesis of these common surname in the North of England objects can help to understand the while BA could be translated as "Master of appearance of these pirates including Arts" (Bachelor of Arts) but also as an through the fashionable and different social evolution in the career of a sailor. Finally, aspects that surround them. In the context the initials WFS probably represent the of an interdisciplinary analysis, the "West Fleet Station", a Royal Navy base in comparison between the contributions Kingston, Jamaica. Finally, various and from archaeology and historical evidence personal utensils can be mentioned. may well be relevant. Thus, some famous Encompassing very different objects such pirate clothes have been described. For as knives, bone and tortoiseshell combs, Bartholomew Roberts, it is said that he was ear spoons, sewing kits (thimbles, needles dressed in a vest and rich scarlet damask and pins or needle boxes), tobacco pipes or pants, wearing a red feather on his tricorn objects of piety (rosaries, crucifixes or hat and that he wore a gold chain with a medals). All these elements are cross of diamonds around his neck, two encountered whatever the type of context, pairs of pistols at the end of a silk scarf especially terrestrial. As such, looting and worn on the shoulders and a side sword. archaeological excavations on Port Royal Because of his shiny cotton clothes, Jack have brought together a number of artifacts Rackham was nicknamed by specific to this category such as many Daniel Defoe. tortoiseshell combs or cruciform pendants Among the clothing accessories, the made of copper alloy of various origins. strong representation of the buckles is Distractions and hobbies were worth noting. Of varied shape and obviously part of the daily life of pirates generally made of brass or copper-based aboard ships and during their stay on land. metal, they very often present associated The game, the music, the tobacco but also fastener (clevis) whose back may be the drinks bring together a number of marked with initials. In addition to shoe objects related to these activities. buckles, we find flat-profile shoulder loops Gambling or betting was prohibited on that do not exceed 10 cm in length. Besides board because it could cause brawls within the shoe, the garment can be put forward. the crew. However, the presence of pawns Witnesses still preserved, the buttons differ or game chips have been repeatedly according to the dress and the function. identified on the shipwrecks of pirates. On They are circular in shape and curved or the ground, the witnesses of this flat profile. The jacket buttons are usually entertainment were highlighted in the made of copper alloy but can also be made taverns of Port Royal with the discovery of of wood, very often of British many fragments of British clay pipes. In manufacture. Cufflinks, sometimes addition to pipes, pawns or relatively interpreted as cloak fasteners, are also similar game counters have been found present. In direct relation with the many times on pirate shipwrecks. Most fastening of the garment, one can evoke often in pewter, these are square or circular the presence of circular pins decorated in pieces often marked with a cross incised in brass, silver or gold. Elements of the center that can also be interpreted as an adornment appear rarer but nevertheless X. These gaming pieces made by the identifiable including rings, bracelets, sailors themselves reveal how the cards, earrings or pendants collected in various checkers, backgammon and other dice contexts. On the Whydah Galley, a gold games have contributed to long hours at ring features a TEYE BA monogram on sea. The shipwreck of Whydah has the upper part of the ring, and WFS on the delivered 16 squares (10), rounds (5) or back (Clifford, Perry 1999: 177; Clifford, polygonal (1) that measure between 2 and

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3 cm (Clifford, Perry 1999: 160) (Figure pewter pieces weighing between 12 and 32 11). Of the total, only three are not marked gr. who were identified including two with with a cross. On the Queen Anne's a cross (Wilde-Ramsing, Carnes- Revenge, there are six similar square McNaughton 2018: 139).

Figure 11. Pewter gaming pieces found on several pirate shipwrecks (by J. Soulat).

3.2.3. Containers and tableware "Bellarmine" jugs or pitchers from the The domestic sphere and in Cologne region, characteristic of a 17th particular the kitchen is well represented century German production decorated with on the shipwrecks, as on the colonial a bearded human face (Figure 12). These settlements. This category brings together jugs were typically used to carry alcohol a wide variety of objects such as containers into a culinary setting as is the case on the in various materials (ceramics, glass or Revenge (Wilde-Ramsing, Carnes- metal), kitchen utensils and even food McNaughton 2018: 134). In Port Royal, remains like carved animal bones. several copies from the Raeren and Ceramic containers were varied and Frenchen workshops were also discovered of different origins, as in the case of a during the excavation of buildings 4 and 5 Spanish or Italian terracotta jar with orange (Donachie 2001: 82-83). Located in these paste found on the Queen Anne's Revenge same buildings, common British-style or (Wilde-Ramsing, Carnes-McNaughton African-Jamaican culinary ceramics 2018: 132). Measuring 60 cm high, these (Donachie 2001: 113-114), a tripod stove ovoid jars with banded and short-necked with a clear paste and glaze were handles could be used for storing highlighted (Donachie 2001: 116). foodstuffs. For liquids, the so-called

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Figure 12. Schematic drawing of Rhine-type Bellarmine ceramics.

In addition to ceramics, metal 13-14, Brown 2011: 69). They come from culinary dishes have also been located. two taverns. Stirrups in tripod brass containers with Always integrating into the handle or more simply on pedestal with domestic sphere, tableware comes from kidney-shaped handles. On the Revenge, different contexts and appears very varied. two cast iron tripod pots have been Collected were metal dishes, usually in identified, one from British production and pewter (plates, dishes, pitchers, cups, the other from French manufacture (Wilde- teapot, coffee maker), to which can be Ramsing, Carnes-McNaughton 2018: 130- added table cutlery in copper or pewter 131). This type of pot became popular in alloy (knives, forks and spoons), glassware the late Middle-Ages and found in contexts (stemware, jugs and bottles) and ceramic all the way up until the nineteenth century dishes (dishes, bowls and jugs). Very in French and British . In the common in since the 14th kitchen, apart from jugs and pitchers, the century, pewter dishes, not very fragile and drinks may also be stored in glass unbreakable, are quickly adopted on board containers such as black or olive-green vessels of all types. From the seventeenth wine bottles in the form of onions of the century, it is produced mainly in England British tradition or those of elongated and and France, a phenomenon that is also cylindrical shape, French tradition. These spreading in colonies across the Atlantic English bottles are found on a regular basis where trained artisans from Europe came such as the Queen Anne’s Revenge (Wilde- to develop their business and increase their Ramsing, Carnes-McNaughton 2018: 137) trade. Plates and tin dishes are very or the Great Ranger (Gulseth 2016: 106- common on board ships, like the pirate 108). In Port Royal, the various ships Whydah and Revenge. On the excavations yielded more than 800 Revenge, 35 examples of British complete British-type wine bottles dated production were discovered, including one between 1660 and 1730 (Marx 1969: 4, 10, eared porringer, 13 plates and 21 platers

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry between 17 and 45 cm in diameter (Wilde- master pewterer from North London Ramsing, Carnes-McNaughton 2018: 134- originally from the Worshipful Company 135). Five different trademarks have been of Pewterers, who came to develop his identified, including Henry Sewdley of business in Barbados from 1656 and Port London from 1709 on three plates, George Royal in 1660. It seems that his trademark Hammond, registered in 1695, and John was inspired by the emblem of Port Royal Stile, 1689. In Port Royal, nearly 300 represented on the coat of arms founded in pewter objects have been discovered dating 1661 in London and on which we find this back to before 1692 (Gotelipe-Miller 1990: pineapple (Gotelipe-Miller 1990: 64-65). 25). A wide variety of objects make up this Regarding the drinks, we find assemblage including crockery, cutlery, stemmed glasses or decorated glass cups. table accessories and personal effects. The They evoke a high social status in majority of these elements were produced connection with gentlemen consuming in in England but some pieces come from the taverns of Port Royal or in the cabins France and Holland. A total of 155 plates of ships. The stemmed glasses found in and dishes were inventoried, representing Port Royal are derived from British and 57.6% of the collection. As on the Venetian-style productions (McClenaghan Revenge, trademarks were found on many 1988: 86), while the Bohemian-style plates such as the initials "SB". These wheel-engraved cups are probably made in initials surrounding a pineapple are found France (McClenaghan 1988: 243) (Figure on 31 dishes and tin plates. The peculiarity 13). of this brand is its link to Simon Benning,

Figure 13. Drink glasses from Port Royal and Queen Anne's Revenge shipwreck (from McClenaghan 1988; Wilde-Ramsing, Carnes-McNaughton 2018).

3.2.4. Trade and goods archaeological sites. This category of Revealing the commercial activity artifacts brings together various objects of Port Royal or prizes taken by pirate that reflect a certain globalization with ships, many objects interpreted as goods varied origins within a single assembly. have been identified on the targeted There are seals and seals meant to close the

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry textile bags containing various coins from different workshops (Rennes, commodities and whose origin could be Saint-Menehould, Bordeaux, Paris, indicated, currencies, ingots and gold Limoges and La Rochelle), and a Scottish powder with different origins, glass beads bawbee. very often originated from Europe, objects In addition to the currency, two related to the sphere of (shackles, other forms of payment could be remains of shackles and gold jewelry) or identified: gold and silver bullion and gold Chinese blue on white export porcelain. To nuggets, also called dust or gold grains. help manage these various goods, For the ingots, the Whydah shipwreck measurement and weighing tools have yielded at least seven pieces of gold been discovered within these contexts such bullion and three silver ingots (Clifford, as balances and monetary weights. Kinkor 2007: 16, 124). Melted and molded Out of the popular image of the into transportable pieces in a pocket, the pirate and his treasure, the discovery of gold ingots display knife-made marks, coins aboard the wrecks of pirate ships likely made by pirates to test and make remains rare in archaeological context sure they were solid gold, not just gold because it obviously depends on the hiding a lead core. The gold powder is also history of the sinking. Indeed, if the vessel found on the Whydah as well as on the was scuttled voluntarily by its captain or if Queen Anne's Revenge. The presence of the vessel sank slowly due to a sandbar, it this gold dust aboard these ships is surely is easy to think that the treasure on board linked to their slaving activity before they was taken by the crew with the most were captured by pirates such as Bellamy precious items. This is precisely what and Teach. For the latter, we know that happened for the Queen Anne's Revenge in when he and his crew took La Concorde, 1718 (4 coins) or the Speaker in 1702 (34 they stole more than 20 pounds (9 kg) of coins) and the Fiery Dragon in 1721 (13 gold dust (Wilde-Ramsing, Carnes- coins) in the Indian Ocean. It is therefore McNaughton 2018: 150). It is known that not surprising that the excavations of these the French slaver went several times to the shipwrecks revealed only a few coins. West African coast between 1713 and Nevertheless, the figures that will be 1717. Therefore, it is quite possible that advanced are to relativize because none of these grains of gold come from these these three shipwrecks has been localities. The Whydah Galley also cruised exhaustively searched. As an exception, in the same waters between the end of Whydah Galley holds more than 15,000 1715 and the beginning of the year 1716, coins mostly in silver. The ship sank with among the gold dust many fragments of her crew, also trapping the entire cargo Akan gold jewelry were found. On the including her monetary treasure. There are Revenge, the excavations were able to thousands of reales of which 31 silver bring to light only 20 gr while on the coins are equivalent to an 18th century Whydah, it is near 7,000 grains that were pound sterling (Clifford, Kinkor 2007: discovered (Hamilton CE 2006: 144). 121-122). Among the most singular pieces, As mentioned above, the discovery there is the presence of a silver demi-écu of of this gold dust reflected on those two Louis XIV struck in 1691 and a silver real shipwrecks can also be related to remnants of Philip IV struck in 1693 in Potosí, Alto of African gold jewelry belonging to the Perú (present-day ) (Clifford, Perry Akan tribes who lived on the West African 1999: 145). Apart from the consequent coast, between the current and Ivory assemblage of reales, several other Coast. African gold was prized by currencies of very varied origin have been international pirates because of its purity identified as English shillings, crowns or and consistent quality. Remnants of gold half-crowns and centimes and other French

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Archaeology of Caribbean Piracy Soulat and de Bry jewelry have been found on Queen Anne's the Jingdezhen ware (South of China) Revenge and Whydah Galley. which is encountered in very large quantity in Port Royal or on shipwrecks of the 3.2.5. International artifacts Indian Ocean like the Fiery Dragon, but Whether in shipwrecks or on land partially within the shipwrecks of the sites, the artifacts discovered appears Caribbean space. Of course, artifacts from clearly international. The European sphere, India and the Ottoman Empire (potteries, especially the British and French material coins and statuettes) are also present in culture, is mixed with objects from large numbers for the archaeological Germany, Holland, Scandinavia, Asia, contexts of the Indian Ocean, on Sainte- India and Egypt. England supplies a large Marie Island off the northeast coast of number of items such as cannons, jacket Madagascar, and on the island of buttons and various buckles, London tin Mauritius. ware with various identified craftsmen, glass wine bottles, wine glasses, kaolin 4. Terrestrial perspectives for the clay tobacco pipe of the Bristol workshops, archaeology of monetary weights and various currencies Sea (shillings and guineas). The majority of Apart from the archaeology of these objects come from Port Royal and pirate shipwrecks, the archaeological study the wreck of Whydah Galley. of land occupations by Caribbean For France, we note the presence of buccaneers remains rare but nevertheless infantry swords made in Saint-Etienne, appears to be very promising. Pirate lairs rifles from the workshops of Tulle, green occupations result in ephemeral camps in glaze ceramics of Saintonge, a syringe and perishable material, the installation of a pewter clyster produced in Paris and batteries and defense systems. Rouen for which the artisans are known, Historically, Tortuga Island is the nesting weight set from Montpellier, a lead emblematic landmark of the Filibuster but shipping seal of Narbonne and coins of the it is not the only site of Hispaniola reigns of Louis XIII and Louis XIV. It occupied by the . should be noted that most French objects Petit-Goâve, Léogane and Port-de-Paix are come from Queen Anne's Revenge as well also important sites of the French as the Whydah Galley. buccaneers in the 17th century. These free For the rest of Europe, the Venice and hard-to-control men depended on a workshops have produced many stemware governor who obeyed the king, such as and glass beads, often called in France Governor Pierre-Paul Tarin de Cussy “perles de Venise,” that have been (Governor of Saint-Domingue [Haiti] disseminated to the transatlantic colonies 1684-1691). It is the latter that promotes of America, the artisans of Nuremberg the development of fortifications very have marketed throughout Europe useful to pirates. Thus, the study of the monetary weights, tokens and bucket, fortifications of the buccaneer era appears while bellarmine sandstone jugs from the both as an original way of approaching this Rhine Valley are as common on history and as an invitation to develop a shipwrecks as Chinese export porcelain. specific program of archaeological On the pirate shipwrecks, cannons are also research (Pavlidis 2019, Pavlidis 2019, produced in Sweden and Denmark as well forthcoming). Several French historians as coins from Holland and . Finally, and archaeologists have worked on the the oriental sphere is also well represented topic of defense systems in Santo Domingo with the Chinese blue on white export (Hrodej 2014, Vidal 2010). porcelain that ranges from the second half of the 17th century thanks to the export of

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Figure 14. Fort de la Roche or Fort Le Vasseur (by Oexmelin 1678).

Figure 15. Basse Terre and Fort de Blondel on Turtle Island in 1667 (by Blondel engineer, BNF Div 5, portefeuille 1).

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The two forts of Tortuga Island, the facilities, which should encourage the Fort Le Vasseur founded around 1640 resumption of work in the field. A future (Figure 14) and the Fort de Blondel French mission will be organized soon in completed in 1674 (Figure 15), are of real order to make a record and a statement of interest for the history of the the condition of the remains at various filibustering/buccaneering, and for that of elevations and to record measurements and the first French settlements in Santo geolocation (personal communication of L. Domingo during the second half of the Pavlidis). 17th century. The rarity of this type of site Apart from the study of defense and the various descriptions that suggest systems, the search for ephemeral pirate differences, or even evolutions of the encampments on the shores of the buildings, such as the addition of a ditch on Caribbean islands seems almost unheard the attack front of Fort de Blondel, deserve of. In 2016, preventive archaeological that archaeologists be interested. In 1987, a survey by INRAP conducted under a villa French-Haitian mission composed of eight construction in Grand-Case bay, on Saint- researchers went to the island (Coustet, Martin Island (French West Indies) Cauna 1987: 6-12; Camus 1987). Their discovered the original remains of early mission was to identify the main sites, colonial occupation on the seaside including the two forts. Fort Le Vasseur attributed on the second half of the 17th was found, the rock still in place and a century or the beginning of the 18th summary clearing allowed the team to century (Coulaud, Sellier-Ségard 2019). detect traces of development. They also Diversified artefacts, associated with a easily found the fort designed by Blondel. precarious temporary settlement reflect There is still a piece of wall, ruptures of upon people origins and social statutes, slopes and three guns! The research team probably buccaneers, as is the case for also identified a high battery whose ruins other Caribbean islands. For example, an are "relatively speaking to us". They ink drawing representing dwellings along argued for archaeological excavations and the beach, close to an anchorage, indicated publish their conclusions in the numbers as Amerindian and buccaneer occupations 174-175 of the Franco-Haitian magazine (Figure 16). This illustration from the Conjonction in 1987 by drawing attention 1630s was used by Hessel Gerritsz in a to the fragility and interest of those places. Dutch West Indies Pilot/Rudder. The No excavations have been undertaken buccaneer installations are regularly since 1987. The island, relatively isolated mentioned along the beaches on from the large neighboring island, is unoccupied islands near the freshwater and therefore relatively spared modern anchorage points.

Figure 16. Ink drawing depicting two coves of the island of St. Vincent (Dutch National Archives, The Hague).

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References 30 Mars 1987. Conjonction, revue franco- Beeker, Charles D. and Frederick H. haïtienne, 174-175, 3e et 4e trimestre: 6-12. Hanselmann (2009). The Wreck of the Cara Merchant: Investigations of Captain de Bry, John and M. Roling, (2011). Kidd’s Lost Ship. In ACUA Underwater Archaeological Report Madagascar 2010. Archaeology Proceedings 2009, edited by Research on 17th and 18th Century Pirate E. Laanela, J. Moore, pp. 219-226. Shipwrecks at îlot Madame, Sainte-Marie. Columbus, PAST Foundation. Melbourne Beach, Florida.

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Hamilton, Donny L. (2006a). Pirates and Mission of the Scientific and Technical Merchants. Port Royal, Jamaica. In X Advisory Body to Madagascar, 16-24 June Marks the Spot. The Archaeology of 2015, UNESCO. Piracy, edited by R. K. Skowronek, C. R. Ewen, pp. 13-30. Gainesville, University Lizé, Patrick (1984). The Wreck of the Press of Florida. Pirate Ship Speaker on Mauritius in 1702. The International Journal of Nautical Hamilton, Donny L. (2006b). Port Royal, Archaeology and Underwater Exploration, Jamaica: Archaeological Past and 13(2): 121-132. Development Potential. In Heritage at Risk, Underwater Cultural heritage at Lizé, Patrick (2006). Piracy in the Indian Risk: Managing natural and human Ocean. Mauritius and the Pirate Ship impacts, edited by R. Grenier, D. Nutley, I. Speaker. In X Marks the Spot. The Cochran, pp. 49-51. Archaeology of Piracy, edited by R. K. Skowronek, C. R. Ewen, pp. 81-99. Hamilton, Donny L. and Robyn Woodward Gainesville, University Press of Florida. (1984). A Sunken 17th-Century City: Port Royal, Jamaica. Archaeology, 37(1): 38- Marx, Robert F. (1971) for Caribbean 45. Research Institute, Silver and Pewter Recovered from the Sunken City of Port Frederick H. Hanselmann and Charles D. Royal, Jamaica (May 1, 1966- March 31, Beeker (2016). The Wreck of the Quedagh 1968).By Arrangement with the Jamaica Merchant: The Lost Ship of Captain National Trust Commission, Kingston, William Kidd. In Pieces of Eight. More Jamaica. Archaeology Piracy, edited by C. R. Ewen, R. K. Skowronek, pp. 110-131. Marx, Robert F. (1967). Excavation of the Gainesville, University Press of Florida. Sunken City of Port Royal, December 1966: A Preliminary Report. Institute of Frederick H. Hanselmann et al. (2016). Jamaica, Kingston, Jamaica, March. Plundering the : 's raid on . In Pieces of Marx, Robert F. (1969) for Caribbean Eight. More Archaeology Piracy, edited by Research Institute, Glass Bottles C. R. Ewen, R. K. Skowronek, pp. 132- Recovered from the Sunken City of Port 164. Gainesville, University Press of Royal, Jamaica (May 1, 1966- March 31, Florida. 1968). By Arrangement with the Jamaica National Trust Commission, Kingston, Frederick H. Hanselmann (2019). Captain Jamaica. Kidd’s Lost Ship. The Wreck of the Quedah Merchant. Gainesville, University Press of Mayes, Philip and P. A. Mayes, Port Florida. Royal, Jamaica: Excavations 1969-70, Kingston, Jamaica, National Heritage Hrodej, Philippe (2014). Défense statique Trust, 1972. et défense dynamique, le cas de Saint- Domingue dans la seconde moitié du McClenaghan, Patricia E. (1988). Drinking XVIIe siècle. In Défense et colonies dans Glasses from Port Royal, Jamaica c.1630- le monde atlantique XVe-XXe siècle, edited 1840: A Study of Styles and Usage. Thesis by D. Plouviez, pp. 41-54. Presses submitted to the Graduate College of Texas Universitaires de Rennes. A&M University, Master of Arts, Anthropology. L’Hour, Michel (2015). UCH/16/7.STAB/4

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Oexmelin, Alexandre-Olivier (1678, rééd. Soulat, Jean (2019, forthcoming). 1930, 1995). Les aventuriers et les Archéologie de la Piraterie des XVIIe- boucaniers d’Amérique, L’Amateur Averti, XVIIIe siècles. Etude de la vie quotidienne La Découvrance, Rennes. des flibustiers de la mer des Caraïbes à l’océan Indien, Editions Mergoil. Page, Courtney and Charles R. Ewen (2016). Recognizing a Pirate Shipwreck Soulat, Jean et al. (2019, forthcoming). without the Skull and Crossbones », In L’épave pirate du Speaker et son mobilier. Pieces of Eight. More Archaeology Piracy, Dossiers d’Archéologie, 394, juillet-août, edited by C. R. Ewen, R. K. Skowronek, Editions Faton: 46-49. pp. 260-273. Gainesville, University Press of Florida. Surcouf, Erick and Thierry Proust (1991). Rapport préliminaire de fouille du Speaker Pavlidis, Laurent (2019), Les sites 1702, mission 1990-1991. flibustiers de l’île de la Tortue et de Port- de-Paix à Haïti. Dossiers d’Archéologie, Thornton, Diana V. (1992). The Probate 394, juillet-août, Editions Faton: 62-65. Inventories of Port Royal, Jamaica. Thesis submitted to the Graduate College of Texas Pavlidis, Laurent (2019, forthcoming) Les A&M University, Master of Arts, fortifications édifiées au XVIIe siècle à Anthropology. Saint-Domingue et sur l’île de la Tortue. In Archéologie de la Piraterie des XVIIe- Vidal, Jonhattan (2010). La défense côtière XVIIIe siècles. Etude de la vie quotidienne de la : exemple d’étude des flibustiers de la mer des Caraïbes à préalable à la valorisation. In Valoriser les l’océan Indien, edited by J. Soulat, patrimoines militaires : théories et action, Editions Mergoil, 2019, forthcoming. edited by N. Meynen, pp. 117-130. Actes du colloque international, octobre 2008, Priddy, Anthony (1975). The 17th- and Brest PUR. 18th-Century Settlement Pattern of Port Royal. Jamaica Journal, 9(2-3): 8-10. Wilde-Ramsing, Mark U. and Linda Carnes-McNaughton (2016). Blackbeard’s Skowronek, Russell K. and Charles R. Queen Anne’s Revenge and Its French Ewen (2006). X Marks the Spot. The Connection. In Pieces of Eight. More Archaeology of Piracy, Gainesville, Archaeology Piracy, edited by C. R. Ewen, University Press of Florida. R. K. Skowronek, pp. 15-56. Gainesville, University Press of Florida. Skowronek, Russell K. (2016). Setting a Course toward an Archaeology of Piracy », Wilde-Ramsing, Mark U. and Linda In Pieces of Eight. More Archaeology Carnes-McNaughton (2018). Blackbeard’s Piracy, edited by C. R. Ewen, R. K. Sunken Prize. The 300-year voyage of Skowronek, pp. 1-14. Gainesville, Queen Anne’s Revenge. The University of University Press of Florida. North Carolina Press.

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