Chant Through the Change: Exploring the Pedagogical and Programmatic Benefits of Gregorian Chant in the Development of Male Adolescent Voices

Home , American Boychoir School, Chanticleer (ensemble), Liber Usualis, Modern Chant, Voice change

André Louis Heywood

A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts Faculty of Music University of Toronto

Chant Through the Change: Exploring the Pedagogical and Programmatic Benefits of Gregorian Chant in the Development of Male Adolescent Voices

André Louis Heywood

Doctor of Musical Arts

Faculty of Music University of Toronto

2019 Abstract

The issue of lack of repertoire for males in the process of adolescent voice change has long been explored, but there still exists a significant lack of historical repertoire for these voice types.

Recent research on the pedagogical benefits of singing Gregorian chant shows an overlap with key areas of concern for teachers of changing-voice males. This dissertation explores the efficacy of chant as a pedagogical and programmatic tool for working with adolescent male voices in the process of vocal mutation by establishing a repertoire of suitable chants and providing representative chants analyzed for their pedagogical benefits.

The research for this study included analysis of 557 chants referenced in anthologies and pedagogical chant resources. I analyzed chants for historical significance, range, and floridity.

Using criteria established by John Cooksey’s Contemporary Eclectic Theory (CET) for male adolescent voice change, I selected 77 suitable chants as appropriate repertoire for these voice types, arranged eight of these chants especially for changing voices using the principles of CET, and developed annotations with pedagogical implications.

Acknowledgments

It takes a village. I am eternally indebted to so many for their unrelenting support of me during this challenging dissertation process.

I would like to acknowledge Dr. Carol Beynon for first instilling in me the value of choral music in the lives of young men and for her helping hand over the past 23 years of my life. Without her, none of my previous degrees would have been possible. I would also like to thank Dr. Victoria Meredith, Dr. Gerald Neufeld, Dr. Bevan Keating, Ken Fleet, Carol Stewart, Barry Thomson, and Ralph De Luca for their influential roles in my formation as a musician, conductor, and educator, and Dr. Bret Amundson for being a sounding board for me at all times.

I will be forever grateful to my family in Collegeville. The support of the monks of Saint John’s Abbey and my colleagues in the Department of Music at the College of Saint Benedict/Saint John’s University was truly inspirational. Special thanks to my mentor Br. Paul Richards, OSB, and my colleagues Fr. Anthony Ruff, OSB, and Dr. Axel Theimer.

To the staff of The St. John’s Boys’ Choir, I extend my most sincere appreciation for your incredible support. I especially thank Brandon Nordhues for taking the reins while I studied in Toronto, and Melissa Walrath and Angi Klaverkamp for their exceptional administrative support. The choirboys themselves deserve my gratitude for their constant inspiration. All they ever wanted was to call me “Dr. Dré.”

Most special thanks to the incredible members of my committee—Dr. Hilary Apfelstadt, who made me a better conductor and teacher; Dr. Lori-Anne Dolloff, who helped me become a more thoughtful and creative researcher; and Dr. Jeff Packman, who introduced me to new and interesting research and helped me become a better writer. Your contributions to my education go far beyond this document. Special thanks also to my brilliant editor, Lauren Murphy.

As promised, a special thank you to my “Facebook hive” for their continual messages of support that buoyed me during the final stages of this project.

Finally, and most important, to Michael Ira Curtis Heywood, for providing joy, comfort, and support when I needed it, for putting up with my late nights, and for putting all the fun things in life on hold while I completed this dissertation.

iii

Dedication

To my mother, Dr. Daphne Heywood, whose sacrifices facilitated my achievements, whose values shaped my passion for teaching and learning, and whose example inspires me daily.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments ...... iii

Dedication ...... iv

Table of Contents ...... v

List of Tables ...... viii

List of Figures ...... ix

List of Appendices ...... x

Chapter 1 Introduction ...... 1

1.1 Purpose of the Study ...... 3

1.2 Situating the Researcher ...... 4

1.3 Need for the Study: The Repertoire Dilemma ...... 6

1.4 Returning to Chant ...... 11

1.5 Theoretical Background ...... 13

1.6 Methodology ...... 14

1.7 Organization of the Study ...... 15

1.8 Parameters of the Study ...... 16

1.9 Significance of the Study ...... 17

1.10 Definition of Terms ...... 18

Chapter 2 On Chant and Choirboys ...... 20

2.1 Use of the Pueri ...... 23

2.2 Emergence of Chant Pedagogy ...... 28

2.3 Rediscovering Chant: From the Solesmes Revival to Current Practices ...... 31

2.4 Modern Chant Pedagogy: Notation, Rhythm, and Spirituality ...... 34

2.5 Beyond Liturgy: Pedagogical Benefits of Chant ...... 42

Chapter 3 On the Changing Voice ...... 47 v

3.1 The Continuing Development of Modern Changing-Voice Theories: McKenzie, Cooper, and Swanson ...... 53

3.2 Contemporary Eclectic Theory: An Overview ...... 56

3.3 Beyond Cooksey ...... 59

3.4 Best Practices for Working with Male Voices in Transition ...... 64

3.5 Chant and the Voice Change ...... 69

Chapter 4 Methodology ...... 80

4.1 Design of the Study ...... 81

4.2 Establishing a Repertoire Base ...... 82

4.3 Assessing Suitability for Changing Voices ...... 85

4.4 Programmatic Categorization of Chants ...... 88

4.5 Musical Arrangement of Chants ...... 89

4.6 Performance Notes and Teaching Suggestions ...... 90

Chapter 5 A Compendium of Chants for Changing Voices ...... 92

5.1 Genre-Specific Trends in the Selected Chants ...... 92

5.2 Overview of Chants Selected for Pedagogical Analysis ...... 96

5.3 Mode I: Victimae paschali laudes (“Praise the paschal victim,” Sequence for Easter Sunday) ...... 99

5.4 Mode II: Ut queant laxis (“May Be Loosened,” Hymn to Saint John the Baptist) ...... 107

5.5 Mode III: Pange lingua gloriosi (“Sing, my tongue,” Hymn for Corpus Christi) ...... 113

5.6 Mode IV: Alleluia, Laudate pueri Dominum (“Alleluia, Praise the Lord, you children,” Alleluia for Feast of the Holy Innocents) ...... 119

5.7 Mode V: Benedicamus Domino (“Let us bless the Lord,” Versicle at Conclusion of Divine Office) ...... 125

5.8 Mode VI: Requiem aeternam (“Rest eternal,” Introit to Mass for the Dead) . 131

5.9 Mode VII: Hosanna filio David (“Hosanna to the Son of David,” Antiphon for Palm Sunday) ...... 137

5.10 Mode VIII: Veni Creator Spiritus (“Come, Creator Spirit,” Hymn for Pentecost) ...... 144

5.11 Toward a Contemporary Approach to Chant ...... 149

Chapter 6 Conclusion ...... 150

6.1 Pedagogical Implications of Chant Study by Changing-Voice Males ...... 150

6.2 Historically Informed Performance of Chant by Changing-Voice Males ...... 152

6.3 Establishing a Repertoire Base of Chants for Changing-Voice Males ...... 153

6.4 Recommendations for Future Research ...... 154

6.5 Custos ...... 155

Bibliography ...... 156

Appendix A: Comprehensive List of Surveyed Chants ...... 171

Appendix B: Index of 77 Selected Chants by Modality ...... 193

Appendix C: Index of 77 Selected Chants by Range (in Semitones) ...... 198

Appendix D: Index of 77 Selected Chants by Floridity ...... 202

Appendix E: Index of 77 Selected Chants by Genre ...... 205

vii

List of Tables

Table 1: Recommended Historical Repertoire for Young Adolescent Choirs ...... 9

Table 2: Summary of Contents in The Catholic Music Hour ...... 36

Table 3: Supplementary Solesmes Notation ...... 90

Table 4: Pedagogical Topics for Selected Chants ...... 97

viii

List of Figures

Figure 1: Sequence Victimae paschali laudes (“Praise the paschal victim”) ...... 24

Figure 2: Responsory Hodie nobis caelorum Rex (“The King of heaven, today for us,” lines 4–7) ...... 26

Figure 3: Antiphon: Salve Regina (“Hail, Queen,” lines 1–4) ...... 27

Figure 4: Hymn: Ut queant laxis (“May be loosened”) ...... 30

Figure 5: McKenzie Classification of Adolescent Boy’s Voice Range ...... 53

Figure 6: Cooper Classification of Adolescent Boy’s Voice Range ...... 54

Figure 7: Cooksey Ranges and Tessiturae for the Voice-Change Stages ...... 58

Figure 8: Antiphon: Pueri Hebraeorum (“The Hebrew children”) ...... 73

Figure 9: Example of syllabic chant: Adoro te devote (“I devoutly adore you”) ...... 86

Figure 10: Example of neumatic chant: Asperges me, Domine (“Sprinkle me, Lord”) ...... 86

Figure 11: Example of melismatic chant: Requiem aeternam (“Rest eternal”) ...... 87

Figure 12: Example of visual aids for Victimae paschali laudes ...... 103

Figure 13: Sample vocalise focused on legato phrasing based on Victimae paschali laudes ..... 103

Figure 14: Ut queant laxis in English setting with solfège pedal tones ...... 110

Figure 15: Macro- and microphrase structure of English setting of Ut queant laxis ...... 111

Figure 16: Differences in syllabic stress in Latin/English versions of Pange lingua gloriosi ... 116

Figure 17: Vocalise based on a motive from Alleluia, laudate pueri Dominum ...... 122

Figure 18: Register bridging exercise based on Benedicamus Domino ...... 127

Figure 19: Sample Script for Exploration of Expressivity in Hosanna filio David ...... 140

List of Appendices

Appendix A: Comprehensive List of Surveyed Chants ...... 171

Appendix B: Index of 77 Selected Chants by Modality ...... 193

Appendix C: Index of 77 Selected Chants by Range ...... 198

Appendix D: Index of 77 Selected Chants by Floridity ...... 202

Appendix E: Index of 77 Selected Chants by Genre ...... 205

x 1

Chapter 1 Introduction

The connection between choirboys and plainsong is as ancient as the music tradition itself. Beginning with the Benedictine practice of child oblation, in which boys were gifted to monasteries where they were nurtured, educated, and prepared for religious life, boys received advanced musical training in order to participate in the chanting of psalms and other liturgical texts.1 So essential to liturgical life were the boys that a significant portion of the plainsong repertoire was developed with their voices in mind.2 As important as the boys were to the daily Office and other liturgies, so too was chant essential to their lives. It was the foundation of their education—musical and otherwise. Western music pedagogy evolved from deriving new methods to help boys learn the chants and catapulted the choirboys into more advanced musical ventures. With the development of new and more complex compositions, chant retreated to the background of liturgical choral music and became less and less a part of the choirboys’ lives.

When the practice of child oblation ended, and choirboys were no longer resident in monasteries, the boychoir tradition continued in cathedrals and colleges throughout Europe and, later, on the concert stage. As the boychoir movement spread to North America, the community boychoir gained popularity in the twentieth century.3 Concurrent with changing philosophies on whether or not boys should sing after their voices “broke,” the boychoir model began to change, and boy singers with changing voices became more commonplace.4 In fact, the practice of retaining changing voices became the recommended model among voice scholars and choral conductors.5

1 Patricia A. Quinn, Better Than the Sons of Kings: Boys and Monks in the Early Middle Ages (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1989), 75; Susan Boynton, “Boy Singers in Medieval Monasteries and Cathedrals,” in Young Choristers, 650–1700, ed. Susan Boynton and Eric Rice (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2008), 38. 2 Anne Walters Robertson, “Benedicamus Domino: The Unwritten Tradition,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 41, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 5–6; Craig Wright, “Performance Practices at the Cathedral of Cambrai 1475–1555,” The Musical Quarterly 64, no. 3 (July 1978): 303; Boynton and Rice, “Introduction: Performance and Premodern Childhood,” in Boynton and Rice, Young Choristers, 10; David Hiley, Gregorian Chant (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 11. 3 Kendra Kay Friar, “Changing Voices, Changing Times,” Music Educators Journal 86, no. 3 (November 1999): 27–28. 4 Joel Ross, “The Boychoir Model: A Perspective on Retaining Changed Voices,” The Choral Journal 45, no. 10 (April 2006): 56. 5 Randall Wolfe, “The Voice Change,” The Choral Journal 44, no. 9 (April 2004): 52; Ryan Fisher, “British and American Theories of the Changing Male Voice: An Historical Overview,” Journal of

The new voices were restricted, however, by their limited vocal range, the lack of suitable repertoire, and the lack of understanding on how to properly work with the changing adolescent male voice. Even as late as 2005, a report by the British Office for Standards in Education referenced teachers’ inability to properly assist boys during this most challenging time, stating that “teachers in the music department of an otherwise effective school . . . did not know how to engage boys in vocal work when their voices changed.”6 These sentiments were echoed by experts in the United States during the same time period: “A lot of private teachers as well as elementary/high school music teachers do not fully comprehend the difficulties of young boys whose voices may be changing, nor do they know how to offer support and a structured vocal routine that is healthy for such young men.”7 This was despite decades of research revealing the scientific details of vocal mutation.

The research of vocal pedagogues Deso Weiss (1950), Duncan McKenzie (1956), Frederick Swanson (1961), Irvin Cooper (1970), and John Cooksey (1977) provided a strong foundation for the training of changing male voices in the latter part of the twentieth century. While gaps in understanding of the science behind adolescent vocal mutation were rapidly closing, a body of known repertoire to use as a curriculum for training such voices was nonexistent. As information became available regarding the vocal abilities and limitations of singers in this developmental stage, it became apparent that much of the music intended for singers of this age was pedagogically inappropriate. Nancy Cox identifies the challenges of finding repertoire that passes the test of three t’s: text, technique, and tessitura.8 Cox elaborates that repertoire is the vehicle through which conductors teach vocal technique, an idea supported by H. Robert Reynolds: “While it may be an overstatement to say that repertoire is the curriculum, we can all

Historical Research in Music Education 31, no. 1 (October 2009): 42; Don L. Collins, “Preferred Practices in Teaching Boys Whose Voices Are Changing,” The Choral Journal 47, no. 5 (November 2006): 119; Martin R. Ashley, “Broken Voices or a Broken Curriculum? The Impact of Research on UK School Choral Practice with Boys,” British Journal of Music Education 30, no. 3 (May 2013): 314–15. 6 OFSTED, Making More of Music: An Evaluation of Music in Schools (UK: Office for Standards in Education Report, 2005), 22. 7 Tony Villecco, “The Male Changing Voice—A Personal Experience,” Teaching Music 15, no. 3 (December 2007): 17. 8 Sally Hook, “Changing Voice and Middle School Music: An Interview with John Cooksey and Nancy Cox,” The Choral Journal 39, no. 1 (August 1998): 22.

3 agree that a well-planned repertoire creates the framework for an excellent music curriculum that fosters the musical growth of our student.”9

1.1 Purpose of the Study

This dissertation will explore the efficacy of chant as a pedagogical and programmatic tool for working with adolescent male voices in the process of vocal mutation. I propose that singing chant through the voice change can facilitate musical development of adolescent males at a level consistent with their previous musical training and appropriate to their current vocal limitations. This study will explore potential overlaps between research on the pedagogical benefits of chant and writings on the boy’s changing voice.

The ability to put theory into practice is also essential to this study. As such, it will take into account the history of boys singing chant, using that history to inform decisions regarding pedagogy, repertoire, and performance practice. Using the themes of pedagogy, history, and repertoire as a framework, this study will explore three questions: 1. Pedagogy: How does chant support the development of adolescent changing voices? 2. History: How can these voices present historically informed performances of chant that meet the unique challenges of the boy’s changing voice? 3. Repertoire: How do history and pedagogy work together to inform our selection of chants for changing voices?

In addition to drawing parallels between chant pedagogy and changing-voice pedagogy, my research will present a body of chant repertoire suitable for changing voices and recommended teaching and performance practices that aid their development.

9 H. Robert Reynolds, “Repertoire Is the Curriculum,” Music Educators Journal 83, no. 1 (July 2000): 31.

1.2 Situating the Researcher

My path to this synthesis of ideas began during my time as a choirboy. As leader of the first soprano section, I found the inevitable voice change process to be unexpected, cruelly long, and extremely challenging. As part of an esteemed boychoir, I believed my voice had been the quality that most defined my worth as an individual. Struggling with vocal production was both physically and emotionally stressful. My conductor at the time, Dr. Carol Beynon, had included me in several seminars she presented on the boy’s changing voice. The knowledge gleaned from these presentations proved to be the most beneficial coping mechanism for my adolescent self and were an important factor in helping me continue to sing beyond the voice change. These experiences led me to an academic focus of engaging boys and young men in singing at all ages. Indeed, the adolescent voice change is a time where choral directors can lose many young men to other endeavors – artistic or otherwise.

My pedagogy surrounding adolescent male voice change was shaped largely through my interaction with the VoiceCare Network in Collegeville, Minnesota. Each year, John Cooksey would present to VoiceCare workshop participants on issues related to the boys’ changing voice. It was sheer proximity and convenience that allowed my choirboys to serve as the subjects for these demonstrations, in much the way that I had been a subject when I was younger. Upon Cooksey’s passing in 2012, I joined the faculty of the VoiceCare Network, leading annual workshops on adolescent voice pedagogy based on the principles espoused by Cooksey.

The other part of my background that figures into the formation of this research project is my experience with Catholic liturgical music. As the choir director at a Benedictine monastery, university, and preparatory school, I have had opportunity to immerse myself in the singing and teaching of Gregorian chant. I remember when I “had” to teach the choirboys chant for the first time. My initial instinct was that this was going to be a laborious process for them. Instead, I found chant to be idiomatic for them. Not only did the singing of chant come surprisingly naturally to them, but they enjoyed learning its nuances and associated rituals. Had I at the time known of the strong historical connection between Gregorian chant and choirboys, I may not have been so surprised.

The realization of this connection is what spurred this research. Personal experience had revealed to me the pedagogical and programmatic benefits of including chant as part of a broader musical

5 curriculum for young boys. The legato lines, arced phrases, poetic flow of stressed and unstressed syllables, the pure Latinate vowels, the flexibility in tempo, and the opportunities for movement all contributed to positive outcomes among my singers. Then, a new problem presented itself. The beautiful treble voices of the choirboys would, like mine, eventually lower, accompanied by new vocal challenges. The amalgamation of these two experiences (my own personal voice change as a choirboy and my experience in teaching chant) led me to explore potential benefits of chant singing for the adolescent male singer.

While the fruits of this research may be of greatest value to me and my colleagues working in religious settings, I realize that there are many challenging issues surrounding the use of Gregorian chant (or any kind of sacred music) in various settings. Use of sacred music in public schools, for example, is a highly contentious issue. It is impossible to address the earliest history of choral music without some allusion to sacred forms, which allows schools a path to pursuing this delicate topic. However, other issues remain at play. Even in community choir settings, the use of music associated with the Catholic Church may be met with hesitancy. In our increasingly diverse communities, we must be aware of our singers who come from populations that have had negative relationships with Catholicism, such as indigenous communities or victims of abuse. Catholic music itself played a key role in the colonization of communities across the Americas, Africa, and Asia. While it may be possible to separate the religious intent of a Haydn Mass from its musical elements, for some people, chant is inextricably linked to its religious roots. The interconnectedness of faith and chant ignites issues of authenticity as well. Is it a form of appropriation to perform chant as a purely musical work—a museum piece admired primarily for its historical significance and aesthetic effect? Is the aesthetic/spiritual appeal of chant compromised when devoid of religious intent or ritual? These are challenging questions.

My subject-position provides me a uniquely qualified perspective to conduct this research but also means that I was not initially exposed to some of these tensions. Issues of authenticity and colonization are ongoing problems for which there are no simple solutions. An immediate problem in the choral community is the lack of historical repertoire for adolescent voices—a dilemma that chant could potentially address. This dissertation will focus on the efficacy of chant in this respect, with the proviso that the aforementioned issues may play an important role in its universal applicability.

1.3 Need for the Study: The Repertoire Dilemma

One of the major scholars on changing-voice pedagogy in the twentieth century, John Cooksey, emphasizes the importance of repertoire selection for developing adolescent voices, stating that “music well-selected and/or arranged forms the backbone of the youth choir program”10 and that “it is very important for the director to select music which matches the range and tessituras of the voice change stages.”11 Irvin Cooper, in response to his own classroom experience with a lack of suitable repertoire for singers in this stage, founded the Cambiata Press, which publishes choral arrangements featuring specific parts for what he coined the “cambiata” voice.12 Music scored for SAC(cambiata), SACB, and CCB became common. At the time of writing, the J. W. Pepper online catalogue lists more than two hundred choral titles that include a specific “cambiata” part.13

Despite the burgeoning body of repertoire with suitable ranges, some researchers contend that range should not be the only factor to be considered in the selection of repertoire for voices in transition. Terry Barham, who has authored several works on working with middle school and junior high students, suggests a hierarchical structure of criteria for selecting music for changing- voice boys that begins with range and tessitura, then adaptability, intrinsic worth and educational value, suitability of text, and finally editorial considerations.14 Educator, composer, and middle school specialist Tom Shelton also emphasizes adaptability in both the selection and composition of music for middle school voices.15 While largely agreeing with the themes addressed by Cooksey, Cooper, and Barham, Shelton asserts that adaptability is especially problematic since it is dependent on finding composers who understand the special vocal limitations and opportunities of this age range. Other researchers have also pointed to new considerations, such as keyboard accompaniments that support singers at critical moments (such as in works by

10 John M. Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1999), 70. 11 Ibid., 65. 12 Friar, “Changing Voices, Changing Times,” 27. 13 “Sheet Music at JW Pepper | Search cambiata,” J. W. Pepper & Sons, n.d., accessed January 20, 2018, https://www.jwpepper.com/sheet-music/search.jsp?keywords=cambiata. 14 Terry J. Barham and Darolyne L. Nelson, The Boy’s Changing Voice: New Solutions for Today’s Choral Teacher (Miami, FL: Belwin Mills, 1991), 13. 15 Tom T. Shelton Jr., “Repertoire and the Compositional Process: A Conversation with Composers of Junior High/Middle School Repertoire,” The Choral Journal 57, no. 3 (October 2016): 30.

Andrea Ramsey), opportunities for physicality (Sally Albrecht), and opportunities for teaching age-appropriate vocal technique (Victor Johnson).16

Thus, even with music specifically designed to satisfy “men in the middle,” it can be difficult to find perfectly suited repertoire. Ensembles in which boys whose voices are changing can be mixed gendered or gender separated, may have varying balances of girls and boys or upper and lower voices, or may be separated by grade or have several grades combined. The situation grows more complicated since variations in median age of voice change may differ by ethnicity,17 meaning that identical grade levels with contrasting demographic compositions could result in significantly different balances among voice parts. The decreasing mean age of vocal mutation in boys exacerbates this problem, as it translates to a greater number of boys in earlier grades dealing with voice changes. Teachers may begin encountering these vocal challenges as early as grades 3 or 4.18 Given these numerous permutations, a large body of repertoire for this age group is necessary in order to provide satisfactory options for teachers of ensembles that include boys with changing voices.

After years of expanding research and a growing repertoire base, there still exists a deficiency in the appropriate body of choral literature for changing-voice males. Conductor and composer Drew Collins (2012) interviewed six master teachers of middle school/junior high boys from across the United States (Alabama, Illinois, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Texas). Respondents indicated a need for greater variety of repertoire (noting an abundance of folk, novelty, and pop songs) and the need for more meaningful texts. All respondents independently expressed disappointment at the lack of classical arrangements/historical music for this voice type.19

A review of repertoire lists selected by the Junior High/Middle School Repertoire and Resources Committee of the American Choral Directors Association (ACDA) from 2007 to 2017 reveals

16 Ibid., 32–33. 17 Ryan A. Fischer, “Effect of Ethnicity on the Age of Onset of the Male Voice Change,” Journal of Research in Music Education 58, no. 2 (2010): 127. 18 Julia Davids and Stephen LaTour, Vocal Technique: A Guide for Conductors, Teachers, and Singers (Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 2012), 204. 19 Drew Collins, “Using Repertoire to Teach Vocal Pedagogy in All-Male Changing Voice Choirs: Conversations with Six Master Teachers,” The Choral Journal 52, no. 9 (April 2012): 36.

8 eighty-eight different composers/arrangers.20 The most frequently recommended composers were, in order, Laura Farnell (eleven), Andrea Ramsey (seven), Lon Beery, Cynthia Gray, Victor Johnson, Sherri Porterfield, Linda Spevacek (five each), Amy Bernon, Earlene Rentz, and Russell Robinson (four each). With the exception of Gray, whose compositions cater more to either treble or mixed ensembles, all of these composers include music specifically intended for young male voices in their body of work. This information demonstrates the growing body of repertoire for changing-voice males. Ramsey and Farnell in particular have produced multiple works with a focus on texts with themes that are meaningful to young people. Ramsey’s Tell My Father and Farnell’s settings of Rest Not!, We Shall Not Sleep, and She Walks in Beauty represent a commitment to serious texts as desired by practitioners. Equally desired, but underrepresented in the list, are classical arrangements/historical music—works prior to the twentieth century. The 2014 core music standards as established by the National Association for Music Educators (NAfME) in the United States indicates that proficiency in several standards requires an understanding of musical characteristics from a variety of historical periods.21

Of the 160 recommended pieces on the ACDA lists, only eight could be considered historical:

20 “Repertoire Junior High/Middle School,” American Choral Directors Association, n.d., accessed January 20, 2018, https://acda.org/ACDA/Repertoire_and_Resources/Youth/Junior_High_Middle_School.aspx; Shelton, “Repertoire and the Compositional Process,” 37–38; American Choral Directors Association, A Life of Song: Middle School Junior High Reading Session (J.W. Pepper & Sons, 2017). 21 “Core Music Stands (Ensemble Strand),” National Association for Music Education, June 4, 2014, https://nafme.org/wp-content/files/2014/11/2014-Music-Standards-Ensemble-Strand.pdf.

Table 1: Recommended Historical Repertoire for Young Adolescent Choirs

Title Composer/Arranger Era

Art Thou Troubled Handel Baroque

Cangia, cangia tue voglie Fasolo, arr. Shelton Baroque

Exultate Justi Viadana, arr. Porterfield Renaissance

Le Vie Handel, arr. Liebergen Baroque

Locus iste Bruckner, arr. Robinson Romantic

Sehnsucht nach dem Frülinge Mozart, arr. Ramsey Classical

Sing for Joy Handel, arr. Spevacek Baroque

Turkish March Mozart, arr. Shelton Classical

Composers such as Dan Davison have written neoclassical works to satisfy the lack of appropriate repertoire for changing male voices that fit the Classical-period archetype. In the performance notes for his work Laudate Dominum, he writes:

Laudate Dominum was written because of an unsuccessful trip to the music store. I went to a very good sheet music store in hopes of finding a two-part classical piece for my young male choir. Perhaps something by Mozart or Haydn. I wanted a piece with an appealing classical beat, and I wanted the ranges to be perfect for my tenors and basses. When I didn’t find that piece, I decided I would write my own using the above-mentioned criteria.22

22 Dan Davison, performance notes to Laudate Dominum (Walton Music Corporation, 2009), 2.

Davison’s anecdote underscores many music teachers’ frustrations in trying to find suitable historical repertoire for boys whose voices are changing. It can be argued that singers in this stage of development are not well served by historical music, as often the ranges, tessitura, required breath support, and vocal techniques are too challenging for them. Romantic music in particular can be technically beyond this age group, so it is not surprising that only one Romantic-period piece appears on the list. The challenges of arranging such repertoire for developing voices may not be of interest to composers who, unlike Davison, do not have to deal with the issue directly.

Understanding that singers have specific vocal limitations during adolescence, which to some extent, cannot be mitigated by any pedagogical means, does not mean that musical learning need slow during this period. Although limited in range, breath capacity, agility, and clarity of tone, singers going through a voice change can still form healthy habits regarding posture and breathing.23 Vocal techniques that were employed before the onset of mutation can be reviewed and reinforced.24 This time period also provides the opportunity to continue to learn (or perhaps explore in greater detail) other musical elements such as history, style, and text painting, at an age where students are better able to understand sophisticated academic, aesthetic, and emotional concepts.

While the historical repertoire for young adolescent choirs is problematically limited, Medieval music is all but absent. This has been confirmed in Jennifer Leigh Kirkland Canfield’s dissertation on middle-level choral programs, which showed Medieval music representing only five percent of the programmed music for this age group.25 Making this all the more notable, several studies have attested to young singers’ affinity for music of this era,26 and yet there appears to be a significant lack of repertoire easily available or otherwise promoted.

23 Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices, 37. 24 Mary Copland Kennedy, “‘It’s a Metamorphosis’: Guiding the Voice Change at the American Boychoir School,” Journal for Research in Music Education 52, no. 3 (Autumn 2004): 273. 25 Jennifer Leigh Kirkland Canfield, “Middle and Junior High School Choral Repertoire: Directors’ Criteria for Selection, Quality, and Appropriateness” (PhD diss., Auburn University, 2009), 57. 26 Carol Evelyn Aldrich, “Medieval Vocal Music in the Junior High School” (MM thesis, University of Southern California, 1963); Constance Jane Speak, “Medieval Music and Children” (DMA diss., University of Oregon, 1983); Glenda Lee Cozenza, “Medieval Music for Middle School Chorus” (DMA diss., Temple University, 1996).

More pointedly, and a central concern of this dissertation is that the Medieval music, more so than the music of other eras, tends to lack elements that are challenging for younger voices, such as wide ranges and challenging chromaticism. Conductor and historical keyboardist Patrick Hawkins contends that this quality of Medieval music “allows the director to focus on vowel shaping, blend, dynamics, intonation, phrasing, and offers possibilities for sight-reading”27 and that Medieval music helps fulfill several standards set forth in the National Standards for Arts Education in the United States.28 Yet familiarity with this era is limited among music teachers, who were seldom exposed to it while pursuing baccalaureate and graduate music degrees.29 A 1980 survey of select exemplary university choral ensembles (N=15) revealed that only 17 percent of repertoire consisted of music from the Renaissance and Medieval periods.30 A 2016 study cataloging approximately two thousand titles from five similar undergraduate-focused programs suggested that only 5 percent of college repertoire covered music in these two periods (with Medieval music receiving significantly less attention than Renaissance music).31 The most abundant form of Medieval vocal music available to us lies in the body of monophonic chant, transcribed and propagated through monastic tradition. Chant offers a vast body of historical repertoire for transitioning voices to explore.

1.4 Returning to Chant

Around the same time that music pedagogues were beginning to understand the science behind male adolescent vocal mutation, the Catholic Church was rediscovering the significance of Gregorian chant from both a spiritual and a musical perspective. This sparked a revival in the academic study of the performance and pedagogy of chant. A millennium after renowned theorist

27 Patrick J. Hawkins, “Medieval Music in the Junior High Classroom,” The Choral Journal 48, no. 9 (March 2008): 41. 28 Patrick Hawkins and Amy Beegle, “The National Standards and Medieval Music in Middle School Choral and General Music,” Music Educators Journal 89, no. 3 (January 2003): 41–45. 29 Hawkins, “Medieval Music,” 42–43. 30 J. Perry White, “Significant Developments in Choral Music Education in Higher Education Between 1950–1980,” Journal of Research in Music Education 30, no. 2 (1982): 124. 31 Thomas Edward Lerew, “Programming for Success: A Study of Repertoire Selection Practices by Undergraduate-Focused, Religiously-Affiliated, Collegiate Choral Programs Nationally Recognized for Performance Excellence” (DMA diss., University of Arizona, 2016).

12 and pedagogue Guido d’Arezzo developed a chant-based pedagogical system for learning music, renewed examination of the practice has revealed how useful chant can be in enhancing the performance and study of newer choral works. As the pedagogical benefits of chant are explored in new ways, so too must the potential benefits of approaching chant with new demographics of singers. Examined through a new lens, this ancient art form may yield novel approaches to choral pedagogy. The vast body of chant repertoire mostly ignored in nonliturgical settings for centuries takes on new vitality—resurrected as a historical piece of art music. Its importance no longer relegated to the Catholic rite, the study and performance of chant might yield benefits to secular ensembles, school programs, and other choral contexts, as outlined in the following chapters.

The corpus of chant represents an existent and rich source of repertoire. With literally thousands of chants transcribed in collections such as the Liber Usualis and Graduale Romanum, the study of chant provides a substantial expansion to the traditional choral canon. Engaging in chant study and performance also serves to expand our historical exploration of the choral art. James Jordan describes chant as our “choral DNA,”32 alluding to the crucial role this monophonic music played in establishing early forms of the musical systems we use today. A complete historical survey of choral music from the Western tradition would undoubtedly include chant as a significant portion of that tradition. Chant, therefore, offers a vast body of repertoire to be explored from a historical perspective. This is of particular relevance to practitioners who work regularly with male adolescent voices who may be searching for vocally appropriate repertoire with a historical bent.

While a renewed interest in chant has produced new research on the benefits of studying and performing chant in a general context (as will be explored in chapter 2), this study will focus on its potential impact on the adolescent male voice. Since the history of chant has strong roots in the boychoir tradition, the study explores the question: how can chant continue to be explored within the new context of that tradition, specifically as it relates to the incorporation of changing and newly changed boys’ voices whether in religious, school, or community ensembles?

32 James Jordan and James Whitbourn, Discovering Chant: Teaching Musicianship and Human Sensibilities Through Chant (Chicago, IL: GIA Publications, Inc., 2014), 53.

1.5 Theoretical Background

This study draws on two major bodies of research: chant pedagogy and changing-voice pedagogy. Recent research by conductor-scholar James Jordan serves as a foundation for categorizing the various benefits of chant study and performance, as it is the most recent and expansive collection of resources on the topic. As Jordan’s work represents a cumulative summary of recent research on chant pedagogy, pedagogue and scholar John Cooksey’s scientific study of the boy’s changing voice in the late 1970s represented, at the time, the culmination of decades of inquiry by several researchers.

Cooksey’s Contemporary Eclectic Theory (CET) remains to this day the definitive model for classifying male adolescent voices.33 His original studies and his subsequent work on building pedagogical techniques rooted in the science of vocal mutation have served as the foundation for more recent research. Best practices related to working with the changing male voice have been established through later research by Joanne Rutkowski (1981), Terry Barham and Darolyne Nelson (1991), Patrick Freer (2006, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2016), Rollo Dilworth (2012), Janice Killian (2003), and Leon Thurman (2012). Though CET is still regarded as the strongest scientifically supported system, it has not been universally embraced, specifically by pedagogues who cite contrary empirical and anecdotal evidence.34 Henry Leck, founding conductor of the Indianapolis Children’s Choir, advocates for an Extended Voice Theory (EVT), which keeps boys singing in their upper range throughout the voice-change process.35 While Leck’s EVT model has some significant support—specifically by Ken Phillips’s Extended Range Approach36—it has been regarded as a model that may be “limited to directors of boys’ and children’s municipal choirs, liturgical churches with men and boys’ choirs, and to a few public and private schools where master music teachers who have significant training in teaching proper vocal technique use it with the young and developing singers.”37 The EVT approach will be

33 Davids and LaTour, Vocal Technique, 204. 34 Craig Denison, “A Structural Model of Physiological and Psychological Effects on Adolescent Male Singing” (PhD diss., Miami University, 2015), 1. 35 Henry H. Leck, “The Boy’s Changing Expanding Voice: Take the High Road,” The Choral Journal 49, no. 11 (May 2009): 49–60. 36 Kenneth H. Phillips, Teaching Kids to Sing, 2nd ed. (Boston: Schirmer Cenage, 2014), 53. 37 Don L. Collins, “Preferred Practices in Teaching Boys Whose Voices Are Changing,” The Choral Journal 47, no. 5 (November 2006): 119–20.

14 considered, as many of the choirs for whom chant study may be of interest would subscribe to this approach, but, due to its broader potential for application, the CET model for classification will serve as the foundation for understanding vocal characteristics of boys in specific stages of vocal mutation.

Where these two bodies of research overlap will reveal opportunities for using chant as a pedagogical tool for changing voices. Research related to the unique needs of the boy’s changing voice will serve to establish a list of criteria for the purposes of evaluating the suitability of various chants for this demographic. These criteria in conjunction with historical performance practice of chant will influence the selection, categorization, and musical arrangement of chants featured in this study.

1.6 Methodology

I employed a qualitative research model in the selection and analysis of 557 Gregorian chants. With tens of thousands of chants available for analysis in more than a dozen official chant sources (e.g., Liber Usualis, Graduale Romanum, Antiphonale Monasticum), I chose a select list of resources:

• current chant compilations: Canticum Novum (2009), Parish Book of Chants (2012), “100 Chants: A Resource for Choral Practice and Performance” (2013), Laudate (2014)

• chant pedagogy books: Music Fourth Year: Gregorian Chant/Ward Method (1923), Catholic Music Hour (1935), Gregorian Chant for Church and School (1944), Square Notes (1968), Words with Wings (2012)

• historically significant chant repertoire as referenced in Choral Repertoire (2009)

• chant-based or chant-inspired repertoire as referenced in Translations and Annotations of Choral Repertoire (1988)

All 557 chants referenced in the aforementioned resources were analyzed according to (1) elements specific to the chant and (2) elements of the chant as they relate to changing-voice pedagogy. Qualities in the first category were mode (1–8), function (e.g., Office, Ordinary,

Proper), and genre (e.g., hymn, introit, sequence). Qualities in the second category were range (in semitones) and floridity (syllabic, neumatic, or melismatic).

For further analysis, I extracted chants that were included in multiple resources and/or met the criteria established by the theoretical framework (i.e., satisfied the unique needs of the boys’ changing voice as described by CET). This analysis resulted in thematic, genre-specific, and range-specific indexes of the selected chants.

I chose eight representative chants for annotation. In each case, I arranged the chant musically to best suit the needs of ensembles of changing-voice boys in different stages of vocal maturation.

The history of boys singing chant was also considered in order to provide a context for the selection and arrangement of the chants. While existent manuals on chant instruction focus on the reading of neumes and rhythmic interpretation and often employ a religious framework, the approach in this dissertation is rooted in history, pedagogy, and performance practice. This approach renders the selected chants as prospective repertoire for community and school choirs comprising developing tenors and basses.

1.7 Organization of the Study

As this study juxtaposes two distinct bodies of research—Gregorian chant pedagogy and changing-voice pedagogy—I will devote a chapter to each of these subjects.

Chapter Two comprises a literature review that focuses on the historical connection of choirboys to chant repertoire and the pedagogical techniques that emerged. Particular attention is paid to specific chants/feasts that would have featured boys singing in order to establish a primary body of repertoire for exploration. Research on how the boys were used in the singing of the chants is also explored and influences the arrangement of the chants featured later. This chapter also examines the various methods for teaching chant available and explores the pedagogical benefits of chant study, using the cumulative research of James Jordan and fellow researcher and chant expert James Whitbourn (2014) as a framework.

Chapter Three consists of a literature review and scholarly critique on the development of changing-voice pedagogy and current best practices. John Cooksey’s cumulative research will be used as a framework, with the support of more recent research by Freer, Dilworth, Leck, Fisher, Killian, and Thurman, among others. The summation of the chapter will reflect the overlap between changing-voice pedagogy and chant repertoire, making the case for chant as a useful body of repertoire for voices in transition.

Chapter Four outlines the methodology of the study, detailing the collection, analyses, categorization, and arrangement of the chant repertoire explored.

Chapter Five features representative chants cited in the previous chapter and provide in-depth analyses, a guide to performance practice with respect to both chant performance and changing- voice pedagogy, a rationale for each chant as suitable for changing voices, and a proposed outline for instruction of and teaching the piece.

With a body of chant repertoire now available and suitable for changing voices, this study exposes areas for further research on the impact of chant study and performance on the developing adolescent male voice. I discuss these possibilities in Chapter Six.

1.8 Parameters of the Study a) Lack of Current Practical Application

My own personal experiences of using chant with adolescent boys in a sacred setting caused me to consider the potential advantages of this repertoire beyond religious environments. Lack of current contexts for use of chant with adolescent singers meant that the selection of chants must be based on theoretical synthesis of centuries of chant pedagogy and performance history.

b) Exhaustiveness of Base Repertoire

As the entire body of chant is so vast, I had to narrow the field before analyzing chants through the lens of changing-voice pedagogy. Though I conducted this streamlining through a careful process, I have not accounted for the entire body of chant repertoire. It is feasible (and, given the

17 immensity of the body of chant repertoire, quite likely) that there are chants not represented that could satisfy the conditions for being suitable for boys’ changing voices. Nonetheless, a considerable number of representative works are provided.

c) Existent Biased Framework

Existing chant compilations and manuals tend to have a theological bent. They therefore reflect a bias in terms of which repertoire has been highlighted. The chants represented in these compilations may accurately reflect the significance of text/history/ritual to Catholic singers but may not necessarily resonate in a similar way with more diverse student populations.

d) Transgender Singers

This study focuses on the changing voice experiences of biological males. In addition to cisgender males, the process of adolescent voice change as discussed here would also apply to transgender females, provided that the individual has not yet begun hormone replacement therapy. Not all of the elements addressed by existent changing voice pedagogies are related to biology; some are related primarily to gender and the social, behavioral, societal, and psychological influences associated with gender identity. Transgender singers will vary in the applicability of these elements to their own experience, as determined by biology.

1.9 Significance of the Study

The goal of this research is to increase knowledge and awareness of a body of historical repertoire suitable for boys with changing voices. The findings of this study may be of interest to choral music educators in parochial schools in search of repertoire for this age range, public school choral directors in search of more historical repertoire for this age range, and liturgical and community choral directors who work with young male singers.

1.10 Definition of Terms

For the purposes of this study, the following terms will be used:

• changing voice / mutation / transition: These terms may be used interchangeably and refer to the period of pubescent vocal fold mutation, typically ranging in age from eleven to fifteen.

• adolescent: Although the period of adolescence can be defined in scientific terms for a much longer period, in this paper it will refer specifically to early adolescence. When describing “adolescent voices,” this paper refers to middle school/junior high singers (ages ten to fifteen). Voices in later adolescent years would be considered young adult voices.

• Catholic: Given the historical locus of chant, “Catholic” in this context refers specifically to the Roman Catholic Church. The terms “Church” and “Vatican” may also be used to reference the executive body of the Roman Catholic Church.

• (Gregorian) chant / plainsong / plainchant: These terms will be used interchangeably throughout the paper to represent monophonic chant in the Catholic tradition. Gregorian chant, as codified by Pope Gregory the Great, represents a synthesis of Roman and Gallican chant. The term “chant” in this paper, however, may also refer to other indigenous liturgical chant, such as Ambrosian chant (Milan) and Mozarabic chant (Spain), as well as later plainsong melodies.

• Spiritual: pertaining to the human spirit in an aesthetic and emotional sense, not necessarily related to (nor necessarily devoid of) religiosity

• Sacred/religious: pertaining to a deity or divine purpose; most often in this document, pertaining to the Christian deity

The primary goal of this dissertation is to arrive at a body of chant repertoire suitable for boys with changing voices. In assessing the suitability of hundreds of chants, a framework for analysis must first be established. The extent of the two distinct bodies of literature explored in this study

– research on male adolescent voice change and research on chant pedagogy and repertoire -- will be instrumental in establishing the framework necessary to select, categorize, and arrange a suitable body of chant repertoire for adolescent male voices. These bodies of literature will be explored in the next two chapters.

Chapter 2 On Chant and Choirboys

The utility of chant in the development of boys’ voices dates back to before the emergence of Roman chant. The ancient Greeks employed boys in choruses and incorporated music as a vital part of their education.38 In much the same way that early Christian chant echoed the theoretical modes of the Greeks before them, musical practice of the early Church featured boys prominently. This chapter will explore the history of choirboys and chant, focusing on the musical education of the early choirboys, the chant repertory associated with them, and the pedagogical practices that grew out of chant singing. This history spans from the early European monasteries in the fifth century to developments in chant pedagogy after the nineteenth-century Solesmes revival and twentieth-century resurgence in the popularity of chant. By understanding the pedagogical role that chant can play, we can then explore its potential benefit to adolescent voices in transition.

The history of choirboys and Gregorian chant dates back to the practice of child oblation in Medieval Benedictine monasteries. The practice of child oblation was not invented by the Benedictines and had in fact existed in ancient pagan and Jewish communities as well as in monasteries in Egypt.39 The Christian oblation practice appears be rooted in the dedication of Samuel to the temple.40 Though little is known about the purpose of child oblation in these early communities, the purpose of the practice in Benedictine communities was clear: to prepare boys for future monastic life. The Rule of Saint Benedict has several chapters pertaining to the treatment of the pueri oblati (“gifted boys”) within the monastery, and Medieval customaries devote extensive text to the care of boys.41 Both in image and in sound, the boys represented a sense of purity—the opportunity to achieve a future monastic ideal.

Child monks were trained instead for the life of terrestrial angels, unceasingly praising God, especially in chant and prayer, and kept ignorant of sexuality. According to the

38 Egon Wellesz, Ancient and Oriental Music (London: Oxford University Press, 1957), 338–40. 39 Patricia A. Quinn, Better Than the Sons of Kings: Boys and Monks in the Early Middle Ages (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1989), 13–14. 40 Ibid., 15. 41 Susan Boynton and Eric Rice, “Introduction: Performance and Premodern Childhood,” in Young Choristers, 650–1700, ed. Susan Boynton and Eric Rice (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2008), 4.

worldview of medieval monks, children in the monastery had to be molded carefully to overcome the stain of original sin and the tendencies of carnal beings, so that later on they might achieve monastic perfection.42

The practice of oblation proved to be essential in maintaining the strength of the Benedictine order for several centuries,43 until its eventual abolition by Pope Gregory IX in 1230,44 when the formation of boys in ecclesiastical settings shifted to the colleges and cathedrals. Until then, the pueri lived lives parallel to that of their older monastic counterparts. A typical monastic schedule from the sixth to tenth centuries would include gathering for prayer at eight separate times during the day (known as the Divine Office), interspersed with time allotments for work, reading, eating, and occasional recreation. While the boys did engage in various monastic tasks, most of their work time was devoted to their education, which was primarily liturgical in purpose. Musical duties constituted the vast majority of the choirboys’ liturgical roles. Boys participated fully in choral chanting and much of the solo singing as well. Accounts of boys singing psalms and antiphons as solos exists as early as the fifth century in Paris.45 The boys were responsible for several versicles, including the Benedicamus Domino, sung at the close of each of the Divine Hours.46 Well into the sixteenth century in Cambrai, the boys were often requested to perform the monophonic Requiem Mass for benefactors.47 They were also responsible for the canticles, the Little Hours of the Virgin,48 and the antiphons to the Blessed Virgin after Compline, the evening office.49 The majority of their vocal output, however, would comprise the psalms.

42 Susan Boynton and Isabelle Cochelin, “The Sociomusical Role of Child Oblates at the Abbey of Cluny in the Eleventh Century,” in Musical Childhoods and the Cultures of Youth, ed. Susan Boynton and Roe- Min Kok (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2006), 11. 43 Quinn, Sons of Kings, xv. 44 Susan Boynton, “Boy Singers in Medieval Monasteries and Cathedrals,” in Boynton and Rice, Young Choristers, 37. 45 Craig Wright, Music and Ceremony at Notre Dame of Paris: 500–1550 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 165. 46 Anne Walters Robertson, “Benedicamus Domino: The Unwritten Tradition,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 41, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 5–6. 47 Craig Wright, “Performance Practices at the Cathedral of Cambrai 1475–1555,” The Musical Quarterly 64, no. 3 (July 1978): 303. 48 Boynton and Rice, “Performance and Premodern Childhood,” 10. 49 David Hiley, Gregorian Chant (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 11.

Monastic prayer life revolved around the chanting of the psalms,50 and so the Psalter became the most important text in an oblate’s early intellectual development. Memorizing the Psalter was viewed as the first stage of boys’ spiritual development within the community. The Murbach Statutes of 816 describe the ideal progression of spiritual education:

After the psalms, canticles and hymns will have been memorized, students should go through the rule, with their teachers listening to them; after the rule, the text of the lectionary, and meanwhile the history of divine authority and its exegetes as well as the sermons of the fathers and their lives.51

Musical learning of the psalms, canticles, and hymns, therefore, was the foundation on which the boys’ spiritual education was built. With solid grounding in these ecclesiastical essentials, boys could move on to grasping the concepts of the Rule (and thus, Benedictine life), then the Scriptures, and finally the study of other patristic writings. Music formed the core of not only their education but also their spiritual development.

Due to the primacy of the Psalter in their intellectual and spiritual development, the boys’ education in the monastery was primarily musical. While the monks were busy working, reading, or praying in solitude, the boys’ time was devoted to musical study.52 Their principal master (magister puerorum), responsible for their overall care and rearing, was typically their music instructor—a cantor from the monastery, selected from among his confrères to oversee the boys.53 In Seville, the master had to be skilled in both chant and grammar,54 alluding to the master’s charge to instruct the boys in more than just music. Boys learned the alphabet concurrently with the learning of the notes of the scale. They first learned recitation formulae to assist in the learning of the chants and then moved on to studying the written word and musical notation.55 As such, music proved to be the vehicle through which their overall education was delivered. The monastic prayer cycle required that the entire Psalter (150 psalms) be sung each

50 Quinn, Sons of Kings, 75. 51 Boynton and Rice, “Performance and Premodern Childhood,” 38. 52 Ibid., 4–5. 53 Wright, Music and Ceremony, 172. 54 Juan Ruiz Jiménez, “From Mozos de coro towards Seises: Boys in the Musical Life of Seville Cathedral in the 15th and 16th Centuries,” in Boynton and Rice, Young Choristers, 86–103. 55 Boynton and Rice, “Performance and Premodern Childhood,” 10.

23 week,56 spread throughout the various Divine Hours. The psalms were always sung from memory, and so memorization was the focus of a boy’s early musical training.57

2.1 Use of the Pueri

The singing voices of the pueri were admired with utmost reverence. The boys’ vocal tone— along with their visage—was a symbol of purity.58 Craig Wright agrees with this perception in his assessment of the Parisian cathedral: “For throughout the Middle Ages no thought was deemed more divinely innocent, no sound more celestially pure than those emanating from young choristers.”59 It was believed that their voices were akin to those of angels.60 The high voices also provided much-needed contrast to the aural aesthetic of the rest of the community.61 There was an appreciation for the variety of textures that could be incorporated into musical liturgies: “choirboys by themselves, choirboys with a few adults, a few adults alone, adults including falsettists, or all the boys and all the men together; from seventy singers for a monophonic Te deum, to thirty-four for a ceremonial motet, to a mere handful of boys for a polyphonic responsory.”62

The boys were utilized regularly in liturgies throughout the liturgical calendar but were given pride of place on high feasts. There was significant involvement of the boys during Christmas, Holy Week, and the feast of the Holy Innocents.63 Different feasts took on varying levels of prominence depending on geography. In Spain, for example, Corpus Christi, the feast of the Assumption, and the solemnity of the Immaculate Conception were among the most significant

56 Richard Crocker, An Introduction to Gregorian Chant (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), 131. 57 Boynton and Rice, “Performance and Premodern Childhood,” 10, 16. 58 Ibid., 17. 59 Wright, Music and Ceremony, 165. 60 Boynton and Rice, “Performance and Premodern Childhood,” 13. 61 Boynton and Cochelin, “Child Oblates,” 14. 62 Wright, “Performance Practices,” 327. 63 Boynton and Rice, “Performance and Premodern Childhood,” 17; Wright, Music and Ceremony, 189.

24 celebrations involving choirboys in both song and dance.64 In Seville, the boys were involved in the Easter Sunday sequence, Victimae paschali laudes65 (“Praise the paschal victim”).

Figure 1: Sequence Victimae paschali laudes (“Praise the paschal victim”)

Source: Liber Usualis (Tournai: Desclée, 1961), 780.

Sequences, sung after the Alleluia, were typically constructed and performed as paired versicles and thus antiphonally with the boys and men alternating.66 Opportunities for antiphonal singing in Victimae occur at interjections from Mary Magdalene. The upper voices of the boys were likely used to represent this female character but could have been used in other portions of the sequence as well. A proposed performance would begin with the men intoning the chant, marked as “A” in figure 1 (“Let Christians offer sacrificial praises to the Passover victim”). The boys would sing 1a (“The lamb has redeemed the sheep . . .”), associating the young voices with the image of a lamb; the men respond in kind with a more mature phrase at 1b (“Death and life

64 Todd M. Borgerding, “Imagining the Sacred Body: Choirboys, Their Voices, and Corpus Christi in Early Modern Seville,” in Boynton and Kok, Musical Childhoods and the Cultures of Youth, 25. 65 Ruiz, “From Mozos de coro towards Seises,” 99. 66 David Hiley, Western Plainchant: A Handbook (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 172.

25 contended in battle . . .”). The men might then sing the opening of 2a (“Tell us, Mary, what did you see on the road?”), and the boys would complete the rest of 2, which is Mary’s response. The men would complete the sequence with 3b. (3a is omitted in modern versions because of its anti-Semitic sentiment.67) All singers would close with a terminating “Amen. Alleluia,” as would be typical of Easter chants.

The practice of using the boys to portray female roles was quite common. This was no more evident than in liturgical dramas that would take place on high feast days. The Visitatio sepulchri (“Visit to the tomb”) ceremony would take place on Easter Sunday. The boys would portray several female characters, even dressing up as the three Marys featured in the chant (Mary the mother of Jesus, Mary the mother of James, and Mary Magdalene).68 It is likely that the boys also portrayed the role of the angel in this drama as there are several instances in which boys’ voices were used to represent angels. One such example is the responsory for Matins on Christmas Day, Hodie nobis caelorum rex (“The King of Heaven today for us,” figure 2). At Aachen Cathedral, the ordinals recount that two boys sang while stationed in the church’s gallery.69 The significance of the upper “angelic” voices would have been very apparent to the assembly, seated below in the nave. The men’s voices would have sung “the hosts of angels rejoice . . .” and the contrast of the upper voices from above would have underscored the angels’ message to the shepherds below: “Glory to God in the highest, and on earth, peace to people of goodwill.”

67 Ibid., 189. 68 Ibid., 255–63; Ruiz, “From Mozos de coro towards Seises,” 99. 69 Boynton and Rice, “Performance and Premodern Childhood,” 15.

Figure 2: Responsory Hodie nobis caelorum Rex (“The King of Heaven today for us,” lines 4–7)

Source: Liber Usualis (Tournai: Desclée, 1961), 375–76.

The boys’ connection to female characters is again evident in musical devotion to the Virgin Mary. As previously mentioned, the boys were made to learn the Little Hours of the Virgin (a liturgical Marian devotion in imitation of the Divine Office), an occasional plainsong Mass in honor of Mary,70 and the Marian antiphons at the close of Compline. There were four options for this antiphon, depending on the liturgical season. Alma Redemptoris Mater (“Loving Mother of the Redeemer”) was sung from Advent to Candlemas, Ave Regina caelorum (“Hail Queen of heaven”) from then till the day before Holy Thursday, Regina caeli laetare (“Queen of heaven, rejoice”) from Easter to the day before the feast of the Blessed Trinity, and Salve Regina (“Hail, Holy Queen”) for the remainder of the liturgical year.71 The antiphons were typically sung in a responsorial format, with the boys starting the chant and then alternating with the men at each double-bar line.

70 Wright, Music and Ceremony, 184. 71 Liber Usualis (Tournai, Belgium: Desclée, 1961), 273–76.

Figure 3: Antiphon: Salve Regina (“Hail, Queen,” lines 1–4)

Source: Liber Usualis (Tournai: Desclée, 1961), 276.

As useful as the boys’ higher voices were for implying a musical connection to Mary, their most frequent use in representation was in their portrayal of children. Two specific feasts featured the boys extensively in this regard—the feast of the Holy Innocents and Palm Sunday. The first of these was the social highlight of the year for the pueri. Members of the community would take part in a playful, all-encompassing role reversal. A boy would be elected bishop for the day by his peers (an election that took place as early as December 6, the feast of Saint Nicholas, patron saint of children)72 and would perform all the regular duties of the real bishop, with the exception of Mass. Several processions took place throughout the day—a procession to the altar of Saint Nicholas, a procession to the real bishop’s lodging for a meal, a procession to the nave of the church—all of which required chanting by the boys. The chants associated with this custom are Centum quadraginta quatuor millia (“One hundred and forty-four thousand”) and Sedentem in superne (“Sitting in the heights”).73

72 Boynton, “Boy Singers,” 45. 73 Ibid., 46.

The boys were featured musically within the liturgies as well. A boy cantor assumed the role of the regular adult cantor and the boys had the opportunity to make modifications to some of the Compline chants. At Second Vespers, they would sing the Magnificat as usual but would repeat the seventh verse (“He has put down the mighty from their thrones and exalted the humble”).74

The feast day that was most rich with chants for the boys was Palm Sunday.75 Accounts of the Roman Schola cantorum seldom attest to distinct roles for boys in the liturgy (as the boys were typically considered a regular part of the schola and not a distinct subset) but yet make special mention of their role in the Palm Sunday procession.76 The liturgy began with a procession mimicking the triumphant entry of Jesus into Jerusalem. The choirboys represented the children who laid palms at the feet of Jesus during his entry into the city. This custom of having children in monasteries portray this role in Palm Sunday is echoed in female monasteries of the same era.77 The boys led the processional hymn, Gloria laus (“Glory and praise”), and also participated in other chants, such as another processional, Hosanna filio David (“Hosanna to the Son of David,” sung by the children welcoming Jesus), and Pueri Hebraeorum (“The Hebrew children bearing olive branches,” sung during the blessing of the palms).78 These latter two chants are distinct from several of the other chant examples presented here, as they were likely sung in their entirety by the choirboys alone.

2.2 Emergence of Chant Pedagogy

As new music was developed, composers employed innovations that put new demands on singers. No longer limited to monophony, the boys had to learn chants containing both counterpoint and improvisation.79 The boys’ musical education, then, comprised more than simply the memorization of hundreds of chant melodies; it also involved internalizing and

74 Ibid. 75 Hiley, Gregorian Chant, 19; Wright, Music and Ceremony, 189. 76 Joseph Dyer, “Boy Singers of the Roman Schola Cantorum,” in Boynton and Rice, Young Choristers, 22. 77 Colleen Reardon, “Cantando tutte insieme: Training Girl Singers in Early Modern Sienese Convents,” in Boynton and Rice, Young Choristers, 209. 78 Boynton, “Boy Singers,” 40–41. 79 Wright, Music and Ceremony, 167; Wright, “Performance Practices,” 322.

29 developing an understanding of musical principles. Drawing parallels between Albert Lord’s theory of oral composition in epic poetry and the practice of improvisation during plainsong, Leo Treitler suggests that “inculcated habit and association of sounds, words, phrases, and lines”80 helped to shape the singer’s improvisation and that these connections were forged early in the boys’ musical training:

In plainchant tradition before the age of writing we cannot think of transmission simply as the passage of whole melodies through adult singers. From the moment he entered training as a choir boy, the singer was assimilating melodic principles and patterns according to type and liturgical moment. That, too, must have been an aspect of transmission.81

The intensity of the musical demands on the pueri was handled for centuries solely through oral transmission of the chants. As the body of chant grew larger, stronger desires emerged for new pedagogies. This persisted until the work of Guido d’Arezzo, an eleventh-century monk frustrated with the teaching practices of the day. Guido wrote, “Marvelous singers, and singers’ pupils, though they sing every day for a hundred years, will never sing one antiphon, not even a short one, of themselves, without a master, losing time enough in singing to have learned thoroughly both sacred and secular letters.”82 To counter the practice of rote memorization, Guido developed a system of notation and devised the solmization system to help choirboys learn chants at sight. Guido used a chant familiar to the boys (Ut queant laxis, “May be loosened,” figure 4, a hymn for the feast of St. John the Baptist) to assign syllables to specific notes of the hexachord. Guido is also credited with devising a method of using the hand as a mnemonic device to move from different notes of the hexachord (and to shift hexachords when necessary) called the Guidonian Hand, although there is evidence of such mnemonic devices used prior to his time, and there is no reference to the hand in any of his surviving writings.83

80 Leo Treitler, “Homer and Gregory: The Transmission of Epic Poetry and Plainchant,” The Musical Quarterly 60, no. 3 (July 1974): 357. 81 Ibid. 82 Guido d’Arezzo, “Prologus antiphonarii sui,” in Source Readings in Music History from Classical Antiquity Through the Romantic Era, ed. W. Oliver Strunk (New York: Norton, 1950), 118. 83 Samuel D. Miller, “Guido d’Arezzo: Medieval Musician and Educator,” Journal of Research in Music Education 21, no. 3 (Autumn 1973): 244.

Figure 4: Hymn: Ut queant laxis (“May be loosened”)

Source: Liber Usualis (Tournai: Desclée, 1961), 1504.

Guido attested to the success of his techniques, claiming that it enabled his choirboys “to sing an unknown melody before the third day, which by other methods would not have been possible in many weeks.”84 So successful was Guido’s venture that he was called away from Arezzo to Rome by Pope John XIX to introduce his nomenclature.85 Guido’s system also helped in the unification and dissemination of chant (as the chants existed in various forms, having been passed down orally for centuries). As speedily as the new nomenclature helped chant, it contributed to several factors that eventually led to the decline of the form.86 Advancements in notation, the introduction of syllabization (or troping), and the use of organum became more prevalent, culminating in a chant technique that lacked rhythmic subtlety and impressive floridity.87 By the end of the fifteenth century, the changes to chant had caused it to fall out of favor, and new polyphonic forms emerged. It is important to note, however, that chant never disappeared fully, always remaining an element of liturgical music in the Roman Catholic Church and thus an essential part of the musical training of choirboys. That chant remained a

84 Guido d’Arezzo, “Epistola de ignoto cantu,” in Strunk, Source Readings in Music History, 121. 85 Hiley, Gregorian Chant, 171. 86 Edward Schaefer, Catholic Music Through the Ages: Balancing the Needs of a Worshipping Church (Chicago: Hillenbrand Books, 2008), 40. 87 Ibid., 44.

31 part of the choral repertory in the monasteries and colleges, even amid the development of new musical forms, attests to its value as an art form, its worth as a form of prayer, and its utility as a pedagogical tool in the development of vocal techniques and musicianship skills.

2.3 Rediscovering Chant: From the Solesmes Revival to Current Practices

Though chant persisted through the centuries, the melodies were subject to numerous redactions, modified to reflect contemporary musical practices. The bastardized versions of chants seemed to feed into the practice’s decreasing popularity and loss of aesthetic appeal. Luigi Agustoni and Johannes Berchmans Göschl state that “it became a different kind of chant, which in comparison to authentic Gregorian chant presented itself as a very dull and musically desolate form.”88 The chant that emerged bore little resemblance to the chant that began, the largest period of decline taking place from 1700 to 1900.89

On the feast of Saint Benedict in 1833, the doors of Abbaye Saint-Pierre de Solesmes in France opened again after the 780-year-old monastery had closed in 1791 in the wake of the French Revolution.90 One of the missions of the newly established abbey was to conduct a paleographic study of ancient chant manuscripts in the nineteenth century with a mind to restoring the “authentic” chant of the old Roman Rite. The monks of Solesmes had recognized the severe redactions in the current chant texts, including the Vatican-endorsed Edition Medicea. While appreciated as a great academic study, the work of the Solesmes monks was not endorsed by the Vatican for decades. The chants of the Edition Medicea bore the authority of three centuries of use and, more important, continued support from Pope Leo XIII.91 The Solesmes monks continued to promote their cause, releasing the Paléographie musicale in 1889, the sole purpose of which was to provide as many original documents as possible demonstrating the invalidity of

88 Luigi Agustoni and Johannes Berchmans Göschl, An Introduction to the Interpretation of Gregorian Chant (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2006), x. 89 Crocker, Introduction to Gregorian Chant, 164. 90 Abbaye Saint-Pierre de Solesmes, “Modern Times,” http://www.solesmes.com/GB/histoire/moderne.php. 91 Mary Berry, “Gregorian Chant: The Restoration of the Chant and Seventy-Five Years of Recording,” Early Music 7 (1979): 199.

32 the chants in the Edition Medicea.92 Under Leo XIII, Solesmes continued to find little official support.93

On St. Cecilia’s Day in 1903, Pope Pius X released his famous motu proprio (“on his own impulse,” a type of papal decree) titled Tra le sollecitudini, reaffirming the primacy of Gregorian chant in Roman Catholic liturgy as well as support for the use of Renaissance polyphony over newer artistic models.94 The document expressed disdain for music that symbolized modernity and cautioned congregations against the use of piano, percussion, and other instruments. Modern compositions were encouraged, but only if Gregorian chant and other earlier forms were the source of inspiration. These drastic liturgical changes drew attention to the work of the monks at Solesmes, who had recently published a new collection—the Liber Usualis. Rejected by previous popes, the monks at Solesmes received official endorsement from Pius X, thereby allowing the immense body of transcribed chants to be readily available to the faithful.

The Liber did, however, present challenges, namely, the use of a musical font and notation unfamiliar to most musicians. To facilitate learning of the repertoire to an audience unfamiliar with the practice, Solesmes provided in the Liber instructions on interpreting the chant—what the neumes meant, how to read the four-line staff and clefs, and how the notes were grouped, among other information. Also provided were relatively simple instructions on performance practice, mostly related to the rhythmic elements of chant. Owing mostly to its size, but also to its inclusion of technical instruction, to this day the Liber remains the most expansive and definitive compendium of chant repertoire.

The newfound availability of this remarkable chant resource was to fulfill a direct objective of Tra le sollecitudini, which was to encourage full assembly participation in the Ordinary of the Mass. The edict, however, restricted singing of the Propers to males:

On the same principle it follows that singers in church have a real liturgical office, and that therefore women, being incapable of exercising such office, cannot be admitted to form part of the choir. Whenever, then, it is desired to employ the acute voices of

92 Hiley, Gregorian Chant, 213. 93 Berry, “Gregorian Chant,” 201. 94 Schaefer, Catholic Music, 115.

sopranos and contraltos, these parts must be taken by boys, according to the most ancient usage of the Church.95

These two declarations—restricting singing of certain Mass parts to males and the primacy of Gregorian chant in ecclesiastical music—translated into a revival of boys learning and singing chant.96 These principles were reinforced by Pope Pius XII’s 1955 encyclical Musicae Sacrae disciplina, which also calls for the education of young people in the more common Gregorian chants.97 These protocols were abandoned shortly afterward, and the code was abolished as part of the sweeping liturgical reforms of the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) under John XXIII and Paul VI.98 While chapter 6 of Sacrosanctum concilium (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, the key liturgical document of the reforms of Vatican II) reaffirmed Gregorian chant as the official music of the Roman Rite,99 the allowance of more contemporary types of music for the first time—coupled with the transition of spoken text from Latin to the vernacular—was often misunderstood as a denunciation of chant. As such, chant faded from churches for several decades before academic, aesthetic, and liturgical interests revived it once more in the 1980s.100

Nonetheless, there existed a confluence of factors at the outset of the twentieth century that sparked a revival in Gregorian chant, certainly in Roman Catholic liturgical settings. The renewed importance and, thus, renewed influence of chant in Western musical culture became apparent through multiple avenues in the twentieth century. Composers, such as Maurice Duruflé in his Quatre Motets (1960), not only used chant as models for their compositions but also often used chants in their original forms as part of a larger piece of music. This practice is reminiscent of the earlier cantus firmus practice, where a chant would be quoted in a melody or as an ostinato segment. More recent composers have also utilized chant as a basis for their compositions or

95 Pius X, Tra le sollecitudini 13 (The Holy See, 1903), http://www.sanctamissa.org/en/music/church- documents-on-liturgical-music/tra-le-sollecitudini.pdf. 96 Schaefer, Catholic Music, 122. 97 Pius XII, Musicae sacrae disciplina (The Holy See, 1955), http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xii/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xii_enc_25121955_musicae- sacrae_en.html. 98 Schaefer, Catholic Music, 148–49. 99 Paul VI, Sacrosanctum concilium (The Holy See, 1963), http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat- ii_const_19631204_sacrosanctum-concilium_en.html. 100 Amy Zuberbueler, “The Ward Method: Chant from the Ground Up,” Sacred Music 133, no. 1 (Spring 2006): 17.

34 have recognized it as a stylistic reference point for either the genesis or the performance of their work. References to this can be found in compositions by contemporary composers such as Stephen Chatman, Mark Sirett, Eric Barnum, Ola Gjeilo, Stephanie Martin, Eleanor Daley, and Abbie Betinis.

Audio recordings of chant also grew in popularity in the late twentieth century.101 Richard Crocker assigns this popularity to the remoteness of the artistic experience for the regular listener—something that is remarkably distinct from typical auditory stimulus, in terms of timbre, tone, acoustic, melody, and modality.102 The online chant discography operated by Richard Weber, based on his published discographies, lists 828 different performing ensembles that have recorded chants, a list that includes groups such as Anonymous Four, Chanticleer, Amarcord, the King’s Singers, the Sixteen, the Tallis Scholars, and the Rose Ensemble.103 This list attests to the widespread popularity of chant in the recording age as well as to its appeal among some of the world’s most elite secular choral ensembles.

Chant, then, has enjoyed a revival in the choral community, with various secular ensembles engaging in chant-based repertoire and studying the associated chants. It remains a very strong component in Catholic ecclesiastical models as well. Although the reforms of the Second Vatican Council allowed the inclusion of more modern musical forms, the council reaffirmed the primacy of Gregorian chant as the official music of the Church. While slow to permeate the repertoire of secular boychoirs, chant continues to be an integral part of choirboy experiences in Catholic liturgical settings.

2.4 Modern Chant Pedagogy: Notation, Rhythm, and Spirituality

As renewed interest in chant and its role in liturgical celebrations was being promoted by the Church, the need for increased understanding of chant—specifically its unique notation and its performance—became heightened. The first published edition of the Liber Usualis in 1896

101 Richard Crocker, “Chant for the Masses,” in Gregorian Chant: Songs of the Spirit, ed. Huston Smith (San Francisco: KQED, 1996), 100. 102 Ibid., 113–16. 103 “Performers,” ChantDiscography.com, http://www.chantdiscography.com/performer-index.php.

35 contains a four-page preface with fairly general instructions on how to interpret the neumes.104 By contrast, the preface of the 1903 edition, published around the time of Tra le sollecitudini, numbers twenty-seven pages and contains information on notation, rhythm, phrasing, and dynamics, using specific excerpts from the book to illustrate concepts.105 By the 1961 printing, the preface had expanded to thirty-one pages to include information on Latin diction and the modes.106 These expansions represent a growing effort to better prepare learners in the fundamentals of chant. After the reforms of the Second Vatican Council, Gregorian chant fell out of favor as parishes moved toward singing music in the vernacular. The 1960s editions of the Liber represent the most detailed instruction manuals in the series.

While the language of the Liber’s preface is clearly intended for adult learners, efforts were also made to make chant learning more accessible to young students. Gregorian Chant for Church and School (1944) states in its foreword:

The aim of this little volume is primarily to fulfill a definite need, namely: to supply suitable Plain-Chant material for adolescent youth; to present the material in a manner wholly understandable, and therefore interesting to pupils of this grade level; to include nothing which might render the book less appropriate for use in church than in school.107

What follows are four chapters focused on (1) chant history, (2) interpretation, (3) notation and diction, and (4) modes. Specific examples from common chants are used throughout these introductory chapters, and review questions are presented at the end of each chapter to summarize key themes.

The Catholic Music Hour (1935) was another significant resource of chant information, pedagogy, and repertoire. Of the eight books in the series, six are intended for use by students. The lowest grade level contains no chants but songs and hymns that young children should learn to help prepare them for learning chant in later years. The next five grade levels all contain a significant number of chants (as shown in table 2), several of which are encouraged to be

104 Paroissien Romain (Solesmes: Imprimerie Saint-Pierre, 1896), v–viii. 105 Paroissien Romain (Rome, Tournai: Desclée, LeFebvre & Cie, 1903), vii–xxxiii. 106 Liber Usualis (Tournai: Desclée, 1961), ix–xxxix. 107 Marie Antonine Goodchild, Gregorian Chant for Church and School (Boston: Ginn and Company, 1944), vii.

36 memorized, as would have been the tradition of the pueri in the Medieval church. The seventh book contains accompaniments, while the eighth is a manual for teachers that includes a significant amount of background knowledge on chant (history, modes, notation, diction, rhythm, chironomy, and conducting) as well as a suggested course of study. Monthly outlines by grade level are provided, as are individual lesson plans with references to specific chants provided in the five chant books. Detailed theoretical, structural, and pedagogical analyses of all the chants are provided. Audio recordings were also made available by Victor Records.

Table 2: Summary of Contents in The Catholic Music Hour

Title Grade Level No. of Pages No. of Chants

Kindergarten and First Grade K–1 216 0

First Book 2 96 12

Second Book 3 128 19

Third Book 4 144 23

Fourth Book 5 160 14

Fifth Book 6 208 54

At more than eighty years old, this resource would seemingly have little relevance to today’s classrooms; however, it represents perhaps one of the most in-depth pedagogical chant manuals ever published.

The most common manual for young singers throughout the twentieth century was developed by Justine Ward and was published in her eight-part series That All May Sing. Commonly referred to as “The Ward Method,” this system draws on principles also found in the methods of contemporaries of Ward, such as Zoltán Kodály and Béla Bartók. The Ward Method is an approach to music instruction that uses Gregorian chant as a foundation for teaching young Catholic musicians, based on an educational philosophy resonant with Kodály and Bartók, who

37 believed that folk and indigenous music were the most effective ways to foster music education in more general, secular contexts. Ward was also highly influenced by the philosophy and pedagogy of Fr. Thomas Shields of the Department of Education at the Catholic University of America, who wrote:

If a child is given the correct stimulus at the right time in development, any child should be able to learn. The subject matter should be broken down into fundamental principles. Each lesson must include the process of relating the known to the unknown. The child can then be stimulated to use these new truths through personal experience.108

The method essentially breaks music down into six discrete fundamental elements that are taught independently before combining concepts. These elements are:

1. voice production

2. ear training

3. rhythm

4. notation

5. improvisation

6. melodies and songs109

Through these basic divisions, the Ward Method uses chant to explore intonation, meter, rhythm, phrasing, sight singing, and even composition. The Ward Method is a progressive system, though not as systematically so as Kodály. In her first book, Ward states, “It is not necessary to practice each intonation exercise until it can be sung perfectly by all the children. Each exercise prepares for the next one, which, in turn, perfects the one before it.”110

108 Zuberbueler, “The Ward Method,” 15. 109 Gisbert Brandt, “A Lively and Sytematic Approach to Learning Music,” Sacred Music 133, no. 1 (Spring 2006): 18–20. 110 Justine Ward, That All May Sing: Book One, Teacher’s Manual (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1976), 46.

Promulgation of the Ward Method was supported by her contact with and approval from Catholic elites. For instance, her work received affirmation from the monks of Solesmes and apostolic blessings from two popes.111 As early as the 1920s, widespread use of the Ward Method was documented in the United States and later in the Netherlands, Belgium, France, England, Ireland, New Zealand, China, and Italy. After the Second World War its use became more common in the remainder of the Americas, Africa, Israel, and parts of Asia.112

It is important to note that the Ward Method was developed not simply as a means of teaching Gregorian chant but mostly as a means of teaching music in general. Analysts have described benefits of the method to include the following:

learning how to read modern notation as well as Gregorian chant notation, correct vocal production, including proper vowel formation, a reinforcement of the Latin language, knowledge of the liturgy, knowledge of modes, and the ability to write short musical examples through dictation.113

Other sources specifically address the Ward Method’s influence on development of focused tone, phrasing, coloration, expression, internalization of rhythm, vocal health, and involvement of the whole body in a Dalcroze-like fashion.114 It is worth noting that although the Ward Method contains many similarities to more commonplace music pedagogical systems, it predates Dalcroze’s Eurythmics (1921), Kodály method (1935), Suzuki method (1945), and Orff Schulwerk (1950).115

Like chant in general, use of the Ward Method in Catholic schools became increasingly rare after the Second Vatican Council. After chant’s resurgence in popularity, new teaching methods, coupled with currently available pedagogical techniques, were created. Theodore Marier created

111 Francis Brancaleone, “Justine Ward and the Fostering of an American Solesmes Chant Tradition,” Sacred Music 136, no. 3 (Fall 2009): 6–13. 112 Zuberbueler, “The Ward Method,” 16. 113 Sharyn L. Battersby, “A Brief History of the Ward Method and the Importance of Revitalizing Gregorian Chant and the Ward Method in the Music Classrooms of Parochial Schools,” Sacred Music 142, no. 4 (Winter 2015): 36. 114 Battersby, “A Brief History,” 37; Alise Brown, “How the Ward Method Works,” Sacred Music 134, no. 3 (Fall 2007): 14–15. 115 Brancaleone, “Justine Ward,” 24.

39 an updated and consolidated version of the Ward Method, reducing Ward’s eight books to just four.116 Other chant instruction resources were published as well. In 1962, the Community Supervisor of Music of the Archdiocese of Boston published Square Notes: A Workbook in Gregorian Chant, which focuses primarily on identifying and understanding Gregorian notation and modes. There are a few guidelines on rhythm, but the topics of phrasing, expressive elements, and instructions on Latin diction are absent. The book contains twenty-six complete chants. This work pales in comparison to the aforementioned 1944 book, Gregorian Chant for Church and School, in terms of both scope of information and selection of repertoire. Neither of these works, however, contain specific instructions on how to teach chant. That All May Sing includes specific lesson plans and audio aids for this purpose.

A much more currently relevant program, Words with Wings, was constructed by Dutch conductor Wilko Brouwers in 2011. Rooted in the Ward Method, this program was developed with church choirs and contemporary school programs in mind. In his foreword, Brouwers comments that the Ward Method “is an elaborate and closed system that only works when it is practiced in a daily classroom situation. I wrote this book especially for children’s choirs who only rehearse once or twice a week.”117 Words with Wings features twenty scripted lessons, each between fifteen and twenty minutes long, intended to allow classroom/rehearsal time for other necessary work. Although the lessons are scripted, instructors are encouraged to become familiar with the text and deliver it naturally to students rather than reading it to them. Singers are introduced to chant notation with English text first and then sing short Latin phrases before moving on to full chants. The first full chant appears in lesson 8 of 20. The workbook includes only six complete chants, but an appendix lists suggestions for further study. Accompanying audio tracks for each excerpt in the book were recorded by the Madeline Choir School in Salt Lake City, Utah, and are available freely on the publisher’s website.118 The program touts as its benefits: • demonstrating to children the relationship between notes and text • providing examples of Medieval modality

116 Zuberbueler, “The Ward Method,” 17. 117 Wilko Brouwers, Words with Wings (Church Music Association of America, 2012), 1. 118 “Words with Wings,” Musica Sacra, https://musicasacra.com/music-pedagogy-for-children/wings/.

• providing experience of lightness and freeness of Gregorian rhythm119

Another stated goal of Words with Wings is to take learners “on a singing journey through the centuries-old yet vibrant tradition of the liturgical year.”120 This attests to the program’s religious objectives. This goal seems to be echoed by the other pedagogical resources as well. Square Notes states, “The theoretical material presented here should never be considered as an end in itself. It is intended only as a gateway to a fuller participation in the Liturgy of Holy Mother Church through a more beautiful rendition of Her official music.”121 In its list of objectives, Gregorian Chant for Church and School indicates that it is of greatest importance “to create a true love for and appreciation of the official music of the Church.”122 The Catholic Music Hour lists among its objectives the following:

Fourth, that through much experience in hearing and singing the Church’s official music, the child may come to love and appreciate Gregorian chant as the ideal instrument for private and common prayer, and the adequate musical expression of the soul’s relationship with God.

Fifth, that all the child’s contacts with music may be stepping-stones to the greater love of God and neighbor.123

Even the Ward Method is rooted not merely in desire for its musical outcomes but also in its spiritual importance. The method has been described as being “based on the religious-aesthetic objective—the attuning of souls to the inward voice of beauty expressed through the sublimity and suitability of text and melody in the music of the church.”124 Ward herself commented:

119 Brouwers, Words with Wings, 1. 120 Ibid. 121 Sister M. Judith, Square Notes: A Workbook in Gregorian Chant (Kansas City, MO: Angelus Press, 1962), iii. 122 Goodchild, Gregorian Chant for Church and School, vii. 123 Joseph Schrembs, Alice Marie, and Gregory Huegle, The Gregorian Chant Manual of the Catholic Music Hour (New York: Silver, Burdett and Company, 1935), vii. 124 Sr. Anna De Paul Quigley, The Cultural and Aesthetic Objective in Elementary School Singing: The Ward Method Exemplified by Comparison (Rochester, NY: Congregation of the Sisters of Saint Joseph, 1945), 80.

The little Catholic school child is learning to pray, not only in words, but also in song: not only in the Church’s language, Latin, but in her musical language, chant; and when these children grow up, our choirs will be the whole Catholic world. It is simply a return to the true ideal, a “renewing of all things in Christ,” a revitalizing through art of the spirit of Catholic democracy and universality.125

These accounts demonstrate that the underlying motive behind the pedagogy of Gregorian chant in these primary resources is the fostering and development of a Catholic musical identity. This reveals a clear bias in the composition of these manuals, with two significant implications. First, the authors’ claims regarding the pedagogical benefits of chant are born out of a natural inclination for the study and performance of chant in Catholic school/church settings. Second, the selection of the chants in these manuals is rooted in religious, liturgical, or spiritual rationale rather than a musical rationale. That is to say, chants were typically selected for their significance to the liturgical calendar or to singers’ spiritual formation rather than for purposes specific to musical growth.

Although these biases do not invalidate the claims or findings of the authors, they must be acknowledged. It can be argued that the authors’ religious immersion in chant provided the context in which they could more fully understand the pedagogical implications of the practice. The Ward Method was, after all, a music education program rooted in chant rather than a chant education program. Yet, this suggests that chant does contain potential pedagogical benefits beyond liturgical use. If the early monasteries used chant as a teaching tool for the pueri oblati, in addition to preparing them for performing the chant in a liturgical context, can a conductor or music teacher in the twenty-first century utilize chant as a teaching tool for nonliturgical purposes? Furthermore, as chant was used as a basis for instruction in later choral music, can it be used in contemporary contexts to develop competencies associated with the performance of the repertoire of today’s ensembles, which often perform music spanning several eras?

125 Justine Bayard Ward, “The Reform in Church Music,” The Atlantic Monthly 97, no. 4 (April 1906): 10–11, 22–23.

2.5 Beyond Liturgy: Pedagogical Benefits of Chant

The revival of chant for use in both liturgical and concert settings has drawn researchers to revisit the notion of chant as a pedagogical tool, removed from the context of liturgy or theology. James Whitbourn claims that as chant is the foundation of all Western art music, a strong understanding of the practice enables a singer to approach all other music with greater nuance and depth.126 While Western art music has changed substantially over the past millennium, and while contemporary works, choral and otherwise, often include elements of music from non- Western traditions, it is problematic to imply that the proficiency in chant equips one with the necessary competencies to approach all Western art music. Furthermore, there are some competencies specific to singing chant that are not necessary for performing newer choral works. Nonetheless, according to James Jordan, the study and performance of chant does seem to develop several musical competencies associated with much choral music. Jordan’s comprehensive analysis of chant’s pedagogical virtues explores several areas in which the study of chant can improve various individual and ensemble competencies:

In many ways, chant teaches the skills that we desperately need as musicians in a very direct and honest way. . . . The absence of accidentals, the use of modes, the lack of major and minor “modern” tonalities all grow musicianship with those who engage chant. Rhythm becomes an organic experience that is both felt and heard. Intonation inhabits the realm of harmonic functionality rather than a melodic function. Listening becomes multi- dimensional.127

The simple monophony of chant amplifies the importance of listening skills in the choral setting in order to facilitate successful performance. Music Learning Theory, as described by Edwin Gordon, stresses the primacy of audiation (which he defined as “hearing and comprehending in one’s mind sound of music” without the notation present)—the foundation on which musical learning and understanding depends.128 Gordon also contends that a tonal/modal context is

126 James Jordan and James Whitbourn, Discovering Chant: Teaching Musicianship and Human Sensibilities Through Chant (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2014), 53. 127 Ibid., 89. 128 Edwin E. Gordon, Roots of Music Learning Theory and Audiation (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2011).

43 necessary to facilitate the best development of this skill.129 Jordan maintains that audiation is a skill inherently developed by chant, noting that the free-flowing rhythm of chant allows the singer to better focus on the relationship between pitches, contributing to the development of inner hearing. Concurrent with this skill development is superior intonation.130 Jordan also claims that the modes, with their absence of accidentals and cadential structures, allow better teaching of phrasing, stating that certain “scale degrees can mis-shape the natural ascent and descent of the musical line.”131

Chant’s benefits have been shown to extend beyond the development of aural skills. Katherine Strand has explored strategies for connecting chant study with improving skills in listening, improvisation, composition, and reading.132 The various strategies include introductory readings to chant and its performance practice, exercises in guided improvisation, introductions to neumatic notation and subsequent transcription of music into said notation, experimentation in organum, and the composition of pieces based on a cantus firmus. It is noteworthy that Strand’s proposed strategies are geared not only toward the performance of chant but also to the study of other works by composers such as Bach, Mozart, and Poulenc, all of whom utilized cantus firmus technique. This chant-based approach, though developed more than ten years prior to Jordan’s research, supports the notion that elements of chant study contribute to the development of competencies necessary for newer compositions.

Strand’s treatment of neumatic notation, as mentioned above, is also significant, because it supports Gordon’s premise that audiation brings sonic meaning to notation and not the other way around. That is to say that singers learn to hear musical patterns first and later apply their gained experiential knowledge to a system of notation, rather than first learning notation and associating sounds with the symbols they study. (A child learns his or her alphabet only after learning the sounds that the letters make.) This idea is rooted in the long-established theory of “sound before

129 Ibid., 10. 130 Ibid., 87–88. 131 Jordan and Whitbourn, Discovering Chant, 88. 132 Katherine Strand, “Teaching Musical Interpretations Through Choral Rehearsals,” Music Educators Journal 90, no. 1 (September 2003): 43–49, 56.

44 symbol” as explained by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and, later, Lowell Mason133 and upheld by the leading twentieth-century pedagogical systems of Orff, Dalcroze, Suzuki, and Kodály.134

In contrast, Richard Smith has developed strategies that apply the rhythmic elements of neumatic notation to later compositions. In what he calls “neumatic analysis”—a process by which Gregorian neumes are applied as a visual tool to music of later periods to enable a more textually influenced performance—Smith contends that the study, practice, and performance of Gregorian chant offers value for modern choirs as it has benefits for exploring music of all eras. Revisiting chant forces us to observe the “intimate relationship between word and music.”135 In recounting a particularly troublesome rehearsal of a piece by J. S. Bach, Smith claims that taking a break from the Baroque repertoire—often tedious to amateur musicians due to numerous melismas unfamiliar to modern music—and engaging in singing Gregorian chant was of immediate benefit: “Chant directed us to the fundamental motion of the natural accents of spoken words, and it was that movement which breathed new life into our singing of Bach.”136 While the music of Bach may seem far removed from Gregorian chant, Smith contends that the marriage of text and music in chant translates well into choirs’ study of more recent music.

The neumes to which Smith refers are not the pitched neumes found in Medieval square notation or in the modern publications of Solesmes but rather the original Gregorian neumes that focused primarily on textual inflection and rhythm.137 In the study of Gregorian chant, the use of these earliest neumes is considered the practice of Gregorian semiology, as outlined by Dom Eugène Cardine in Semiologia Gregoriana (1968). As the earliest neumes represented syllables and their relative inflections, Leo Treitler suggests that chant is a practice centered on text and that melody

133 Lowell Mason, Manual of the Boston Academy of Music: For Instruction in the Elements of Vocal Music, on the System of Pestalozzi, 5th ed. (Boston: J. H. Wilkins & R. B. Carter, 1839). 134 Andrew Eales, “Sound Before Symbol: Lessons from History,” Pianodao: The Way of Piano (October 17, 2015), https://pianodao.com/2015/10/17/sound-before-symbol-lessons-from-history/. 135 Richard A. Smith, “Recovering Gregorian Chant in the Choral Repertory: Part I," Choral Journal 46, no. 8 (February 2006): 23. 136 Richard A. Smith, “Recovering Gregorian Chant in the Choral Repertory, Part II: Using the Tools of Gregorian Chant to Illuminate the Choral Music of Later Periods," Choral Journal 47, no. 3 (September 2006): 23. 137 Ibid., 24.

45 is merely an extension of textual influence.138 Cardine himself explained the significance of text not merely to the creation of chants but also to the artistry necessary to perform chant:

For the thing which gives form to melodic material and causes a succession of notes to become music, and, consequently, art, is the combined interplay of the duration and intensity which was intentionally conceived by the composer and which the interpreter must rediscover and bring to life.139

These ideas find harmony with Smith’s assertion that the study and practice of Gregorian chant with a focus on the earliest neumes can provide insight into text stress, phrasing, and musical contour that modern notation cannot provide. Alice Parker attests to the ability of a single melodic line to move us away from “harnessing words into beats,” facilitating a more sensitive approach to the delivery of text.140 These theories suggest that more modern, text-based approaches to Gregorian chant rhythm (such as those of Gajard and Cardine) may prove to be more successful in the development of phrasing and textual inflection. The monophonic nature of chant also establishes a need for commonality in tone, rhythm, inflection, dynamics, and articulation, leading to a strong development in ensemble skills, or entrainment—which Jordan also identifies as a prerequisite for rhythmic uniformity.141

Finally, it would be negligent to discuss the proposed benefits of chant performance without also addressing the spiritual nature of chant. While the genre is deeply rooted in religiosity— particularly in the Catholic tradition—the aesthetic, emotional, and psychological impact of chant has been explored by several authors. Dominic Gregorio addresses the communal spirituality of chant, relating to the qualities of entrainment discussed by other authors.142 Steven Pilkington remarks on the ubiquity of some form of chant in the sacred music of the world’s major religions, suggesting that our human nature is deeply affected by monophonic music.143 Chant, then, has the potential to develop singers’ skills in listening, reading, improvisation,

138 Leo Treitler, “The Early History of Music Writing in the West,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 35 (1982): 10. 139 Eugène Cardine, Gregorian Semiology (Solesmes: Abbaye Saint-Pierre de Solesmes, 1982), 8. 140 Alice Parker, The Anatomy of Melody (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2006), 88. 141 Jordan and Whitbourn, Discovering Chant, 100. 142 Dominic Gregorio, “Living the Chant,” in Jordan and Whitbourn, Discovering Chant, 29–31. 143 Steven Pilkington, “The Spirituality of Chant,” in Jordan and Whitbourn, Discovering Chant, 38.

46 expressivity, and entrainment, while satisfying a profound aesthetic purpose that we seek as choral musicians.

The next chapter will explore research on the boy’s changing voice, with a focus on best practices for working with boys at this stage of vocal development. How can the pedagogical benefits of chant be successfully applied to the teaching priorities for male voices in transition? Where the two bodies of research overlap will reveal positive potential implications for engaging changing voices in the study and performance of chant.

Chapter 3 On the Changing Voice

Despite the strong historical relationships connecting chant, the boy’s treble voice, and music pedagogy, little has been explored with regard to the boy’s changing voice and the use of chant as a pedagogical tool. For centuries, music education in Western traditions was not explored with this age group at all. This chapter will explore the history of changing-voice pedagogy and the type of repertoire that emerged to meet the vocal needs of ensembles with singers in middle school and junior high. The continuing development of changing-voice pedagogy flourished in the 1970s with the emergence of John Cooksey’s Contemporary Eclectic Theory (CET), which was used as a definitive model for much of the research that followed.

Cooksey spent more than 20 years confirming and refining his theory. Patrick Freer notes that “The longitudinal result of Cooksey’s research was that his original eclectic theory was largely upheld, though with important nuances and modifications to the stated vocal ranges, tessituras, and typical singing experiences of boys during the change process.”144 Denison argues that the principle elements of CET are the classification markers of vocal typology: range, register, vocal quality, speaking pitch, and tessitura.145 Over time, Cooksey’s specificity with regard to these elements progressed, but the principles behind vocal typology never change. As such, the term “CET” in this dissertation will refer to the principles espoused by Cooksey, using his most recent research (2000) for specifics regarding ranges, tessiturae, and teaching strategies.

Using CET as a framework, best practices of working with changing voices reveal several opportunities for the inclusion of chant in the repertoire for transitioning voices.

While chant played a central role in the liturgical and educational lives of the pueri oblati, boys’ musical education ceased, or at least diminished significantly, around the age of fifteen, when

144 Patrick K. Freer, “The Changing Voices of Male Choristers: An Enigma . . . to Them,” Music Education Research 18, no. 1 (2016): 75. 145 Craig Denison, “A Structural Model of Physiological and Psychological Effects on Adolescent Male Singing” (PhD diss., Miami University, 2015), 24.

48 they made religious vows.146 From this point on, music took on a much less significant role in their lives—likely a blessing to their musical instructor as this would have occurred around the high point of vocal mutation. In the cathedral and collegiate traditions, and even in ensembles such as the Vienna Boys’ Choir, boys ceased singing at this pivotal period in development.147 That reducing or stopping boys from singing when their voices changed was common well into the twentieth century is not surprising, as it was rooted in millennia of tradition. Incidences of castration or male infibulation with the goal of keeping male voices high were recorded in several early societies, including those of Athens, Rome, Assyria, and Babylonia.148 So valuable was the unchanged boy’s voice that the kidnapping of choirboys was an issue that was addressed in a treatise as late as 1899.149 As centers of musicianship moved from the churches to the concert halls and opera stages—and even more so as the popularity of castrati voices in opera began to fade—increased focus was given to the successful transformation of boys’ voices.

The dismissal of choirboys after their voices “broke” often marked the end of their vocal training. Some gifted choirboys could go on to become composers (Gluck, Haydn, and Schubert, for example), but very few former choirboys emerged among the realm of successful adult vocalists. Several European writers blamed boychoirs and their conductors for being “slaughter- houses of children’s voices,”150 a sentiment echoed as late as the 1970s by Frederick Swanson in his commentary about the practices of the Vienna Boys’ Choir.151

Addressing this dilemma, there emerged two disparate camps, consistently in conflict with each other, during the latter half of the nineteenth century. On one side was the renowned voice teacher Manuel Garcia II, who believed firmly that boys’ voices should be rested during the break:

146 Patricia A. Quinn, Better Than the Sons of Kings: Boys and Monks in the Early Middle Ages (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1989), ix. 147 Kim Lorenz, A History of the Vienna Boys’ Choir (Lewes: Book Guild, 1998), 5. 148 Deso A. Weiss, “The Pubertal Change of the Human Voice,” Folia Phoniatrica 2, no. 3 (1950): 126. 149 J. Spencer Curwen, The Boy’s Voice (London: J. Curwen & Sons, Ltd., 1899), 144. 150 Weiss, “Pubertal Change,” 139. 151 Frederick J. Swanson, The Male Singing Voice Ages 8 to 18 (Cedar Rapids, IA: Laurance Press, 1977), 74.

During this time of crisis it is necessary to let nature, the only dispenser of individual powers, act. In this age of regeneration . . . if one impoverishes the vocal organ by the practice of singing, or by any excesses whatsoever, one exhausts the plant before it is fit to give fruit; one causes decay to succeed childhood.152

Garcia’s reputation, coupled with historical practice, likely led many conductors of the day to subscribe to this model. Emil Behnke and Lennox Browne (1885) surveyed several teachers, asking the question, “Do you consider it safe for a boy to continue singing while his voice is breaking?” Out of 190 respondents, 158 of them (approximately five out of every six) indicated that it was decidedly not safe for a boy to sing during this stage.153 Comments in support of this opinion were very heavy-handed, often using strong language. One of the respondents, Sir George C. Martin—organist at St. Paul’s Cathedral in London—wrote in his book The Art of Training Choirboys:

Some choirmasters retain a boy in the choir after the voice is broken. This should never be done. It is likely to injure the vocal tone for ever after. Many otherwise fair musicians have been deprived of vocal power by this reprehensible practice. A boy whose voice is changed or broken ought no more to be allowed to sing than a man with a fractured limb ought to be permitted to walk or use it. There is no doubt that many valuable voices are lost through overstraining their powers at the period of the break. The custom of retaining boys in the choir after the change has commenced—although it has some scientific defenders, it is to be deplored.154

Sir Martin’s book was considered a standard work on the subject at the time. Behnke and Browne followed up with their correspondents by asking about known results of boys who had sung through the voice change. Of the 152 replies: forty indicated no knowledge of such a boy; five indicated that the boys’ voices improved; twenty cited single or multiple instances of no resultant harm; eight stated no conclusion; seventy-nine (just over half of respondents) suggested

152 Manuel Garcia, A Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing (New York: Da Capo Press, 1975). 153 Emil Behnke and Lennox Brown, The Child’s Voice: Its Treatment with Regard to After Development (Boston: Oliver Ditson & Co., 1885), 71–72. 154 George C. Martin, The Art of Training Choirboys (London: Novello & Co., 1901), 21.

“the experiment causes certain injury, deterioration, or ruin to the after voice,”155 with ten of those respondents indicating that their own voices had suffered as a result of this practice. While Garcia advocated for a year of vocal rest, some teachers advocated for as many as three years.156

The minority voice in the debate was led by the laryngologist Sir Morell Mackenzie, likely one of the “scientific defenders” lambasted in Martin’s treatise. Mackenzie supported his findings with equal ferocity:

I am still an obstinate dissenter from the “orthodox” teaching of singing masters on the subject. I have already more than once expressed my belief that there is no reason why training, within certain limits and under strict supervision by a competent person, should not be carried on when the voice is in the transition stage of its development from childhood to adolescence. The stock argument, invariably advanced to prove the necessity of suspending the education of the voice till it has passed through the “breaking” period, is that, as the parts are undergoing active changes, they therefore require complete rest. This would equally apply to the limbs, and, in some degree, also to the brain. Yet I am not aware that it has ever been proposed to forbid growing lads from exercising their bodies, even in games involving considerable muscular violence, or to interrupt the education of the mental powers till the brain has become fully formed.157

Mackenzie’s theories did have some support from key players in the boychoir world. Edwin Edwards of the Rugby School in Warwickshire advocated that boys sing as long as they are able and recommended moderate training during the voice change.158 A. E. Dyer, conductor of the Cheltenham Musical Society, suggested that boys’ voices were damaged during this stage only if they were forced to continue singing treble.159 Louis Parker, who at the time was serving as director of music at the Sherborne School in Dorset, went so far as to question the term “break” to describe the transition, indicating that the voice gradually changes and is always usable.160

155 Behnke and Brown, The Child’s Voice, 82. 156 Henry J. Wood, The Gentle Art of Singing (London: Oxford University, 1930), 22. 157 Morell Mackenzie, “Speech and Song: Part II—Song,” The Contemporary Review 56 (August 1889): 188, emphasis in original. 158 Behnke and Brown, The Child’s Voice, 72. 159 Ibid., 73. 160 Ibid., 74–75.

This latest assertion is most representative of the modern theory of male voice change that emerged from the Mackenzie camp. Support for modern theory would not surpass traditional theory in England and throughout Europe until the 1920s.161

In American schools, however, modern theory enjoyed more immediate approval, perhaps due to differing priorities. Void of a centuries-old boychoir tradition, American music educators focused instead on the democratic ideals of engaging all boys in singing. The emergence of American thought on changing voice theory predates the formation of America’s prestigious boychoirs which burgeoned in the 1930s and 1940s. In response to the British “traditionalists,” G. Edward Stubbs of St. James Church in New York wrote, “There is nothing new in the no- break theory; it is as old as the hills. What is needed is more scientific recognition of a fact of importance, and more widespread knowledge concerning it.”162 Those embracing the modern theory of voice change began to draw correlations between traditionalist methods and cessation of boys’ interest in choral music.

We have to face the fact that every year many hundreds of enthusiastic choirboys end their singing careers forever. It will, I think, be agreed that the majority of these boys stop singing with regret; but during the blank period that follows, they lose their taste for singing and the majority are definitely lost to choral music.163

The custom of preventing boys from singing during the voice change was identified as the cause not only of a decreasing number of males in choral programs but also the poor quality of male singing as boys grew older. The centuries-long custom of the cessation of singing during this age directly contributed to the lack of viable repertoire for singers in this transitional phase, augmenting the deficiency in vocal quality and ability.164 Even though publishers were not particularly keen on publishing music for this voice type (for fear of losing money),165 several

161 Ryan A. Fisher, “British and American Theories of the Changing Male Voice: An Historical Overview,” Journal of Historical Research in Music Education 31, no. 1 (October 2009): 38–40. 162 G. Edward Stubbs, “Should Breaking Voices Be Rested?” New Music Review 29, no. 344 (July 1930). 163 Harvey Grace, “An Organist’s Notebook,” The Musical Times 73, no. 1073 (July 1932): 638. 164 Fisher, “British and American Theories,” 41; Duncan McKenzie, Training the Boy’s Changing Voice (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1956), 8. 165 McKenzie, Training the Boy’s Changing Voice, 14.

52 works directed toward amending this problem emerged in the first half of the twentieth century. They include:166 • The Laurel Music Reader by W. L. Tomlins (Birchard, 1914) • Junior Songs by Hollis Dann (American Book, 1918) • A Heritage of Song: Song Book for Adolescent Boys by Robert MacLeod (Curwen, 1932) • Music of Many Lands and Peoples by Osbourne McConathy, John Beattie, and Russell V. Morgan (Silver Burdett, 1932) • Clarendon Song Books for Boys with Changing Voices by W. Gilles Whittaker, Herbert Wiseman, John Wishart, and W. Norman Mellalieu (Oxford University Press, 1935) • Youthful Voices by Don Wright (Gordon V. Thomson, 1945) • Song Book for Boys (Novello, 1955) • Choral Songs for Voices of Limited Range (Novello, 1955)

The number of different voicings represented among compositions in the aforementioned collections indicates an understanding of the various voice types exhibited by boys during transition. The 166 songs in Music of Many Lands and Peoples represent seventeen different voice combinations.167 These resources recognized the need to adapt repertoire curricula to suit the unique needs of the boy’s changing voice, specifically with respect to range and tessitura. As research on male vocal mutation flourished, it provided teachers with clearer ideas on the specific vocal needs of adolescent males.

166 Fisher, “British and American Theories,” 40; McKenzie, Training the Boy’s Changing Voice, 8–10, 13, 16. 167 McKenzie, Training the Boy’s Changing Voice, 9–10.

3.1 The Continuing Development of Modern Changing-Voice Theories: McKenzie, Cooper, and Swanson

Voice-change theory developed significantly during the mid- to late twentieth century as more North American educators and researchers became interested in the topic. Duncan McKenzie’s Training the Boy’s Changing Voice (1956) was the first published guide on working with this voice type.168 McKenzie advocated the “alto-tenor” plan, which, though often attributed to him, he explains had been developing for several decades.169 The alto-tenor voice is described as “still alto, but it has lowered to the extent that the boy can sing in the tenor range; the quality, however, has not yet become masculine, that is, either tenor or bass.”170 It is defined as having an average range of an octave with the G below middle C as its lowest note. McKenzie’s work was extremely important in establishing principles used by his successors: 1. The boy’s speaking voice was the most reliable predictor of the voice change, and the singing voice would follow.171 2. The voice progresses through specific stages as determined by range and not timbre, as outlined in figure 5.172 3. Boys should sing in their “comfortable range” to encourage development of the new voice, even if they still have access to higher pitches.173

Figure 5: McKenzie Classification of Adolescent Boy’s Voice Range

168 Fisher, “British and American Theories,” 41. 169 McKenzie, Training the Boy’s Changing Voice, 19–21. 170 Ibid., 19. 171 Ibid., 27. 172 Ibid., 29–30. 173 Duncan McKenzie, “The Boy’s Changing Voice,” Music Journal 14, no. 9 (November 1956): 29.

Source: Adapted174 from Duncan McKenzie, Training the Boy’s Changing Voice (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1956), 30.

In addition, McKenzie advocated periodic testing of the boy’s voice to track its progress through the changes so that teachers could clearly identify the comfortable range and assign parts accordingly.175

Contemporaries of McKenzie sought to develop his theory further, deviating from nomenclature and range designations. Irvin Cooper preferred the term “cambiata” (which means “changing note”) over “alto-tenor” and contended that the range differed from McKenzie’s proposal.176 Cooper’s cambiata concept suggested that there were two distinct periods of change, resulting in four appropriate voice parts for singers in a typical junior high classroom (figure 6).177 Boys with fully changed voices (basses), Cooper contended, were rare.

Figure 6: Cooper Classification of Adolescent Boy’s Voice Range

Source: Adapted from Irvin Cooper and Karl O. Kuersteiner, Teaching Junior High School Music (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1970), 15.

174 Figures 5, 6, and 7 have been adapted from their original format to have a unified format for the purposes of comparison within this document. 175 McKenzie, Training the Boy’s Changing Voice, 43–51. 176 Fisher, “British and American Theories,” 43. 177 Irvin Cooper and Karl O. Kuersteiner, Teaching Junior High School Music (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1970).

Cooper believed that the major problems related to working with changing voices were not the students’ but rather the teachers’.178 In addition to catering to these unique ranges, Cooper encouraged teachers to consider intervallic progressions, articulation speed, and melodic contour of the repertoire assigned.179 Cooper’s methods were widely praised in the United Kingdom and North America as he held esteemed positions in Britain, Canada, and the United States throughout his career.180

While both McKenzie’s and Cooper’s theories lent credence to the concept of a voice type distinct from the traditional classifications, Frederick Swanson’s research contested any new categorization.181 Swanson also challenged the notion that the voice change was always gradual and disagreed with his contemporaries on the prevalence of basses in junior high programs. In a heated exchange in the Music Educators Journal in 1962, Swanson and Cooper argued over this point, with Cooper claiming that it was an “octave illusion” caused by the boy’s husky tone quality.182 Swanson’s most important contribution to the discussion was that his was the first scientific study to link the stages of boys’ vocal development to the stages of pubertal development.183

All three of these dominant perspectives paved the way for John Cooksey’s authoritative Contemporary Eclectic Theory of adolescent male voice change. Drawing on elements from all three theories, Cooksey’s model proposes that the process of vocal mutation is gradual, is predictable, and manifests itself in observable stages.184 Cooksey breaks down the transitional phase as defined by McKenzie (“alto-tenor”) and Cooper (“cambiata”) into several different stages with specific identifiable characteristics and ties each stage to physical maturation during puberty.

178 Phillip H. Stockton, “Irvin Cooper (1900–1971) and the Development of the Cambiata Concept for Adolescent Changing Voices,” Journal of Historical Research in Music Education 37, no. 1 (2015): 79. 179 Ibid., 81. 180 Phillip H. Stockton, “A Historical Study of Irvin Cooper: Choral Music Educator and Founder of the Cambiata Concept” (PhD diss., The University of Mississippi, 2013). 181 Frederick J. Swanson, “The Proper Care and Feeding of Changing Voices,” Music Educators Journal 48, no. 2 (December 1961): 64. 182 Irvin Cooper, “Changing Voices,” Music Educators Journal 48, no. 4 (February 1962): 148. 183 Frederick J. Swanson, “When Voices Change,” Music Educators Journal 47, no. 4 (1960): 50. 184 John M. Cooksey, “The Development of a Contemporary, Eclectic Theory for the Training and Cultivation of the Junior High School Male Changing Voice: Part II, Scientific and Empirical Findings; Some Tentative Solutions,” Choral Journal 18, no. 3 (November 1977).

3.2 Contemporary Eclectic Theory: An Overview

“Eclectic” in its synergizing and expanding upon previous theories, Cooksey’s Contemporary Eclectic Theory (CET) was based on several longitudinal studies. Cooksey posits five stages that represent the most detailed categorization of stages of vocal transition to date (compared to Cooper’s three stages). He also provided a typology for each stage based on fundamental speaking pitch, vocal range, tessitura, quality, and registration facility.185

According to Cooksey, the onset of vocal mutation (Stage 1, designated Midvoice I) is identified by the loss of higher pitches formerly easily accessible to the young male singer.186 This contraction of the modal range (average of 20.6 semitones down to 16.6) persists through the remainder of vocal mutation, not expanding again until the voice has settled in its new baritone range. Average tessitura range decreases less dramatically, from 9.1 semitones to 8.1.187 In choirboys with significant training, this stage may go unobserved as the boys have learned how to transition between their modal and falsetto registers with great ease, creating a blended sound that is as resonant and rich as their modal tone.188 In singers with less training, the loss of high pitches is more readily apparent and is often accompanied by a decrease in richness of tone. Vocal agility also begins to decrease due to the lengthening of the vocal folds.189 Cooksey assigns these singers to the alto part in SATB settings, although he admits that the alto part may be too low at times and the soprano part too high.190

In Stage 2 (Midvoice II), the range begins to lower and traditional voice parts become more difficult to manage consistently. When singing in the upper parts of the modal register becomes too strained, boys can sometimes access their falsetto more easily in order to sing with less tension.191 It is often easier for a boy in this stage to sing Soprano II than it is to sing Alto I,

185 Denison, “A Structural Model,” 6. 186 John M. Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1999), 14. 187 Ibid., 73. 188 Patrick K. Freer, “Foundation of the Boy’s Expanding Voice: A Response to Henry Leck,” Choral Journal 50, no. 7 (February 2010): 34. 189 Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices, 74. 190 Ibid. 191 John M. Cooksey, “Male Adolescent Transforming Voices: Voice Classification, Voice Skill Development, and Music Literature Selection,” in Bodymind & Voice: Foundations of Voice Education, ed. Leon Thurman and Graham Welch (Iowa City: National Center for Voice and Speech, 2000), 829.

57 depending on the range of the specific piece. Average pitch range in the modal register decreases by another semitone during this stage, although average range of tessiture remains constant. In addition to the emergence of falsetto, this stage can be identified by a more husky, thicker quality, as evidenced by increased noise levels in the upper partials.192

Stage 3 (Midvoice IIA) is considered the highpoint of vocal mutation—the period during which the voice is most susceptible to vocal abuse, characterized by significant loss of coordination and agility. Falsetto becomes more difficult to produce and, in many cases, will disappear temporarily.193 For singers who have continued to sing in their falsetto until this point, without developing the emerging lower register, this may give the illusion of a sudden voice change (as referenced anecdotally by Swanson).194 Combine these elements with the new lower range of the boy, and traditional voice parts become unmanageable. The upper modal pitch range is characterized by instability and a light, breathy quality, often exhibiting vocal strain. The lower range, by contrast, begins to exhibit some qualities of the emerging baritone voice.195 Both of these characteristics of the boy’s new range contribute to hyperfunction (“pushing”), often leading to vocal strain and an undesirable sound. Cooksey observed that boys in this stage often have difficulty matching pitch, an observation corroborated by Elizabeth Willis and Dianna Kenny.196 This stage could range from four weeks to ten months in duration.

Vocal difficulties continue until Stage 4 (New Baritone/New Voice), when boys begin to regain some coordination, which results in easier vocal production and a somewhat clearer tone. Falsetto reemerges, creating a phonational gap between two now-distinct registers. Despite the stabilization of the voice and increase in clarity, average pitch range remains consistent with Midvoice IIA, but tessitura decreases slightly. Voicing singers in this stage in an SATB context is still difficult as most bass parts are too low and tenor parts too high. In TTBB settings, Tenor II or Bass I may work more effectively.

192 Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices, 75. 193 Ibid., 15. 194 Swanson, “Proper Care and Feeding,” 63. 195 Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices, 77. 196 Elizabeth C. Willis and Dianna T. Kenny, “Relationship Between Weight, Speaking Fundamental Frequency, and the Appearance of Phonational Gaps in the Adolescent Male Changing Voice,” Journal of Voice 22, no. 4 (2008): 451–70.

In Stage 5 (Developing Baritone/Emerging Adult Voice), the range begins to expand again, and the sound begins to mature. Upper and falsetto registers begin to stabilize, and agility and register flexibility improve. This final stage more easily lends itself to baritone/bass classifications, though the boy’s sound will not emulate that of an adult quality.197 Although the lowest pitch in the boy’s range is typically used to classify the voice into one of the aforementioned stages, other factors may play a role, such as total range and tessitura, quality, and registration facility.198

In summary, highlights of the vocal mutation process include a lack of flexibility and coordination as the boy has to retrain the delicate balancing act of cricothyroid and thyroarytenoid movement in the larynx, a breathy or husky quality of tone due to inability of the vocal folds to close completely during awkward stages of growth, and a limited vocal range that shrinks at the onset of puberty and remains contracted until the end of the process.199 Also challenging is the lack of repertoire written with this voice type in mind, as centuries of ignoring the adolescent male voice have not provided much repertoire suitable for these voices. Using Cooksey’s tessitura designations for the Midvoice II and Midvoice IIA stages, one can see that singers in these stages of development are unlikely to be successful singing any of the traditional choral voice parts. This is particularly true of Midvoice IIA, when the falsetto register is often unattainable.

Figure 7: Cooksey Ranges and Tessiturae for the Voice-Change Stages

Source: Adapted from John M. Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1999), 13.

197 Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices, 16. 198 Denison, “A Structural Model,” 6. 199 Ibid.

3.3 Beyond Cooksey

Cooksey’s research has been described as the most influential for current understandings of the male adolescent voice change;200 thus, subsequent research has either sought to validate, develop, or challenge Contemporary Eclectic Theory (CET). Validation studies were conducted by Groom (1979, N=40); Cooksey, Beckett, and Wiseman (1983, N=86); Barresi and Bless (1984, N=59); Cooksey (1985, N=50); and Cooksey and Welch (1997, N=60). Harries et al. (1997) conducted a longitudinal study (N=26) that expressed good correlation between Cooksey’s voice-change stages and the widely accepted Tanner stages of puberty.201 Replicative studies by Rutkowski (1982, N=10), Moore (1995, N=60), and Killian (1999, N=87) all support CET but draw attention to data indicating male adolescent voice change occurring at younger ages than in Cooksey’s initial research.202 Hollien, Green, and Massey (1994, N=48) confirmed the predictable process of vocal maturation but also indicated that both onset and duration of maturation were more variable than previously thought.203

Looking backward to the three pioneers of this body of research—McKenzie, Cooper, and Swanson—one can see that Cooksey (himself a student of Cooper’s) draws mainly on themes from the first two. From Swanson, CET expands on scientific research and the connection of vocal maturation to sexual development. It diverges from Swanson in some of its key elements,

200 Fischer, “British and American Theories,” 45; Martin Ashley, “Broken Voice or a Broken Curriculum? The Impact of Research on UK School Choral Practice with Boys,” British Journal of Music Education 30, no. 3 (May 2013): 314; Julia Davids and Stephen LaTour, Vocal Technique: A Guide for Conductors, Teachers, and Singers (Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 2012), 204; Patrick K. Freer, “Boys’ Changing Voices in the First Century of MENC Journals,” Music Educators Journal 95, no. 1 (September 2008): 43–44; Leon Thurman, “Boys’ Changing Voices: What Do We Know Now?,” The Choral Journal 52, no. 9 (April 2012): 13. 201 Meredydd L. L. Harries et al., “Changes in the Male Voice at Puberty,” Archives of Disease in Children 77 (1997): 445–47. 202 Joanne Rutkowsi, “Two Year Results of a Longitudinal Study Investigating the Validity of Cooksey's Theory for Training the Adolescent Male Voice,” in Proceedings: Research Symposium on the Male Adolescent Voice, ed. Maria Runfola and Lee Bash (Buffalo: State University of New York, 1982), 71– 79; Melanie C. Moore, “The Adolescent Male Changing Voice: A Study of Age and Attitudinal Comparisons” (MA thesis, Texas Woman’s University, 1995); Janice Killian, “A Description of Vocal Maturation among Fifth- and Sixth-Grade Boys,” Journal of Research in Music Education 47, no. 4 (1999): 357–69. 203 Harry Hollien, Rachel Green, and Karen Massey, “Longitudinal Research on Adolescent Voice Change in Males,” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 96, no. 5 (November 1994): 2646– 54.

60 namely, that the process progresses in predictable stages and emphasis on the modal register. Cooksey’s model focuses primarily on boys’ modal register and speaks very little of falsetto usage. Swanson, on the other hand, recognizes the continued use of falsetto:

How exciting it is the first time the teenager displays two voices! He can sing comfortably down in the bass clef range and also in the upper reaches of the treble clef, but he may not be able to produce by any means whatsoever the tones which lie around middle C.204

According to Denison, it is on these lines that the two schools divide.205 On the one hand, the Cooksey/Cooper school includes Collins (another student of Cooper’s), Thurman, Freer, and Stockton. These proponents of CET advocate for development of the boy’s new voice. On the other hand, a different approach evolving from Swanson’s recognition of the falsetto during this stage is found in Henry Leck’s Expanding Voice Theory (EVT).

Though Swanson recognizes the role of falsetto in boys’ vocal development, Leck asserts that Swanson’s voice classifications do not show evidence of the falsetto.206 Leck argues that usage of the falsetto “can give crucial assistance to the new voice.”207 In summarizing the benefits of this approach, Leck mentions improved quality of tone, not straining the developing lower voice, and creating a voice without a break.208 Although Leck has drawn attention to this model due to his known success as a pedagogue, supporters of advanced vocal registration techniques during the voice change have persisted for decades. Frederick Mayer and Jack Sacher (1964) also challenged the idea of utilizing only a portion of the boy’s full range, stating that “developing voices are always capable of expression in a much wider range than is now held possible, and that the practice of limiting the range for these voices to an octave or less is in itself harmful and improper.”209 Mayer and Sacher influenced a 1994 study by Kenneth Phillips and Steven Emge

204 Frederick J. Swanson, “The Young Male with a Changing Voice,” National Association of Teachers of Singing Bulletin 38, no. 1 (1981): 32. 205 Denison, “A Structural Model,” 1-4. 206 Henry H. Leck, “The Boy’s Changing Expanding Voice: Take the High Road,” The Choral Journal 49, no. 11 (May 2009): 51. 207 Ibid. 208 Ibid., 60. 209 Frederick D. Mayer and Jack Sacher, “The Changing Voice,” American Choral Review 6, no. 3 (April 1964): 4.

(N=52) that supported the theory that multiregistration instruction contributes positively to range extension.210 A later study by Emge (1996, N=62) demonstrated that eighth grade boys could become comfortable singing in all registers (upper, middle, and lower) if all registers were utilized during instruction.211 These results were replicated by Stacey Sassi (2009, N=48).212 Phillips (1996) also supports this approach:

Boys with changing voices need to abandon their prepubertal mixed voices in favor of a two-register production. If both registers are well supported and firmly established, the adolescent boy will shift easily between these voices, without the strain so often noted in the top voice.213

The EVT approach is especially well supported among directors of community boychoirs. This could be attributed to the notion that falsetto singing is often considered desirable in community boychoirs but undesirable in other settings, such as public schools where a majority of boys do not engage in choral singing.214 Martin Ashley explains that upper-range singing in adolescent boys (even with unchanged voices) is often equated by their peers with femininity or homosexuality—labels that challenge emerging masculine identities.215 Don Collins states that the EVT approach works well in providing boys more freedom to sing where they are comfortable, but only

in a close community of boys such as a boys’ choir, outside the influence of other boys who do not sing. They support each other in the music making process when they are in an environment where they all may engage in this common practice of extended vocal

210 Kenneth H. Phillips and Steven W. Emge, “Vocal Registration as It Affects Vocal Range for 7th and 8th Grade Boys,” Journal of Research in Singing 18, no. 1 (1994): 1–10. 211 Steven W. Emge, “The Adolescent Male: Vocal Registers as Affecting Vocal Range, Register Competence and Comfort in Singing” (PhD diss., University of Iowa, 1996), 85. 212 Stacey L. Sassi, “Effects of Vocal Registration Training on the Vocal Range and Perceived Comfort of the Adolescent Male Singer” (DMA diss., Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 2009), 68. 213 Kenneth H. Phillips, Teaching Kids to Sing (New York: Schirmer Books, 1996), 51. 214 Martin Ashley, How High Should Boys Sing? (London: Routledge, 2013), 134. 215 Martin Ashley, “You Sing Like a Girl? An Exploration of ‘Boyness’ through the Treble Voice,” Sex Education 6, no. 2 (May 2006): 193–205.

range production without fear or ridicule from those boys who think they sound like a girl.216

Denison confirms that the EVT model is favored by several prominent community boychoirs in the United States, citing the practices of the American Boychoir School, Tucson Arizona Boys Chorus, Birmingham Boys Choir, and Pacific Boychoir Academy.217

While empirical studies have demonstrated the success of multiregistration instruction in developing tone quality and extending range, Leck’s assertion that it eliminates register breaks has been refuted. Harry Hollien contends that the gap between modal and falsetto registers may present problems for teachers in trying to expand their singers’ ranges,218 and Leon Thurman (citing the results of a study on phonational gaps by Willis and Kenny219) argues that “no voice education method could overcome phonational gaps.”220 While Leck’s assertion is supported by his own personal experience, it has not been supported in a controlled study.

Echoing the early history of voice-change models (i.e., Garcia versus Mackenzie), today’s practitioners find themselves with two divergent models, both with strong schools of support. It is possible to argue (as I do) that both approaches are correct and valid. Denison’s application of a Structural Equation Model (SEM) to connect latent factors such as physiology, motivation, and affective state to vocal outcomes in adolescent male singers provides support for both the CET and EVT models. Denison writes:

Correlations between observed variables height, age, and speaking pitch with ranges in upper and lower registers, intensity ranges and breathiness validated Cooksey’s previous findings, although he focused on the lower register findings. Physical Maturity outcomes also predicted composite range across registers, providing small but meaningful support of the Expanding Voice Theory of voice change.221

216 Don L. Collins, “Preferred Practices in Teaching Boys Whose Voices Are Changing,” The Choral Journal 47, no. 5 (November 2006): 119. 217 Denison, “A Structural Model,” 32. 218 Harry Hollien, “On Pubescent Voice Change in Males,” Journal of Voice 26, no. 2 (2012): e38–e39. 219 Elizabeth C. Willis and Dianna T. Kenny, “Phonational Gaps in the Developing Male Adolescent Voice,” Proceedings of the Third Conference on Interdisciplinary Musicology (August 2007). 220 Thurman, “Boys’ Changing Voices,” 19. 221 Denison, “A Structural Model,” 121.

Denison also expresses the need for a new unified theory, congruent with Cooksey’s melding of existent theories in the 1970s, stating that “knowing a single approach is insufficient for the possible contexts in which prospective teachers may find themselves.”222

The diversity of contexts of adolescent males singing in groups (either with other males or with their female peers) necessitates a diversity of approaches. Understanding the context of the development of these viewpoints can provide valuable insight on which approach may be best suited for a specific ensemble. Denison and Collins both allude to the effectiveness of EVT for established community boychoirs. Even Patrick Freer, a critic of EVT, writes:

These children have often experienced extraordinarily high levels of vocal training and are musicians of high caliber. We do these children a severe injustice when, as young adolescents, they come to our choirs and we do not embrace what they already know and do. For these children, Leck’s approach is unarguably and stunningly effective, perhaps exemplified best in the performances of his Indianapolis Children’s Choir.223

Unlike Leck’s setting, the Cooksey/Cooper school as represented by CET grew out of a public school context and so seems more suited to a more diverse set of singers. Cooper’s desire was to have singing become a more integral part of school life, not merely reserved for top performing ensembles.224

While EVT provides an alternative approach to working with well-trained voices, it does not negate the empirical research supporting CET, nor does CET contradict the validity of EVT for its intended constituents. The physiological basis for EVT can indeed be reconciled with the vocal maturation process as described by Cooksey. While CET does not focus on falsetto, the emergence of falsetto in Midvoice II is a key characteristic of the maturation process. In my personal interactions with Cooksey, I recall that he frequently demonstrated how adolescent singers in my advanced treble choir were able to utilize their upper range while developing their

222 Ibid., 10. 223 Patrick K. Freer, “Foundation of the Boys’ Expanding Voice: A Response to Henry Leck,” The Choral Journal 50, no. 7 (February 2010): 33–34. 224 Stockton, “Irvin Cooper,” 80.

64 lower range. This did not change the fact that their vocal folds were mutating according to a predefined set of stages. It merely meant that the stages were veiled and could possibly be missed without regular testing. Without knowledge of the developing lower modal register, boys may be encouraged to continue singing in their high range (falsetto), leading to dysphonias such as puberphonia—an unusually high-pitched voice beyond puberty. Such a condition often results from conflict between psychological will and laryngeal development and can be extremely difficult to treat.225

Due to its more ubiquitous application, Cooksey’s CET model is used in this study as a framework for assessing the suitability of chant repertoire for changing-voice males. In addition to its broader acceptance, Cooksey’s model provides a detailed typology for each stage of mutation (as outlined in 3.2). These descriptive typologies will provide a firmer foundation for matching repertoire with specific voice types. In recognition that many of the prospective beneficiaries of this research will be established community boychoir/youth choir programs, the EVT approach prescribed by Leck, Phillips, and others will also be considered with respect to best practices in working with these voices.

3.4 Best Practices for Working with Male Voices in Transition

The combined work of Cooksey, his predecessors, and his contemporaries has provided practitioners with valuable information on specific challenges presented by adolescent male vocal mutation, allowing teachers and conductors to better understand the boy’s changing voice, to nurture and care for it, and to select appropriate repertoire. The relatively recent increase in research on the boy’s changing voice and the proliferation of new attitudes toward working with adolescent male singers have had a direct influence on the North American boychoir model that is prevalent today, which represents a strong shift from older European treble-only models. The presence of adolescent males is now almost unanimous among North America’s most established boychoir schools and ensembles.226 This has resulted in the development of best practices with

225 Darryl Edwards, “Puberphonia,” Canadian Music Educator 48, no. 4 (Summer 2007): 54. 226 André-Louis Heywood, Unpublished research, Presentation to the Board of Directors of The St. John’s Boys’ Choir, February 18, 2015.

65 regards to working with boys’ changing voices. A review of the literature reveals three primary conclusions that frequently emerge from the research. First, the new voice must be trained and developed rather than left without instruction. Second, although vocal development may be jagged during this transition, musical learning need not cease. Third, particularly for boys who have been singing for much of their lives at that point of vocal mutation, continuous participation in choir satisfies a social, aesthetic, and psychological element important to male adolescent development and identity formation.

Vital to development of their new voices, boys require sufficient practice in their new modal register. Nonetheless, exercises geared toward range extension and developing coordination between adjacent registers are also essential.227 As previously mentioned, Leck suggests that falsetto singing has a direct impact on range development during the voice change, stating that “experience shows that boys’ voices expand while changing if they continue to sing in their high voice and vocalize from the top down across the break while developing their lower range. The entire range expands as the low range develops.”228 This may seem at odds with Cooksey’s assertion that boys in this phase devote time to their new register, but Leck’s ideas may be seen as an extension of Cooksey’s statements on register coordination. (Cooksey does actually advocate for appropriate falsetto usage, but as a limited exercise.229) The use of downward vocalises with the aim of either connecting registers or achieving a lighter (mixed) quality in the upper range is advocated by several researchers.230

Cooksey’s research also addresses the lack of agility during the voice change. Decreased vocal agility is especially present in the earlier stages of the voice change (Midvoice I and II),231 which has implications for repertoire selection for singers in these stages. Sally Hook’s research on vocal agility in changing-voice males shows a direct correlation between agility and years of choral experience, suggesting that continued involvement in choir assists in developing vocal

227 Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices, 37–38; Freer, “Foundation of the Boy’s Expanding Voice,” 31; Davids and La Tour, Vocal Technique, 213–14. 228 Leck, “The Boy’s Expanding Voice,” 52. 229 Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices, 38. 230 Christopher D. White and Dona K. White, “Commonsense Training for Changing Male Voices,” Music Educators Journal 87, no. 6 (May 2001): 42–43. 231 Sally A. Hook, “Vocal Agility in the Male Adolescent Changing Voice” (PhD diss., University of Missouri–Columbia, 2005), 96–97.

66 agility. The same study also found that agility in changing-voice males is eased by the addition of lyrics (as opposed to neutral syllables), the utilization of slower tempi, and singing in the lower portion of their range.232

On the issue of range, finding repertoire and vocalises suitable for an adolescent choral ensemble will prove challenging, given the wide variety of stages likely to be represented. Freer suggests abandoning reliance on pitch-specific vocalises and improvisational exercises. Such activities can teach vocal skills and leave the pitch and range selection up to the students.233

Vocal strain can be a common issue as well, particularly in the extremes of boys’ ranges. Rollo Dilworth stresses the importance of limiting vocal strain on boys of this age, advocating for them to sing where they are most comfortable in their range and to allow them to rest when experiencing vocal fatigue.234 This concurs with Cooksey’s advice of utilizing the comfortable middle of the boys’ ranges before branching out:

The director should begin working with the comfortable singing range and tessitura which each individual has, regardless of the variety of stages in the youth choir situation. It is important to consolidate the comfortable middle range through each voice stage so that hyper-functional habits can be avoided.235

It is best to prominently use the most accessible and comfortable range to prevent poor singing habits (e.g., tight jaw, throat tension, upper body tension, etc.).236

Dilworth also recommends providing healthy vocal models to visually and aurally reinforce healthy, strain-reducing techniques. Sandra Babb claims that the provision of exemplary vocal models, especially when contrasted with non-exemplary models, allows adolescents to more speedily assimilate the idea and produce the desired result.237

232 Ibid., 82–86. 233 Patrick K. Freer, “Choral Warm-Ups for Changing Adolescent Voices,” Music Educators Journal 95, no. 3 (March 2009): 58. 234 Rollo A. Dilworth, “Working with Male Adolescent Voices in the Choral Rehearsal: A Survey of Research-Based Strategies,” Choral Journal 42, no. 9 (April 2012): 29. 235 Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices, 38. 236 Ibid., 68. 237 Sandra Babb in Jessica Napoles et al., “Beautiful Singing with Developmental Choirs,” The Choral Journal 53, no. 3 (October 2012): 57.

Many non-vocal aspects of vocal production can be emphasized during the period of voice change, such as proper body alignment and breath management. If boys have been singing previously, much of this will be a review of previously learned techniques and principles that must now be reinforced and practiced with the new voice.238 Christopher White and Donna White agree that establishing good alignment during this period is important, especially given the new physical demands of the body—balancing greater subglottic air pressure with increased laryngeal size and head resonance.239 Like Babb, Rianne Gebhardt touts adolescence as a time to ingrain healthy vocal habits, asserting that it is at this crucial stage that adult singing habits are formed:

Researchers speculate that the adolescent brain is more sensitive to events because of the increased release of the chemical dopamine during adolescence, a chemical released in tandem with strong emotions. Since ordinary events trigger strong emotions in adolescents, our memory engrains these events more than events at other periods of life.240

Gebhardt advocates for a balance between voice use and voice rest, as well as proper instruction in hydration, nutrition, and physical fitness. Freer also advocates for these things, likening singing to athletic activities such as weightlifting.241 Addressing the physical angle from a different perspective, Freer suggests that adolescents respond well to the incorporation of movement and gesture in rehearsals.242

In addition to vocal growth, several other musical skills can be developed during this period. Auditory skills can be fostered further as the boys get used to hearing musical patterns in a new octave.243 Boys in transition experience challenges with the unfamiliar coordination necessary of the vocal apparatus to match pitches in the new octave, often resulting in difficulties with pitch

238 Dilworth, “Working with Male Adolescent Voices,” 29. 239 White and White, “Commonsense Training,” 41. 240 Rianne M. Gebhardt, “The Adolescent Singing Voice in the 21st Century: Vocal Health and Pedagogy Promoting Vocal Health” (DMA diss., Ohio State University, 2016), 51. 241 Patrick K. Freer, “Weight Lifting, Singing, and Adolescent Boys,” The Choral Journal 52, no. 4 (November 2011): 32–41. 242 Patrick K. Freer, “Adapt, Build, and Challenge: Three Keys to Effective Choral Rehearsals for Young Adolescents,” The Choral Journal 47, no. 5 (November 2006): 51. 243 Freer, “Boys’ Changing Voices,” 45.

68 control and accuracy.244 Justine Ward’s method of music education, developed in the early part of the twentieth century, uses the grade eight curriculum to build on students’ knowledge of music history.245 This suggests that other aspects of musical knowledge can also be studied in depth during this phase of more limited vocal use—music theory, for example, or the introduction of new languages, diction, International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), and more advanced sight-singing (though range-appropriate). Alan McClung’s survey of middle school master teachers reveals near-unanimous support for the idea of advancing sight-singing ability at this age. Emphatic responses by the respondents indicated that teaching sight-singing was “crucial,” of the “utmost importance at the middle school level!” and that it should “drive the middle school program.”246 One respondent noted that the boys in her classroom were particularly good at sight-singing, as they were motivated by the challenge.247 Robert Shewan notes that the quality of repertoire study need not be diminished due to vocal limitations, stating, “A choir can perform a work of the highest caliber and of great rhythmic and tonal difficulty when the range, tessitura, and dynamic demands are limited.”248

Often ignored, the social and spiritual elements of choral participation are essential to boys’ development and appreciation of the choral art. Carol Beynon and André-Louis Heywood’s 2010 study on reasons why males sing reveals that social factors are an important extrinsic motivator for choral participation among youth and young men and that establishing aesthetic and psychological connections to the music serves as an important intrinsic motivator, essential to establishing a young singer’s identity as a musician.249 This phase of development is important for social identity formation,250 empowerment (by overcoming the challenges of the voice

244 Davids and LaTour, Vocal Technique, 202. 245 Justine Ward, The Ward Method: Music Instruction for Catholic Schools (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1976–1982). 246 Alan McClung, “Master Teachers in Middle-Level Choral Music: Pedagogical Insights and Practices,” The Choral Journal 47, no. 5 (November 2006): 9–10. 247 Ibid., 10. 248 Robert Shewan, “Music Selection for High School Choir,” Music Educators Journal 52, no. 4 (1966): 129. 249 Carol Beynon and André-Louis Heywood, “Making Their Voices Heard: A Social Constructivist Study of Youth and Men Who Choose to Sing,” UNESCO Observatory Journal of Multi-Disciplinary Research in the Arts 2, no. 1 (2010): 10. 250 Adam H. W. Adler, “A Case Study of Boys’ Experiences of Singing in School” (PhD diss., University of Toronto, 2002), 232–87.

69 change),251 gaining confidence as a singer,252 and making the decision to continue in musical endeavors.253

A key element in addressing these three primary concerns—vocal development, continued musical learning, and social and spiritual well-being—is repertoire. Regarding repertoire selection, various authorities advocate for gender- and age-appropriate texts; avoidance of frequent register changes; musical lines with stepwise motion, as large vocal leaps that require flexibility and agility may prove challenging; phrase lengths that match the breath control capabilities of transitional singers and a variety of styles and eras.254

3.5 Chant and the Voice Change

Having explored the characteristics of the male pubescent voice (3.4) and the pedagogical benefits of chant singing (2.5), I believe that areas of successful overlap are apparent. Based on the best practices as established by research and praxis, seven key areas for potential benefit of chant study emerge.

1. RANGE AND TESSITURA

Many chants have a very small range and tessitura, within the acceptable margin for unison singing. Accommodating for Midvoice IIA—the most difficult stage of the mutational process— a combined chorus of boys in various stages of voice change might have a composite range of a

255 sixth to an octave—B♭3/B3 to G4/A4—according to Cooksey, or from G3 to E4, according to

251 Patrick K. Freer, “Hearing the Voices of Adolescent Boys in Choral Music: A Self-Story,” Research Studies in Music Education, no. 27 (2006): 71. 252 Vincent Oakes, “The Developing Male Voice: Instilling Confidence in the Young Male Singer,” Choral Journal 48, no. 11 (May 2008): 115–18. 253 Davids and LaTour, Vocal Technique, 213. 254 Lon Beery, “Music for Men in the Middle,” The Choral Journal 50, no. 4 (November 2009): 39–41; Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices, 68–69; Dilworth, “Working with Male Adolescent Voices,” 29–30; Mark Lucas, “Real Men Sing . . . Choral Repertoire,” The Choral Journal 52, no. 9 (April 2012): 47; Napoles et al., “Beautiful Singing with Developmental Choirs,” 60. 255 Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices, 66.

Freer.256 Perhaps the most attractive quality of the genre for these purposes is that chants are never tied to any specific pitch. The given pitch is always representative of the mode of the chant, but the singer may choose to start on any comfortable pitch, providing ideal flexibility for voices in transition.257

Where unison singing is not possible, opportunities for the use of organum may arise. Organum engages a subset of the ensemble to sing at the interval of a fifth above (though it can be a fourth or fifth above or below). Organum may also utilize pedal points both above and below the primary voice.258 The use of organum can provide variety to the chant, as different sections of the ensemble can be assigned different portions of the chant (dependent on which sections fit best in their tessitura), resulting in a quasi-antiphonal texture. This is reminiscent of the techniques used in the early monasteries (e.g., Victimae paschali laudes, figure 1).

2. VOCAL TONE AND ONSET

Chant melodies are often stepwise and limit their leaps to common fourths or fifths. The melodic patterns in chant, largely due to their harmonic simplicity, resemble the often-stepwise vocalises prescribed by Cooksey in his extensive list of vocal exercises for adolescent voices.259 The legato nature of chant requires clean and smooth onsets regardless of whether the phrase’s initial sound is a vowel or a consonant. This particular challenge can help singers in transition learn to manage the difficulties associated with achieving coordinated onset, a result of incomplete closure of the glottis caused by their changing biology.260 Also beneficial is the use of only pure Latinate vowels. Sustained fundamental vowels help in building good tone quality, vowel consistency, intonation, and resonance.261

256 Patrick Freer, “Choral Warm-Ups,” 58. 257 Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices, 65; Dilworth, “Working with Male Adolescent Voices,” 29–30. 258 Anthony Ruff, Canticum Novum: Gregorian Chant for Today’s Choirs (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2012), viii. 259 Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices, 51–64. 260 Davids and LaTour, Vocal Technique, 213. 261 Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices, 50.

3. VOCAL AGILITY

Performance practice of chant often requires excellent vocal agility. This applies not only to melismatic passages but also to some syllabic passages when approached with the semiological technique of Eugène Cardine. The semiological approach to performance practice typically results in a faster performance of the chant that focuses on textual inflection rather than equalistic temporal values to the notes in each phrase. Symbols like the superscript c (short for celeriter or “quickly”) found in the St. Gall neumes printed below the square neumes (see figure 4, second line on the syllable “mi” in “Domino”) suggest to the singer that they move very quickly through those notes.262 As previously mentioned, studies on vocal agility in changing- voice males show that regardless of stage of development, increased choral experience resulted in increased agility. This suggests that, even with the limitations that changing-voice males experience with regard to vocal agility, opportunities to practice passages requiring this skill will have a positive impact on their ability to manage difficult passages during their voice change. While this task can be accomplished through a wide range of pieces, the unique advantage of chant is that its limited range provides a simpler opportunity, in contrast to the wide ranges of some melismatic passages common to Baroque choruses by Handel, Bach, or Vivaldi, for example.

4. AUDITORY SKILLS

As discussed previously, the monophonic nature of chant lends itself to the development of auditory skills, including audiation and intonation. Cooksey suggests that if proper caution has been taken in identifying unison melodies within the composite range, unison singing can be used to develop the pitch-matching ability of boys with changing voices.263 Although Cooksey fails to elaborate on how this is accomplished, Helen Kemp asserts that unison singing provides children with the sensation of matching pitch and is, therefore, integral in the development of this ability.264 This idea is supported by Georgia Green (N=241), who demonstrated that

262 Eugène Cardine, Gregorian Semiology (Solesmes: Abbaye Saint-Pierre de Solesmes, 1982). 263 Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices, 36. 264 Barbara Tagg and Dennis Shrock, “An Interview with Helen Kemp,” Choral Journal 30, no. 4 (November 1989): 7.

72 children’s pitch accuracy improved when engaged in unison singing.265 Green also indicates that young singers have an easier time matching pitch when singing in unison with voices that match their own timbre, as opposed to an adult voice.

In addition, singing chant can also help to develop rhythmic accuracy within an ensemble. Chant performance practice most widely embraced in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries often requires singers to maintain rhythmic uniformity through complex rhythmic passages that seldom align with traditional concepts of rhythm and meter. This challenge of ensemble singing develops entrainment among singers. According to Jordan, “The tempo of plainchant must be rooted deep within each musician, and it is mediated, balanced, and sensed through listening and kinesthetic feeling.”266 Jordan ascribes all rhythmic learning and understanding to successful entrainment.267

5. EXPRESSIVE SINGING

According to Jordan, chant has the potential to develop skills in delivery of text, phrasing, dynamics, and articulation. As previously mentioned, Jordan’s claims regarding chant’s positive effect on text delivery and phrasing are corroborated by Richard Smith268 and Alice Parker.269 Little has been written on how best to develop expressive singing with adolescent voices since much of the research priority has been given to vocal production and development. Judy Bowers prescribes a list of expressive rules that work effectively with adolescent singers. For example, the Rule of Punctuation establishes proper phrasing habits; the Rule of the Slur focuses on minor variances in articulation in a legato context; the Rule of Word Stress allows important syllables to come to the forefront; the Rule of Dissonance and the Rule of Voicing enable proper balance;

265 Georgia A. Green, “Unison versus Individual Singing and Elementary Students’ Vocal Pitch Accuracy,” Journal of Research in Music Education 42, no. 2 (January 1994): 111. 266 James Jordan and James Whitbourn, Discovering Chant: Teaching Musicianship and Human Sensibilities Through Chant (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2014), 96. 267 Ibid., 100. 268 Richard A. Smith, “Recovering Gregorian Chant in the Choral Repertory, Part II: Using the Tools of Gregorian Chant to Illuminate the Choral Music of Later Periods," Choral Journal 47, no. 3 (September 2006). 269 Alice Parker, The Anatomy of Melody (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2006), 88.

73 and the Rule of Dynamic Contrast and the Rule of Repetition ensure dynamic flexibility throughout the piece.270 Bowers advocates for training students to independently and automatically identify these elements within the music they read. These concepts of expressive singing can continue to be developed with adolescent singers even while working with a limited range and tessitura, something that chant can afford them. The notation of most chant sources also includes several visual cues to assist students in clearly identifying expressive elements in the score, much like the visual cues to which Bowers refers in modern music. In Pueri Hebraeorum (figure 8), the quarter bar line in the first system represents the end of a musical thought, but one that is less significant than the half bar lines in the second system. These provide opportunities for discussion regarding breathing and phrasing. Accents on specific syllables are indicators of Latin word stress, providing a clear expressive cue to singers when working in a language that is not their own.

Figure 8: Antiphon: Pueri Hebraeorum (“The Hebrew children”)

Source: Liber Usualis (Tournai: Desclée, 1961), 581.

270 Judy Bowers in Napoles et al., “Beautiful Singing with Developmental Choirs,” 65.

6. OTHER MUSICAL LEARNING

For teachers with advanced knowledge (or keen interest) in the particulars of chant, the study of this repertoire allows for the teaching of musical concepts such as modality and alternative notation systems, as well as Medieval music history. For most practitioners, chant also provides additional opportunities to practice sight-singing. The teaching of these concepts to this age range of students has been in practice for almost a century now, as it has been a cornerstone of the Ward Method since its inception.271 While this methodology was intended for students in Catholic schools as a means of connecting their worship experiences to their overall musical education, its principles apply to all musical learners. With respect to sight-singing, the lack of accidentals and the unwavering obedience of each chant to its specific mode provide stronger opportunities for successful sight-reading as well as further development of listening skills through reinforcement of modality. Quarter bar lines, half bar lines, and full bar lines not only clearly indicate phrases within the piece but also represent a macro structure suggesting the relative importance of each phrase. Chant instruction manuals published since the early 1900s have attempted to provide guidelines regarding the treatment of these various bar lines, reflecting how different phrases are valued within the broader context of the entire chant:

Full and double bars mark the end of a significant phrase. They are treated as full stops and preceded by a slight ritardando. Half bars mark less significant sections; breath may be taken, but the rhythm should not be significantly interrupted. Quarter bars mark shorter musical phrases.272

7. AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE

The spiritual nature of chant has been shown to play a role in singers’ aesthetic, emotional, and psychological experience of the music. According to Beynon and Heywood, this metaphysical connection to the music—“an aesthetic experience at the spiritual level of the individual”—is an

271 Gisbert Brandt, “A Lively and Systematic Approach to Learning,” Sacred Music 133, no. 1 (Spring 2006): 17–21. 272 Richard Rice, ed., The Parish Book of Chant, 2nd ed., (Church Music Association of America, 2012), 309.

75 important factor in engaging boys and young men in singing.273 Ashley’s 2002 study of British boy choristers found that while the boys engaged in the performance of religious rituals, they viewed such actions as social and cultural rather than religious. Ashley remarks, “All the boys in the study were found to be ‘spiritual’ in that they loved and were moved by the music they sang in church, but few perceived their singing as a form of religious ministry.”274 This suggests that the performance of sacred chant, though religious in composition, may provide spiritual, aesthetic, social, and cultural enrichment to young male singers. Just as one may experience an aesthetic or emotional response to a significant sacred work, such as the “Lacrymosa” from Mozart’s Requiem, or the famous “Hallelujah” chorus from Handel’s Messiah, chant has a powerful potential to elicit similar reactions in singers. Beynon and Heywood’s Maslowian depiction of the factors that keep boys and men singing stresses the importance of a spiritual/aesthetic connection to choral music in helping males create an intrinsic attachment to singing:

At this point, their level of commitment and motivation is highly personal and intrinsic; it becomes forged in dedication, obligation, responsibility and devotion to the ensemble and/or the art of singing. At the same time, they will begin to have a sense of comfort and confidence of who they are growing into as men, and will take whatever path(s) needed to reach a plane of self-actualisation. Through this process males are more likely to find their voice and a continued commitment to the art of singing.275

While the musical benefits of chant for this demographic of singers seem plentiful, we must also consider the suitability, accessibility, and appeal of chant as repertoire for adolescent boys specifically. Criteria for selection of repertoire is not restricted to musical elements but should also consider music that boys find interesting and engaging. The view of Gregorian chant as an anachronistic art form may fuel the perception that chant is not a genre suitable for young singers. Justine Ward’s comprehensive eight-year music education method intended for

273 Beynon and Heywood, “Making Their Voices Heard,” 10. 274 Martin Ashley, “The Spiritual, the Cultural, and the Religious: What Can We Learn from a Study of Boy Choristers?,” International Journal of Children’s Spirituality 7, no. 3 (2002): 257. 275 Beynon and Heywood, “Making Their Voices Heard,” 10.

American Catholic schools in the first half of the twentieth century uses chant as a base for all musical learning.276 While chant in Catholic schools seems appropriate, its utility in public schools may be questioned. Restrictions on sacred music in public schools often cause teachers to eliminate some repertoire entirely. As an older choral form that has seen little transference from the church to the concert stage, chant is likely to be viewed as even more tied to a liturgical purpose than most frequently studied sacred choral works. It can be argued that, just as the major sacred works of later periods are often studied in schools through the context of their historical significance, chant may also be studied in this context as representative of some of the earliest choral music we have available to us. Pedagogue and researcher Katherine Strand’s strategies for teaching musical interpretation are directed toward high school ensembles (regardless of whether they are public or parochial schools) and use chant as a basis.277 Designed to help teachers meet the requirements of the National Standards (namely, performance, improvisation, composition, notation reading, and evaluation), Strand’s seven strategies explore plainchant performance in the context of compositions spanning various musical eras.278 These strategies engage students in guided listening and analysis of chant scores and recordings in an effort to make historical and stylistic connections among works. The Bach B-Minor Mass, Mozart Requiem, and Poulenc Quatre Motets de Noël are all explored through examining their textual, melodic, and historical connections to chants found in the Liber Usualis. Students also practice improvising harmonies over provided chant melodies, transcribing melodic lines, and composing new melodies over a cantus firmus.

Carol Aldrich’s 1963 dissertation on Medieval music for junior high singers finds merit in introducing chant to singers of this age.279 Constance Speake’s 1983 dissertation cites the philosophies of Kodály and Orff and their attention to elemental and indigenous musical forms as justification for the study of monophony by children up to grade six.280 The elemental nature of chant may warrant its justification as well. With respect to adolescent males, music educator

276 Amy Zuberbueler, “The Ward Method: Chant from the Ground Up,” Sacred Music 133, no. 1 (2006): 14. 277 Katherine Strand, “Teaching Musical Interpreations Through Choral Rehearsals,” Music Educators Journal 90, no. 1 (September 2003): 43–49, 56. 278 Ibid., 45. 279 Carol Aldrich, “Medieval Vocal Music in the Junior High School” (MM thesis, University of Southern California, 1963), 62–65. 280 Constance Speake, “Medieval Music and Children” (DMA diss., University of Oregon, 1983), 4–6.

77 and researcher Glenda Cosenza found that middle school boys have a particular proclivity toward Medieval music,281 validating earlier research by Peter Christenson and Jon Brian Peterson that found boys are more likely to appreciate experimental or different music, as opposed to their female peers who prefer mainstream repertoire.282 Cosenza’s study (N=187) focused on students’ aural appreciation for Medieval music but did not have participants actively engaged in the music-making. Citing anecdotal evidence, Jordan espouses the interpersonal benefits of singing chant:

Chanting became not only a musical expression for all of us but also a deeply affirming life experience that caused us to find what makes the best music—the most honest human expression. . . .

Chant allows us to be alone but with others; chant asks us to make ourselves less so others become more; chant asks us to serve something larger than ourselves; and chant demands us to listen deeply so we always hear what is the best in ourselves. Chant creates a sacred place for communities of singers unlike anything else I know or have ever experienced.283

Although sacred in origin, chant has a significant performance and aesthetic history worthy of study and is an integral part of a holistic understanding of the history of Western choral music. The National Association for Music Education (formerly Music Educators National Conference) vouches for the use of sacred music within an educational context, stating that it “is a vital and appropriate part of a comprehensive music education” and that “omission of sacred music from the school curriculum would result in an incomplete educational experience.”284 Music education professor and ethnomusicologist Natalie Kreutzer agrees that omission of sacred music for the

281 Glenda L. Cosenza, “Medieval Music for Middle School Chorus: A Music Preference Study,” Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 20, no. 2 (March 2002), 3–7. 282 Peter G. Christenson and Jon Brian Peterson, “Genre and Gender in the Structure of Music Preferences,” Communication Research 15, no. 3 (June 1988): 282–301. 283 Jordan and Whitbourn, Discovering Chant, 21–22. 284 MENC: The National Association for Music Education, “Where We Stand,” NAfME, March 1997, https://nafme.org/my-classroom/journals-magazines/nafme-online-publications/where-we-stand/.

78 purposes of avoiding religious favoritism is a “simplistic application” of laws,285 and the constitutionality of the inclusion of sacred music has been explored and defended by intellectual property attorney Faith Kasparian in the United States286 and music educator Jennifer Stratton in Canada.287 Stratton’s most powerful statement is a reminder that music is often about people and that, by singing music of a certain culture, we honor that culture. This applies to all music studied in a diverse curriculum, including the ancient roots of our own Western canon.

Notwithstanding the historical significance of chant, it is a form of choral music that can be explored without emphasizing its religious significance. As early as the fifth century, St. Augustine acknowledged that sacred music could be more secular than religious depending on the intent and even skill of the singer.288 In summarizing topical writings of Cage, Stravinsky, and Nattiez, Kasparian states that song can be “an independent aesthetic entity that in no way depends on the performer’s or the listener’s endorsement of the textual message.”289 Where stringent and unmalleable guidelines exist regarding the exclusion of sacred texts, it is possible the chant melodies can be explored with different texts. The practice of contrafactum (substituting one text for another) has been common throughout the history of Western music, crossing the sacred with the secular (e.g., “Greensleeves” and “What Child Is This?”), adapting for regional purposes (e.g., “God Save the Queen” and “My Country ’Tis of Thee”), or borrowing from other cultures (e.g., “Auld Lang Syne” and “Hotaru no hikari”). Perhaps the chant melodies, stripped of their ritual text, may still elicit an aesthetic response. After all, to the listener unfamiliar with Latin, it is the melody that engages the ear and evokes a response.

In juxtaposing these two areas of research (chant pedagogy and changing-voice pedagogy), we discover untapped potential for the use of chant for boys with changing voices. Chant repertoire

285 Natalie Kreutzer, “Research Connections: Justifying Sacred Music for Teaching in Schools,” Kodály Envoy 30, no. 3 (Spring 2004): 24. 286 Faith D. Kasparian, “The Constitutionality of Teaching and Performing Sacred Choral Music in Public Schools,” Duke Law Journal 46, no. 5 (March 1997): 1111–68. 287 Jennifer Stratton, “Sacred Music in the Secular Context: A Place for Sacred Music in Newfoundland and Labroador Schools,” Canadian Music Educator 51, no. 3 (Spring 2010): 36–38. 288 Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, trans. Richard Geoffrey Pine-Coffin (Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1961), 238–39. 289 Kasparian, “Constitutionality,” 1113.

79 allows them to work on vocal development while functioning in a suitable tessitura, maximizing the potential for success. Freer stresses how important successful singing is to boys, as they attribute musical ability to competency rather than to effort. Their biological limitations during the time of vocal mutation often lead to experiences of failure in choral music, resulting in reduced participation.290 This study proposes that chant provides opportunities for success for boys with changing voices, particularly in the areas of vocal development, sight-singing, phrasing, text declamation, vocal agility, expressivity, and the development of an aesthetic connection to the choral art. While recognizing the limitations that some ensembles may have with respect to the study and performance of sacred repertoire, the research makes a case for chant as a purely musical tool, potentially void of religious intent, though still evoking a strong aesthetic or spiritual response.

Chant, then, possesses both pedagogical and programmatic benefits worthy of exploration for adolescent male voices. Including the vast resources of chant available to us in our currently limited repertory for boys in vocal transition provides practitioners with new means of developing healthy vocal technique, advancing musical learning, engaging young singers in unique repertoire, and enhancing performance programs for audiences by incorporating a wide variety of eras. With thousands of chants available in the public domain, the sheer amount of repertoire could be daunting, particularly for the practitioner with limited or no experience in teaching or performing chant. The following chapter explores the process of identifying specific chants that meet suggested criteria for boys in vocal transition in order to establish a foundational body of repertoire for conductors interested in incorporating chant in their teaching.

290 Patrick K. Freer, “Two Decades of Research on Possible Selves and the ‘Missing Males’ Problem in Choral Music,” International Journal of Music Education 28, no. 1 (2010): 23.

Chapter 4 Methodology

The present study seeks to address the need for more historical choral repertoire for boys with changing voices. Chant repertoire has been largely unexplored by teachers of adolescent students for a variety of reasons, as mentioned in previous chapters. As I have suggested, the vastly rich body of chant repertoire might seem overwhelming to teachers who work with this age range and consider themselves chant novices. This has proved a hindrance to finding suitable chant repertoire for their students. Furthermore, the existing body of instructional materials regarding the study and performance of chant for young singers has focused on theology rather than vocal pedagogy, another significant obstacle to effective use of chant in nonliturgical choir contexts. Also, the lack of a standardized and field-tested chant repertoire for adolescent voices is both a symptom and a cause of the overarching problem. With few chant experts among those who work with this age group,291 there is little opportunity for much of this repertoire to be explored with transitioning voices. Conversely, the nonexistence of a clearly defined body of suitable repertoire deters teachers and conductors from programming this music.

The major goal of this study was to survey various chant resources and apply certain criteria to each of the chants contained within. These criteria, established by summarizing the best practices for changing voices as espoused by CET, when applied reveal a body of chant repertoire most suitable for changing voices. With attention to the guiding principles of CET and the historical performance practice, I arranged these chants for changing-voice ensembles. This chapter will outline my process.

ASSUMPTIONS

This study assumes that if practitioners have access to a suitable body of chant for adolescent voices, they will be able to effectively utilize this repertoire in the training and development of transitioning voices. This study also assumes that most teachers of this age group are unfamiliar

291 Patrick J. Hawkins, “Medieval Music in the Junior High Choral Classroom,” The Choral Journal 48, no. 9 (March 2008): 42–43.

81 with elements of chant pedagogy (such as interpreting neumes or deciphering phrasing) and that the provision of lesson plans and resource lists will facilitate the use of this repertoire. Finally, this study assumes that chant repertoire has a place in the curriculum apart from its theological basis and can be productively studied for its historical significance and pedagogical benefits. As such, the criteria for selection of the chants will focus on historical and pedagogical factors rather than religious ones. In full understanding of the complexities of utilizing music of a particular religious tradition within the multicultural context of many North American schools, I recognize that this study promotes a body of literature that may be unavailable to some. The information provided will be of use primarily to Catholic schools and youth choirs but also to schools and youth choirs from other Christian traditions, as well as community choirs that often perform sacred music in a concert context. As such, this study assumes that the reader has a preliminary interest in incorporating chant into his or her ensemble’s literature.

4.1 Design of the Study

My experience of working at a North American Catholic choir school provided several opportunities for interaction with and observation of the programs at other Catholic choir schools across the continent. Observation of performances and informal discussions with conductors of these programs revealed that the availability of a field-based research site would be extremely limited. These bastions of sacred music—the stewards of school-aged Gregorian chant—seldom engage their changing male voices in the singing of chant with the purpose of facilitating vocal development. Practices range from combining the changing voices with much older male singers (who could serve as good vocal models, but whose ranges and tone qualities would be different from the young adolescents’) to the complete cessation of singing in liturgies, relegated to altar serving or similar duties. I remained convinced that there is pedagogical value in this repertoire and set out to provide a resource that could be used for vocal and historical purposes, not necessarily tied to Catholic liturgy. This collection of chants could be useful to teachers seeking to broaden their repertoire base for transitioning voices and would be an effective starting point for further exploration of the effectiveness of chant for such singers.

In order to establish a defined body of repertoire specific to the stated purpose, I used an historical method to collect, synthesize, and analyze past research and practices. Joseph Hill and

August Kerber suggest that historical research can yield contemporary solutions from the synthesis and analysis of past findings.292 In chant we have a historical body of repertoire that appears well-suited for adolescent male voices. How does chant support the development of adolescent changing voices? How can these voices present historically informed performances of chant that meet the unique challenges of the boy’s changing voice? How do history and pedagogy work together to inform our selection of chants suitable for such voices?

Following on their arguments, I adapted my study in such a way that, rather than relying on fieldwork or an experimental research design, I could juxtapose the seemingly disparate research areas of chant pedagogy and changing-voice pedagogy to provide a framework for analysis of a particular body of chant. Meta-analysis of the chant compilations that are part of the study provided objective parameters for the selection of chants.

To achieve the goals of this project comprised five steps:

1. establishing a repertoire base of chants from various accessible chant sources 2. assessing each chant for suitability for changing voices, based on criteria established by Cooksey 3. categorizing selected chants by genre for programmatic purposes 4. musically arranging a representative selection of chants in consideration of historical practice and best practices of changing-voice pedagogy 5. constructing performance notes and teaching instructions for representative chants for use by practitioners, in consideration of best practices of changing-voice pedagogy and chant pedagogy

4.2 Establishing a Repertoire Base

As the body of chant repertoire is so vast, I had to streamline the repertoire before establishing a base group of chants for the study. With tens of thousands of chants available, I gave preference

292 Joseph E. Hill and August Kerber, Models, Methods and Analytical Procedures in Education Research (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1967), 43.

83 to chants referenced in a variety of notable collections. These collections came from three categories:

Pedagogical chant books intended for use by this age group: These books already contain a vast body of repertoire suitable for young singers and represent a wide historical range. Recurring selections indicate chants that have consistently been taught to young singers. Although many such books exist, this study utilized only chant pedagogy books referenced in multiple contexts in the review of the literature. The selected resources for this category are:

• Justine Ward, Music Fourth Year: Gregorian Chant (Washington, DC: The Catholic Education Press, 1923) • Joseph Schrembs, Alice Marie, and Gregory Huegle, The Catholic Music Hour Books 1–5 (New York: Silver, Burdett & Co., 1935) • Marie Antoine Goodchild, Gregorian Chant for Church and School (Boston, MA: Ginn and Company, 1944) • M. Judith, Square Notes: A Workbook in Gregorian Chant (Boston, MA: Archdiocese of Boston, 1968) • Wilko Brouwers, Words with Wings (Church Music Association of America, 2012)

Current chant resources: While the pedagogical works in the previous category provided a wealth of suitable chants, only one of the resources was published in the twenty-first century. There was a need for more current chant sources as well. These collections, though not intended specifically for young singers, represent chants that enjoy some level of currency among both sacred and secular performers. While the pedagogical books span several decades, these collections are more likely to represent chants that appeal to twenty-first-century populations, thus making my research more relevant to present-day conductors. As these are recent publications, they are less likely to be found in other research. I prioritized publications by historically significant publishers of chant and liturgical music. GIA Publications was initially established in 1941 as the Gregorian Institute of America, with a focus on publishing Gregorian

84 chant.293 Since the liturgical reforms of the Second Vatican Council, GIA has focused more on contemporary Catholic music but still publishes chant resources. After the council, The Church Music Association of America took on the mantle of advancing Gregorian chant and other historical sacred music.294 The selected resources from these publishers are:

• Anthony Ruff, Canticum Novum: Gregorian Chant for Today’s Choirs (Chicago, IL: GIA Publications, Inc., 2012) • Richard Rice, The Parish Book of Chant, 2nd ed. (Church Music Association of America, 2012) • James Whitbourn, Laudate: Essential Chants for All Musicians (Chicago, IL: GIA Publications, Inc., 2014)

Chants influential to significant choral works: These chants are connected either musically, textually, or thematically to significant choral compositions from the Renaissance on. Secular ensembles could connect to these chants as a way of linking to their study of historically significant sacred choral repertoire. For this, I used two common conductor resources: a compendium of some of the most frequently used Latin texts in choral works and a comprehensive book on choral repertoire that brings together information from a wide range of sources. The third resource is a dissertation by composer and conductor Eric Barnum that features a compilation of one hundred chants selected with the goals of pedagogy and performance in mind.295 Barnum’s selection process includes a focus on recognizable texts, diversity in difficulty and duration, and a span of “a majority of human emotions and performance situations.”296

• Ron Jeffers, Translations and Annotations of Choral Repertoire, vol. 1: Sacred Latin Texts (Corvallis, OR: earthsongs, 1988); annotated list of common Latin texts with reference to their original chants

293 James F. White, Roman Catholic Worship: Trent to Today (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2003): 118. 294 “Our History,” Musica Sacra: The Church Music Association of America, n.d., accessed November 13, 2018, https://musicasacra.com/about-cmaa/our-history/. 295 Eric W. Barnum, “100 Chants: A Resource for Choral Practice and Performance” (DMA diss., University of Washington, 2013), 35. 296 Ibid., 12.

• Dennis Shrock, Choral Repertoire (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), page 4; list of significant chants that have become popular outside of liturgy • Eric W. Barnum, “100 Chants: A Resource for Choral Practice and Performance” (DMA diss., University of Washington, 2013); a selective list of chants representative of common choral texts and intended to span a broad range of moods, genres, and difficulties

A complete review of all the chants from the aforementioned resources yielded 557 chants for initial analysis. The purpose of the initial analysis was to aid the selection of chants for further exploration as described in the next section.

4.3 Assessing Suitability for Changing Voices

During compilation of the base repertoire of chants, I assessed the following qualities of each chant to determine suitability for changing voices.

1. mode (1–8, C, D, E, or none) 2. range (in semitones) 3. floridity (syllabic, neumatic, or melismatic)

I indexed all chants in a spreadsheet in Microsoft Excel, assigning an index number to each chant reviewed, in the order in which they were reviewed. I also recorded in the spreadsheet the referring chant source (e.g., Canticum Novum) to keep track of how many sources included each chant. I also recorded the official chant source (e.g., Liber Usualis) to use as a reference for locating the chant. It is worth noting that several of the chants are found in multiple sources (e.g., Graduale Romanum and Liber Hymnarius). I recorded only one official source per chant in the spreadsheet, however, according to a hierarchy of chant sources that I established based on frequency of use and general accessibility (e.g., availability in the public domain). The hierarchy of sources was as follows: Liber Usualis; Gradale Romanum; Graduale Simplex; Antiphonale Monasticum; Liber Hymnarius; Cantus Selecti; Chants of the Church; Antiphonale Romanum; Antiphonarium Ordinis Praedicatorum (Dominican); Cantus Varii; Psalterium Monasticum. Where multiple official chant sources existed, I recorded only the source highest in the hierarchy. Data regarding mode, associated feast/purpose, liturgical function, and genre could often be

86 determined from the chant source itself, but I corroborated it with information in the international chant databases GregoBase,297 Cantus,298 and Global Chant Database.299

I assessed degree of floridity based on the frequency and difficulty of the nonsyllabic (i.e., melismatic) portions of the chant and made determinations as follows:

• syllabic: chants lacking significant nonsyllabic material. This category includes chants with few or very simple neumatic motives, similar to slurred notes in hymns.

Figure 9: Example of syllabic chant: Adoro te devote (“I devoutly adore you”) Source: Liber Usualis (Tournai: Declée, 1961), 1855.

• neumatic: chants containing frequent use of neumes of three or more notes.

Figure 10: Example of neumatic chant: Asperges me, Domine (“Sprinkle me, Lord”) Source: Liber Usualis (Tournai: Declée, 1961), 11.

297 https://gregobase.selapa.net/. 298 http://cantus.uwaterloo.ca/. 299 http://www.globalchant.org.

• melismatic: chants containing significant melismatic material. This category includes chants that may otherwise be considered syllabic or neumatic but may contain at least one challenging melismatic passage.

Figure 11: Example of melismatic chant: Requiem aeternam (“Rest eternal”) Source: Liber Usualis (Tournai: Declée, 1961), 1807.

A complete table of all 557 chants in the base repertoire and their qualities used for analysis is included in Appendix A. The recorded qualities of each chant provided a rubric for evaluating that chant’s suitability for study and performance by changing adolescent voices. Selections of music to be featured in the study were made using the following process:

1. Chants that occurred most frequently among the various sources were included in the final list. Appearances in multiple resources suggested that the chant bore significance in some way. Chants that appeared in four or more sources (N=39) were used. 2. Chants that appeared in two or three sources were included if they featured a range of nine semitones (major sixth) or fewer, as this coincides with Cooksey’s description of the composite range suitable for unison singing (N=23). 3. Chants that appeared in three sources were also included if they were connected to a feast historically associated with boys’ singing. Historical research on the use of the pueri oblati in Medieval monasteries reveals chants that would have been sung specifically by the boys or featured the boys in a special way. Because of their historical significance to the group at the center of this study, these chants were also included. These feasts include the solemnity of the Immaculate Conception, Christmas, the feast of the Holy Innocents,

Palm Sunday, Holy Thursday, Good Friday, Easter, Corpus Christi, the feast of the Assumption, and other Marian celebrations (N=13). 4. Two chants with only one reference were given primacy of place because of their historical significance (as outlined in Chapter 2). These were Ut queant laxis—the chant on which our solfège system is based—and one setting of the Benedicamus Domino, which the boys would have sung at the close of every Office.

After application of the criteria, the final select list contains 77 different chants representing all eight modes and features great diversity in floridity, function, and genre.

4.4 Programmatic Categorization of Chants

In addition to the pedagogical considerations listed in 4.3, the following programmatic considerations were also recorded:

1. associated feast/purpose (e.g., Palm Sunday) 2. liturgical function (e.g., Office/Mass Proper) 3. genre (e.g., Antiphon, Canticle, Introit)

While these qualities reflect historical and religious properties, they are important in terms of understanding the context and composition of each chant. Knowledge of the associated feast is important in understanding the text, in providing any surrounding rituals (such as movement) that would have influenced the performance practice, and in connecting it to other repertoire. Knowing that a certain chant is specific to Christmas may influence a conductor to pair it with a more contemporary Christmas-themed work. Liturgical function also reveals ritualistic elements that may influence performance practice, such as use of a soloist, positioning of singers, or movement. The genre of each chant plays a role in understanding various compositional elements, as there are trends typical of each genre.

I indexed the 77 selected chants into useful programmatic and/or pedagogical categories based on the criteria in 4.2 and 4.3. From a pedagogical viewpoint, conductors would be interested in modality, range, and floridity, while an index by genre would be useful for programmatic

89 considerations. Indexes of modality, range, floridity, and genre are included in Appendices B, C, D, and E, respectively.

4.5 Musical Arrangement of Chants

Of the 77 selected chants, I selected eight chants to analyze further, providing historical background, context, teaching strategies, and performance notes. One chant per mode was selected to provide as full a context as possible for understanding the harmonic variety available in this genre, as well as the musical trends of each mode. Arrangements have been made in consideration of best practices of working with changing voices. Chants within a range of nine semitones are often set in unison and are assigned a starting pitch that will best fit the composite

300 range as defined by Cooksey (B♭2/3 to G3/4). Other chants have been arranged in either two or three parts. Three-part arrangements are intended for ensembles in which all CET stages are represented. Two-part arrangements are suitable for either ensembles of younger changing voices (typically unchanged plus CET stages 1–3) or ensembles of older changing voices (CET stages 2–5). Decisions regarding organum, antiphony, and the use of higher/lower voices were made in consideration of historical performance practice described in detail in Chapter 2, such as the distinction of upper and lower voices to represent male and female characters, or the use of upper voices to represent angels or heavenly symbols.

To maximize utility for this study, I arranged all chants using modern notation for practical purposes. Modern notation here specifically refers to use of treble and bass clefs and stemless oval-shaped notes. The use of quarter, half, full, and double bar lines mimics that of traditional Solesmes notation. Other Solesmes symbols are used, such as the liquescent, quilisma, and episema, as is the practice in other modern chant sources. This follows the technique of Barnum, who contends that integration of modern notation with the subtleties of plainchant maximizes utility and dissemination, thereby representing a “continuation of the intent of chant transmission from its earliest stages.”301

300 John M. Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1999), 66. 301 Barnum, “100 Chants,” 10.

Table 3: Supplementary Solesmes Notation

Symbol 4-line notation 5-line notation Liquescent

Quilisma

Episema

4.6 Performance Notes and Teaching Suggestions

I have selected eight chants as representative examples of pedagogical tools to aid conductors in both teaching and performing the chant. One chant has been selected for each of the eight traditional modes. Analysis of each chant includes:

• suggested part assignments • background (historical/liturgical) • adaptations (if any) made for the changing voice • analysis of pedagogical benefits of this chant and related teaching strategies • suggested performance practices

Best practices for working with adolescent voices as explored by Cooksey, Leck, Davids and LaTour, Phillips, Freer, and Dilworth, along with chant pedagogical practice by Ward, Brouwers, Marier, and Jordan inform both the pedagogical analysis and suggested teaching practices.

With a repertoire of suitable chants established, we can now explore the contexts in which these chants can be most useful to conductors of adolescent males. The stated goals at the outset of this study were to explore both the pedagogical and programmatic benefits of chant study and performance. The next chapter will address both of these elements, through the systematic

91 categorization of the chants based on pedagogical and programmatic considerations as well as exploring specific practices to be used in the rehearsal and performance.

Chapter 5 A Compendium of Chants for Changing Voices

After decades of development in the understanding of the adolescent male changing voice, the problem of finding varied repertoire that readily accommodates the challenges of this voice type remains. Vocally appropriate historical repertoire for this age range is especially limited. This study set out to identify a body of Gregorian chant repertoire that would be idiomatic for boys’ voices, increasing opportunities for teachers of adolescent male singers to explore historical choral music.

The concept of chant as a teaching tool for adolescent voices in transition is not an obvious option, particularly in public schools, where sacred music from the Judeo-Christian tradition is not always deemed suitable teaching material. Nonetheless, its historical significance, unique characteristics, and the renewed enthusiasm for chant in both performance and research suggest that the use of chant as a teaching tool is an option worth exploring. The chants I identify as potential selections for adolescent males represent a variety of themes, modalities, moods, and styles, presenting a number of viable options for conductors. From the base repertoire of 557 chants, a total of 77 emerged as pedagogically suitable according to the criteria established in Chapter 4.

I selected eight of the 77 chants and arranged them, guided by the principles of Cooksey’s Contemporary Eclectic Theory (as described in 3.2) as well as by historical chant performance practice. Through translation to modern notation, analysis and treatment within the framework of changing-voice pedagogy, and the provision of suggested teaching strategies, this study seeks both to demystify Gregorian chant for conductors unfamiliar with it and to promote its use as a tool for the continued musical growth of adolescent males.

5.1 Genre-Specific Trends in the Selected Chants The 77 chants selected span every major genre of chant repertoire. More than one-third (28 of 77) are antiphons, although eight of these chants are Marian antiphons, which are not antiphons in the traditional sense (i.e., associated and sung with a psalm verse). All non-Marian antiphons were connected to a specific feast. The general antiphons selected for this study run the gamut of

93 modes, range sizes, and degrees of floridity. The other two-thirds of these chants can be assigned to other more specific categories, as described below. The genres, though functional in nature, often exhibit genre-specific trends, knowledge of which may influence the teaching and performance of the chants. For example, having singers walk in procession during an introit or communion antiphon may give them a more informed sense of the intended rhythm and phrasing, while the rhythmic interpretation of a sequence may be more metrical.

KYRIALE

Chants from the Kyriale, the collection of Roman Masses, tend to be mostly melismatic and have large ranges. The three chants in this category with limited ranges are all either syllabic or neumatic. While Credo I is quite lengthy and unlikely to be paired effectively with music other than another Mass setting, Agnus Dei XVIII can be tied to pieces with themes of the “lamb,” the “Shepherd,” or “mercy,” and Gloria XI can be tied to Christmas repertoire referencing angels or other hymns of praise.

ALLELUIAS

Three Alleluias are featured in the list of selected chants. This genre of chants features highly melismatic passages that relay joy and celebration. Their long melismas are likely to prove challenging for voices in transition, but the relatively small ranges may allow for opportunities to develop greater vocal flexibility.

CANTICLES

Canticles are scarcely represented in this list. Of the three traditional daily canticles (Benedictus, Magnificat, and Nunc dimittis), only the Magnificat met the criteria established in Chapter 4. As the Magnificat is the Canticle of Mary, and there exists a strong historical connection between choirboys and Marian chants, the Magnificat is an ideal option for exploration of this genre. Furthermore, numerous composers have set this text, allowing for connections to be made to many other choral pieces. The Jeffers anthology from 1988 lists 106 significant settings of this

94 text.302 The JW Pepper online catalogue, which is the largest online choral music supplier in the United States and provides lists of repertoire for All-State and Honor Choirs, includes more than 600 settings as of April 2018.303 The Magnificat is represented in the list by both its simple and solemn tone. Both are in Mode 8 and are syllabic, with a small range (7–9 semitones).

RESPONSORIES

Responsories, chants immediately following readings in the Divine Office, are also scarcely represented in the list. These tend to be very melismatic (therefore, likely challenging for young singers), and although several responsories are referenced by Jeffers and Barnum, very few (only five) show up in the pedagogical books intended for young singers. The two responsories included in the list are both extremely significant texts. O magnum mysterium would have been sung at Matins on Christmas Day, while Tristis est anima mea is the second of nine Holy Week Tenebrae responsories, occurring at Matins on Holy Thursday. Popular settings of the Christmas responsory include offerings by Byrd, Gallus, Giovanni Gabrieli, Palestrina, Pinkham, Poulenc, Victoria, and Lauridsen, among others. The Tenebrae responsory has been less often set chorally, but settings by Gesualdo, Michael Haydn, Lassus, Martini, Palestrina, Poulenc, and Eleanor Daley are noteworthy. Both chants are extremely melismatic, but the latter has a limited range, making it similar to the aforementioned Alleluia chants as a potential means of aiding the development of vocal flexibility in changing-voice singers.

PROPERS

The propers of the Mass (introit, offertory, and communion) are represented by eight chants in this study. Six of these chants are connected to a specific major feast; one is a setting of Ave Maria, and the other is the introit for the Requiem Mass. Due to these associations, connections to significant choral works are plentiful in this category. The chants themselves are often

302 Ron Jeffers, Translations and Annotations of Choral Repertoire, vol. 1: Sacred Latin Texts (Corvallis, OR: earthsongs, 1988), 263. 303 “Sheet Music at JW Pepper | Search magnificat,” J.W. Pepper & Sons, n.d., accessed April 3, 2018, https://www.jwpepper.com/sheet-music/search.jsp?keywords=magnificat.

95 melismatic, but some have very limited ranges. The introits for Christmas Day (Dominus dixit) and the Requiem Mass (Requiem aeternam) both have ranges of a perfect fifth, well within the Composite Unison Range for changing-voice males. The communion chants for Palm Sunday (Pater, si non potest) and Easter Sunday (Alleluia) are much less melismatic and have a range of a major sixth, which is still within the Composite Unison Range but provides some vocal challenges for the boys in Midvoice IIA. A unique aspect of the propers as they relate to choral ensembles is their connection to movement. Introits and communion chants are intended to be used as processions, which can have programmatic implications their performance.

SEQUENCES

In the sequences, we find more syllabic and melodically intuitive chant material. Sequences developed from poets setting the long melismatic ends of Alleluia chants to texts, thereby converting a highly florid passage into a syllabic hymn-like melody. In assessing the modality of these chants, I noted that four of the five are in the Dorian or Mixolydian modes, with only the Stabat Mater existing in a plagal mode (Hypodorian). With their respective proximity to the minor (Aeolian) and major (Ionian) scales—each deviating from their modern-day counterparts by only one altered note—these modes tend to seem less foreign to contemporary ears. While all chants in this genre are very syllabic, they often span a wide vocal range, presenting clear challenges for changing voices. The structure of these sequences is such that phrase groups of smaller ranges can be identified. Because these five sequences were the only official Roman sequences from 1727 to 1970, they garnered a lot of musical attention from composers. All five are referenced in Jeffers’s anthology and Schrock’s list, both of which identify the most important Latin texts as they relate to choral compositions.

HYMNS AND LITANIES

Hymns and litanies are often as syllabic as sequences but are typically kept within a range of an octave. The one exception in this list is Ave maris stella, which is both melismatic and has a range of a major ninth. Many of the hymns also represent some of the most famous Latin texts. Varia, which are chants without a specific liturgical purpose but can be used in a variety of

96 contexts, are often also syllabic and in authentic modes (typically Dorian or Lydian). Their diversity of contexts could increase potential for exploration by ensembles that work primarily in sacred settings. All chants in this genre were referenced in the Parish Book of Chant, alluding to current liturgical significance.

5.2 Overview of Chants Selected for Pedagogical Analysis

While a complete pedagogical and programmatic analysis could be made of all 77 chants, I deemed such a project too large for the confines of this study. Instead, I selected eight representative chants for arranging, annotation, and analysis. The goal in the selection process was to arrive at a diversity in mode, floridity, range, genre, and significant feasts. I settled on eight chants as there were eight modes to be considered. Ut queant laxis (“May be loosened,” Mode 2) and Benedicamus Domino (“Let us bless the Lord,” Mode 5) were given primacy because of their significance to the historical pueri. Other selections were based primarily on frequency of references in the various chant sources. The most referenced chants in the study were Requiem aeternam (“Rest eternal,” Mode 6), Veni Creator Spiritus (“Come, Creator Spirit,” Mode 8), Pange lingua gloriosi (“Sing, my tongue,” Mode 3), and the simple tone of Regina coeli (“Queen of heaven,” Mode 6). Regina coeli was not included as Mode 6 could be represented by Requiem aeternam, which was more frequently referenced. I wanted significant feasts associated with the pueri to be well represented and accomplished this by selecting Alleluia, laudate pueri Dominum (“Alleluia, praise the Lord, you children,” Mode 4, Holy Innocents) and Hosanna filio David (“Hosanna to the son of David,” Mode 7, Palm Sunday). Only Mode 1 was left without representation. For this, I chose to use a sequence, as the syllabic nature of this genre would be well-suited for changing voices. The most referenced Mode 1 sequence was the Dies irae (“Day of wrath”) from the Requiem Mass. Given that the Requiem was already represented in the list, I moved to the next most referenced chants. Both Veni sancte spiritus (“Come, Holy Spirit,” Pentecost) and Victimae paschali laudes (“Praise the paschal victim,” Easter) were referenced with equal frequency. As there was already a Pentecost chant in the list, I opted for the Easter chant to provide more thematic variety. The eight selected chants then represented seven different feasts plus one chant from the ordinary of the liturgy;

97 incorporated syllabic, neumatic, and melismatic chants; and represented six different chant genres.

In analyzing and arranging each chant, I considered potential pedagogical benefits, based on the benefits of chant singing espoused by Jordan,304 and established best practices for working with changing voices according to Cooksey, Leck, Freer, Dilworth, and others. While outcomes related to development of the boy’s changing voice were given primacy, other pedagogical opportunities were considered. Despite the challenges of inconsistent phonation, pitch control, and register transitions, boys going through the voice change can (and should) continue to develop skills such as breathing, resonance, articulation, diction, music literacy, sight singing, and ear training.305 Chant also lends itself to lessons in music history and music theory through exploration of the Gregorian modes. The table below summarizes the eight selected chants and their proposed pedagogical foci.

Table 4: Pedagogical Topics for Selected Chants

Mode Chant Targeted CET Stages Pedagogical Topics

I Victimae paschali laudes 0–5 Legato

II Ut queant laxis 0–5 Sight-Singing, Phrasing

III Pange lingua gloriosi 2–5 Text, Modality

IV Alleluia, laudate pueri Dominum 0–5 Tone, Agility

V Benedicamus Domino 0–5 Registration, Intonation

VI Requiem aeternam 0–5 Entrainment, Breathing

VII Hosanna filio David 0–3 Ear Training, Expressivity

304 James Jordan and James Whitbourn, Discovering Chant: Teaching Musicianship and Human Sensibilities Through Chant (Chicago, IL: GIA Publications, Inc., 2014) 305 Julia Davids and Stephen LaTour, Vocal Technique: A Guide for Conductors, Teachers, and Singers (Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 2012), 213.

VIII Veni creator Spiritus 2–5 Balance, Uniformity

Also provided with each chant is a full translation as well as a concise summary of the historical context and background of the chant. Knowledge of the performance practice of some of these chants can serve as a guide in making effective musical decisions that not only serve the needs of adolescent singers but also enhance the music and provide a degree of historical authenticity. Programmatic considerations have also been considered, that is, options for the performance of each chant, and other choral repertoire that could pair well with each chant. The eight selected chants for further analysis follow.

5.3 Mode I: Victimae paschali laudes (“Praise the paschal victim,” Sequence for Easter Sunday)

100

Source: Liber Usualis (1961), page 780

101

Themes: Easter, Praise, Angels, Sacred Women, Lamb

Level of Floridity: Syllabic

Voicing: 3-part

• Part 1: Cooksey Stages 0 & 1

• Part 2: Cooksey Stages 2 & 3

• Part 3: Cooksey Stages 4 & 5

TRANSLATION (Jeffers, Translations and Annotations, 243–45)

Victimae paschali laudes To the Paschal Victim immolent Christiani. let Christians offer their praises.

Agnus redemit oves: The Lamb has redeemed the sheep: Christus innocens Patri Christ, the sinless one, reconciliavit peccatores. has reconciled sinners to the Father.

Mors et vita duello Death and life have engaged conflixere mirando: in a wondrous conflict: dux vitae mortuus, the slain leader of life regnat vivus. reigns alive!

Dic nobis Maria, Tell us, Mary, quid vidisti in via? what did you see on your way?

Sepulcrum Christi viventis, I saw the sepulcher of the living Christ et gloriam vidi resurgentis and the glory of Him rising:

Angelicos testes, And I saw the angelic witnesses, sudarium, et vestes. the napkin, and the linen clothes.

Surrexit Christus spes mea: Christ my hope is risen; praecedet suos vos in Galilaeam. he shall go before his own into Galilee.

Scimus Christum surrexisse We know that Christ has truly risen a mortuis vere: from the dead: tu nobis, victor Rex, miserere. O thou, Victor, King, have mercy upon us. Amen. Alleluia. Amen. Alleluia.

102

HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND SIGNIFICANCE

One of the five great sequences, all of which are represented in the 77 selected chants, Victimae paschali laudes was typically sung daily at Mass during the octave of Easter.306 Because of the paired structure of the verses, these were often sung antiphonally.307 This paired pattern is slightly disrupted in the third set of verses, as the line “Credendum est magis soli Mariae veraci quam Judaeorum turbae fallaci” was removed by the Council of Trent in the sixteenth century for its anti-Semitic sentiment.308 The popularity of this sequence is often attributed to its dramatic elements (namely, the question to and response from Mary Magdalene) and was in fact utilized in Medieval liturgical drama.309

ADAPTATIONS

In this re-envisioned version for adolescent male voices, we can see the use of pedal point technique to add texture, movement of the vocal lines to different sections of the ensemble so everyone has an opportunity to sing a melodic line in their range, and depiction of the various characters of the story by having the narration be sung by lower voices and the text of Mary Magdalene sung by the upper voices as would have been the custom.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION: LEGATO SINGING

The arc-like structure of the melodic lines in Victimae paschali laudes are apparent both visually and aurally. The passing of the melody from one voice part to another ensures that all different voice types have an opportunity to explore the natural phrasing brought about by the text. This chant provides singers with opportunities to experiment with expression within a legato line— identifying stressed and unstressed syllables, how they relate to the apices of each phrase, how text may influence tempo and dynamics. Jordan argues, “Chant teaches us that while musical

306 Jeffers, Translations and Annotations, 246. 307 David Hiley, Western Plainchant: A Handbook (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 172. 308 Jeffers, Translations and Annotations, 245. 309 Hiley, Western Plainchant, 109.

103 weight has an expressive value, misapplication of weight interferes with both musical architecture and the trajectory of any phrase.”310 Visual and kinesthetic representations of the vocal phrases could aid in achieving the desired legato texture.

Figure 12: Example of visual aids for Victimae paschali laudes

Figure 13: Sample vocalise focused on legato phrasing based on Victimae paschali laudes

Figure 12 provides an example of how the vocal lines in the opening of Victimae paschali laudes could be represented. Teachers or conductors could present the visual representations without providing the musical notation and have singers vocalize freely on an [i] vowel, following the contour of the visual aid, in a pitch range comfortable to them. The ensemble would not be in unison, but every singer could successfully experience connecting his own vocal production with the visual representation presented. The contour of the phrase can be further emphasized by encouraging singers to arrive at their own kinesthetic representation (either using hand/arm gestures or using their full bodies) of the melodic line. The visual aids themselves closely resemble the visual representation of the chironomy (conducting gesture) of Gregorian chant as

310 Jordan and Whitbourn, Discovering Chant, 155.

104 advocated by the monks of Solesmes and employed consistently in Ward Method books and other chant resources.311 In the Square Notes textbook, chironomy is identified as a tool to “help you sing the Chant with the same rise and fall in your voice that the director is making with his hand.”312 The more contemporary Words with Wings engages students in movement in a majority of its exercises.313 Kenneth Phillips also states that when students conduct using “free-flowing diagonal curves” they gain a better sense of phrasing and flow.314 These suggest a strong connection between gesture/movement and the phrasing of chant melodies.

As shown in Figure 13, the singers can then continue vocalizing but with changing vowel sounds. This enables them to focus on legato singing, following a melodic contour, while modifying mouth shape to switch between vowels. This first phrase is particularly helpful since it moves through the vowel combination [i-e-a], which features a gradual and smooth backward movement of the tongue, as well as a gradual and smooth opening of the mouth. This vowel combination is often used in vocalises during the “warm-up” portion of rehearsal. This exercise can in fact flow directly out of the warm-up and into rehearsal of the repertoire.

After sufficient exploration of the melodic contour, the conductor can then provide a pitched context by demonstrating the vocal line starting on C2 (lower-voice teachers) or C3 (upper-voice teachers). This puts the opening melodic line within the Composite Unison Range. The different vocal sections can then begin to explore the melodic contours in succession, as the melody switches between parts. As the melodic contours become more and more engrained, Latin text can slowly be introduced. Smooth, flowing movements can continue to be employed throughout this process to reinforce the flowing nature of the legato lines.

The dramatic context of this chant should not be ignored. Not many chants contain such a strong and clear narrative. To draw out this element from the ensemble, have the choir sit in three

311 Liber Usualis: With Introduction and Rubrics in English (Tournai: Desclée, 1961), xxx–xxxi; Justine Ward, Music Fourth Year: Gregorian Chant (Washington, DC: The Catholic Education Press, 1923); Ermin Vitry, The Key to Chant-Reading (St. Louis: Fides Jubilans, 1955); Theodore Marier, A Gregorian Chant Master Class (Bethlehem, CT: Abbey of Regina Laudis, 2002). 312 Sister M. Judith, Square Notes: A Workbook in Gregorian Chant (Kansas City, MO: Angelus Press, 1962), 62. 313 Wilko Brouwers, Words with Wings (Church Music Association of America, 2012). 314 Kenneth H. Phillips, Teaching Kids to Sing (New York: Schirmer Books, 1992), 344.

105 distinct sections—significant space separating the clusters and with each group able to see the other groups. Sitting in distinct sections allows for each group to have a different role in telling the story. Each section spends time both as storyteller and as listener. A syllabic text such as this allows for focus on text declamation and expressive singing. Have sections recite their Latin text on one pitch (mid-range) with an emphasis on proper Latin pronunciation and syllabic stress. In this piece the accented syllable often falls on a beat that is not intuitively accented (e.g., “redémit” in the second phrase has the musical emphasis on the first syllable).

This chant serves as a wonderful vehicle for the teaching of legato singing, syllabic stress, and connection of gesture/body to phrasing. With each phrase ending on the final (tonic note) of the mode (in this case, “re”), and the use of the open fifth chord in the pedal tones, it provides an opportunity to work on intonation. The narrative of the text also provides the opportunity to explore storytelling through expressive singing while performing in a different language. These skills are highly transferable to other repertoire and can be explored fully in the context of this chant, where each singer, regardless of range, can be successful in the singing of a melodic line.

PERFORMANCE SUGGESTIONS

The dramatic character of this chant can be heightened through strategic positioning of the singers. The three parts could be situated in different locations in the performance space to draw greater attention to the distinct role of narrator and Mary Magdalene. This antiphonal setup would be historically authentic. The pedal tone should not be too timid but rather persistent, as would have been the sound produced by a hurdy-gurdy or organistrum, which were often used to accompany sung chants.315 The entire work should act dynamically, with the peak happening at “Surrexit Christus spes mea” (“Christ, my hope, is risen”). It is the first time in the piece that all parts are in unison/octaves.

315 Kathleen Schlesinger, “Organistrum,” in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., ed. Hugh Chisholm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911).

106

ASSOCIATED CHORAL REPERTOIRE

The text of Victimae paschali laudes is both a dramatic depiction of the Easter mystery and a prideful exaltation of the risen Christ. There are several advanced settings of the sequence text for mixed voices, including compositions by Byrd (SAATB), Josquin (SATB), Michael Haydn (SATB), Lassus (8vv), Mathias (SATB), Palestrina (8vv), and Victoria (8vv). All of these are well beyond the abilities of adolescent voices. A popular contemporary setting of the text for TTBB ensembles, however, is by Michael Engelhardt.316 While the ranges of the parts line up well with the traditional Cooksey stages, the piece splits into six parts at times and has several challenging rhythmic elements.

This chant would pair well with any music suitable for Easter or pieces about Mary Magdalene. There are several works for mixed voices that have parts very suitable for Cooksey Stages 1–5:

• Stephen Hatfield, When It Was Yet Dark, SAB, Boosey & Hawkes 48004621 • Russell Robinson, Alleluia (on a theme by William Byrd), 3-part mixed, Heritage Press 15/3421H • Ludovico Viadana, arr. Sherri Porterfield, Exsultate Justi, 3-part mixed, Alfred 23885

316 Michael Engelhardt, Victimae Paschali Laudes, TTBB, mikeemusic.com, MSME01-10.

107

5.4 Mode II: Ut queant laxis (“May Be Loosened,” Hymn to Saint John the Baptist)

Source: Liber Usualis (1961), page 1504

Thematic Category: Praise, Sacred Men, Reconciliation

Level of Floridity: Syllabic

Voicing: Unison (with optional organum for Cooksey Stage 3)

TRANSLATION (by André Heywood)

Ut queant laxis resonare fibris So that your servants may with loosened voices Mira gestorum famuli tuorum, tell of your miraculous deeds, Solve polluti labii reatum, cleanse their soiled lips, Sancte Iohannes! Saint John.

108

HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND SIGNIFICANCE

The text of this hymn in honor of Saint John the Baptist is divided in the Roman Breviary among three different Offices on his feast day (June 24)—the first stanza to Vespers, the second to Matins, and the third to Lauds.317 The first stanza, Ut quent laxis, is the most famous because of its historical role in music pedagogy. In addition to serving the pedagogical needs of Medieval choirboys, the chant contains several elements that contribute to its suitability for today’s changing voices. A brief look reveals several elements that facilitate vocal ease for male voices in transition. The entire range is only a major sixth. Most of the motion is stepwise with a few thirds. There are unique rhythmic elements that allow the singers to discover rhythmic unity without adhering to traditional notation. The phrases are relatively short and easily manageable by changing voices.

ADAPTATIONS

Applying the composite range as prescribed by Cooksey, the ensemble should begin on a B♭, making the highest note a G. This range would be manageable in the upper octave (starting on

B♭3) for unchanged voices and voices in Midvoice I and II, and in the lower octave (starting on

B♭2) for new and developing baritones. For Midvoice IIA singers, it presents a few challenges in the upper portion of their range. Using Freer’s suggested composite range (starting on G3) would be more suitable for voices in Midvoice IIA but less comfortable for almost all other voice parts. This edition employs an optional organum at the fifth above the lower voices starting on

“famuli” (starting on Bb3) for the singers in Midvoice IIA, causing their highest note to be D4, well within their comfortable singing range.

317 Hugh Henry, “Ut queant laxis resonare fibris,” in The Catholic Encyclopedia 15 (New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912), accessed April 3, 2018, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15244a.htm.

109

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION: SIGHT-SINGING

Development of sight-singing skills can serve as an effective focal point during the study of this chant. Of the 39 pitch transitions in the chant, 25 are stepwise, helping to familiarize singers with the mode as well as providing them with very singable phrases and an easily attainable legato. The chant also encompasses various common ascending intervals—major seconds, major and minor thirds, and perfect fourths and fifths—providing opportunities to either introduce or reinforce sight-singing techniques.

The historical context of this chant naturally leads to a lesson on solfège. If singers are already familiar with the solfège syllables, they may find it interesting knowing that the syllables originated from this chant. If they are unfamiliar with the syllables, this chant perhaps provides an opportunity to introduce them. An obvious disparity is the use of “ut” instead of “do.” For this reason, an English setting by Cecile Gertken (a Benedictine sister who sought to preserve the ancient chant melodies after the Second Vatican Council approved the use of vernacular in Mass)318 may be more accessible to today’s singers. James Whitbourn supports the use of vernacular in learning chant:

After all, the chanting of psalms, for example, is just as effective in English, and mastering this is an excellent way to get started with psalmody. It means that singers should be able to concentrate better on the new notation and on the sounds that they are making while having to glance only briefly at the text.319

While the notation in this example has been updated, the English translation provides an opportunity for young singers to worry less about a foreign-language text and more about the quality of sound and sense of vocal line.

Figure 14 shows how the English lyrics can be superimposed with solfège pedal tones to aid in improving individual and ensemble intonation skills as singers sustain a pitch in unison against a melody that often creates dissonance with the pedal tone. Singers should be encouraged to

318 Roberta Werner, Reaching for God: The Benedictine Oblate Way of Life (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2013), 72. 319 James Whitbourn, Laudate: Essential Chants for All Musicians (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2014), 17.

110 employ Kodály-Curwen hand signs as they sing through the solfège on either the upper melody line or the lower pedal point.

Figure 14: Ut queant laxis in English setting with solfège pedal tones

This chant provides several opportunities for developing auditory skills. Knowing the significance of the first note of each phrase, conductors could have students sing the first note of each phrase out loud and sing the rest of the phrase silently in their heads. This activity will help to develop audiation and, after multiple executions, may potentially improve intonation. If executed without a conductor, this activity will also help develop entrainment in ensembles as it requires a unified concept of tempo and phrase length.

This chant can also work very nicely as part of a regular choral warm-up regiment. Kenneth Phillips argues that chant, because of its ease and purity of vowel can serve as an effective warm-

111 up for adolescent voices.320 When singers have memorized the melody, it can be used regularly during warm-ups to focus on uniform vowel sounds, legato line, intonation, and reinforcement of solfège syllables before tackling other repertoire.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION: PHRASE STRUCTURE

The structure of the English version more readily lends itself to discussion about macro- and microstructure. Singers can look at each of the seven musical phrases (each new phrase beginning on a new solfège syllable; the final phrase being “Saint John the Baptist”) and discuss how the notes are arranged in groups of two or three. Singers can be asked to envision different types of groupings (e.g., 3 + 3 vs. 2 + 2 + 2) and be asked which combination befits the text most. The singers are engaged in the discovery of the phrase structure themselves, rather than merely being instructed. Attentive to the text, singers could then be encouraged to look for opportunities for smaller groups to be combined with adjacent groups to form one larger idea. Figure 15 demonstrates how the phrase structure could be assessed. Of particular note is the elision of phrases 5 and 6 (“so let our tongues be lavish in your praises”). Ultimately, the goal would be to breathe only at the end of each of the largest groupings shown.

Figure 15: Macro- and microphrase structure of English setting of Ut queant laxis

320 Phillips, Teaching Kids to Sing, 274.

112

PERFORMANCE SUGGESTIONS

The full hymn as written in the Liber Usualis has five verses. If an ensemble wished to perform multiple verses, they could alternate between upper and lower voices to provide timbral variation. In this case, the conductor may choose to add organum to a later verse rather than utilize it at the start. Quarter bars separate clauses and should not be given much attention with regard to breathing. Attempts should be made to connect both sides of a quarter bar marking into one phrase. This helps to keep the musical line moving and prevents textual ideas from being broken up.

The English text can also be used effectively. Conductors may wish to sing through the chant in Latin in unison first, then have upper voices sing the English text with the lower voices sustaining the solfège syllables an octave lower. As in Figure 14 above, the lower voices can rejoin the melody on the final phrase.

ASSOCIATED CHORAL REPERTOIRE

While this text is not connected to much other significant repertoire, the character of John the Baptist is. Ut queant laxis could serve as lead-in to repertoire for Advent based on the third chapter in the Gospel of Luke. Examples include:321

• Taylor Davis, Comfort Ye, My People, SATB, Choristers Guild CGA1201

• Victor C. Johnson, Every Valley, SATB, Lorenz 10/4581L

• Ken Berg, Veni Emmanuel: O Come, O Come Emmanuel, TTB, Bella Voce Press BVP404

321 SATB repertoire can be quite fitting for ensembles of middle school boys, as there are often unchanged voices as well. In the context of a mixed classroom, SATB repertoire that has TB parts that are suitable for changing-voice boys is also considered among the examples.

113

5.5 Mode III: Pange lingua gloriosi (“Sing, my tongue,” Hymn for Corpus Christi)

Source: Liber Usualis (1961), page 957

Themes: Holy Week, Eucharist, Crucifixion, Incarnation, Devotion

Level of Floridity: Syllabic

114

Voicing: 2-part

• Part 1: Cooksey Stages 2 & 3

• Part 2: Cooksey Stages 4 & 5 (optional add Cooksey Stages 0 & 1 at 8va)

TRANSLATION (by André Heywood)

Pange, lingua, gloriósi Sing, my tongue, the mystery Córporis mystérium, of the glorious Body, Sanguinísque pretiósi, and of the precious Blood, Quem in mundi prétium which, for the price of the world, Fructus ventris generósi the fruit of a noble womb, Rex effúdit géntium. the King of the Nations poured forth.

Nobis datus, nobis natus Given to us, born for us, Ex intácta Vírgine, of a stainless Virgin, Et in mundo conversátus, and dwelt in the world, Sparso verbi sémine, the seed of the word having been scattered, Sui moras incolátus His earthly sojourn concluded Miro clausit órdine. in a wondrous way.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND SIGNIFICANCE

This hymn text was written by St. Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274)322 for the feast of Corpus Christi, which celebrates the Catholic dogma of transubstantiation—the belief of the true presence of the body and blood of Jesus Christ in the Eucharist. While sung at Second Vespers on the feast day, it is also used earlier in the liturgical year as a processional piece on Holy Thursday, as the Eucharist is transferred to the altar of repose for exposition and benediction.323 The final two (of six) stanzas constitute a separate hymn, Tantum ergo (“Great, therefore”),

322 Jeffers, Translations and Annotations, 186. 323 Thursday of the Lord’s Supper, in The Roman Missal, trans. The International Commission on English in the Liturgy, 3rd typical ed., sec. 88 (Washington, DC: United States Catholic Conference of Bishops, 2011), 313.

115 which is sung at the benediction of the Blessed Sacrament. Numerous composers have set Tantum ergo to music, most notably Bruckner, Duruflé, Fauré, and Liszt.324

ADAPTATIONS

The octave-range melody was assigned to Cooksey Stages 2 & 3, often the voice parts with the most challenges adapting to regular SATB voicing. I selected an octave range starting on F3 as this fit within the average ranges of both Stages 2 & 3, although average tessiturae would suggest that some boys in Stage 2 could experience difficulty with the lowest pitches and some in Stage 3 with the highest pitches. In the second verse of the hymn, the more mature voices are added, occasionally providing lower fifths or octaves. This chant has been set for ensembles of boys whose voices are further along in the voice change process, likely in grades eight or nine. If less mature voices are present, either line can be sung an octave higher, depending on the ability of the upper voices.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION: TEXT DECLAMATION

Very syllabic in nature, Pange lingua gloriosi allows for the opportunity to focus on syllabic stress and the expressive delivery of text. Again, here a poetic English translation might be helpful in introducing the concept of syllabic stress within the context of a legato line. Vilma Gertrude Little underscores the importance of text in influencing the performance of chant. She suggests to “always let the meaning of the words count in your choice of tempo”325 and cautions “never to resort to any device of expression or colour solely for the sake of effect; but only according to the requirements of the text and the definite claims of the melody.”326 This approach to the primacy of text in establishing an expressive context (in regard to phrasing, dynamics, and

324 Jeffers, Translations and Annotations, 270–71. 325 Vilma Gertrude Little, The Chant: A Simple and Complete Method for Teachers and Students (Tournai, Belgium: Desclée, 1949), 119. 326 Ibid., 121.

116 color) has implications for music well beyond chant but can be easily explored through some syllabic chants with simple melodies, such as this one.

Figure 16: Differences in syllabic stress in Latin and English versions of Pange lingua gloriosi

A subject arising from the study of this piece is the difference between word phrases and musical phrases. Accented syllables change from verse to verse, depending on the words being sung, and also differ when the language is changed. Accented syllables in the English translation do not always equate to the stressed syllables in the original Latin. Figure 16 highlights these deviations in the first stanza of both languages. Decisions regarding breathing and phrasing may also be addressed when comparing the effect of the two languages and in fact may change from verse to verse in either language. These textual issues create interesting musical challenges for singers to work through. For example, how can students sing “gloriósi” without overemphasizing the final syllable, even though it is on a higher pitch? James Whitbourn states that the delicate approach to phrase endings should also be exercised on descending intervals (e.g., “pretium” at end of second system).327

327 Whitbourn, Laudate, 36.

117

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION: MODALITY

Mode III is unique among the authentic modes as its dominant is not a fifth above the final but a sixth. This quality is addressed in chant pedagogy books that utilize the Pange lingua chant.328 These books recommend that students highlight the final and dominant in their score to be used as anchor notes. In this edition, the prevalence of the G and E♭ should be noted. To help establish a better understanding of the Phrygian mode, teachers could provide musical examples of more contemporary or familiar repertoire, such as John Adams’s Phyrgian Gates, Samuel Barber’s Adagio for Strings, or Howard Shore’s “Prologue” from The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring.

The uniqueness of the Phyrgian mode perhaps makes this chant an ideal entry point into the concept of modes. Freer suggests that modal exploration can serve as a great warm-up exercise for adolescent voices:

Divide the class into groups and have each group sing a modal “scale” (up then down, or vice versa) so that pairs or trios of modes sound simultaneously. Two of the modes that work well to begin are Phrygian and Ionian, and then, Mixolydian can be added as a third mode. Take care when choosing modes for each group so that students are able to sing the mode that is selected for them. If, in your choir, you have singers who cannot sing an octave beginning on any pitch, then limit the scale to the range of a fifth.329

PERFORMANCE SUGGESTIONS

With six Latin verses, a complete performance is not suggested. The variation between the first and second verse in this setting provides textural contrast, allowing two verses to be sung without losing the interest of the performer or listener. The stanzas are thematically grouped in pairs. The first two stanzas address the theme of “word made flesh”—the journey from incarnation to crucifixion. The middle stanzas focus on the institution of the Eucharist. The final two stanzas, often used separately as the chant Tantum ergo, focus on praise and adoration, with

328 Judith, Square Notes, 89–90; Marie Antoine Goodchild, Gregorian Chant for Church and School (Boston, MA: Ginn and Company, 1944), 21, 26. 329 Patrick K. Freer, “Choral Warm-ups for Changing Adolescent Voices,” Music Educators Journal 95, no. 3 (March 2009): 61.

118 the final stanza serving as an extended doxology. Conductors could choose any one of the three pairs to use in performance. Theodore Marier’s instruction manual utilizes the first, fifth, and sixth stanzas. If the chant is being connected to other choral repertoire on a similar theme, the chant could be sung in between the other choral works. In the Catholic tradition, this chant would be used as a procession during the Holy Thursday liturgy. It is, therefore, entirely appropriate in a concert setting to use this piece as a procession leading into another solemn selection.

ASSOCIATED CHORAL REPERTOIRE

Pange lingua could be connected to other choral works in several different ways—textually, spiritually, or modally. Its affiliation with Holy Thursday draws strong connections to other traditional repertoire for that feast, such as settings of the Ubi caritas or Tantum ergo. As a chant for Corpus Christi, it would pair well with any settings of Ave verum corpus, O sacrum convivium, or Panis angelicus. As the first two verses address the mystery of the incarnation, it also pairs well thematically with the popular Hope for Resolution by Paul Caldwell and Sean Ivory (SATB, earthsongs W-34), which itself uses a chant melody (Corde natus ex parentis) to proclaim the text “Of the Father’s love begotten.” Since teaching strategies could focus on the Phrygian mode, repertoire within that mode can also be paired with the chant, such as Thomas Tallis’s Third Mode Melody330 (often in hymnals as “I Heard the Voice of Jesus Say”).

330 Matthew Parker, The Whole Psalter Translated into English Metre, Which Contayneth an Hundred and Fifty Psalmes (London: John Daye, 1567), 522–23.

119

5.6 Mode IV: Alleluia, Laudate pueri Dominum (“Alleluia, Praise the Lord, you children,” Alleluia for Feast of the Holy Innocents)

Source: Liber Usualis (1961), page 428

Themes: Christmas, Advent, Children, Praise

Level of Floridity: Melismatic

Voicing: Unison (with optional lower voice for Cooksey Stage 2)

120

TRANSLATION (by André Heywood)

Laudate pueri Dominum, Praise the Lord, you children, laudate nomen Domini. praise the name of the Lord.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND SIGNIFICANCE

The feast of the Holy Innocents commemorates the infant children murdered at the order of King Herod in Matthew’s gospel. In the monastery, this was an ideal feast in which to utilize the boys’ voices on the text “Praise the Lord, you children.” One of the Alleluia chants, this chant is extremely melismatic but simpler than some of the others due to its frequent repetition of some of the motives (e.g., the end of “Alleluia” and the end of “Domini”). The indication *ij. at the end of the “Alleluia” indicates that the line is to be repeated. At its place in the liturgy (just prior to the gospel), it would be sung first by a cantor and then by the full choir. A cantor would also sing the verse by himself. The flatted leading tone causes what should be Phyrgian mode to sound more like re-minor, contributing to the chant’s somber lamentation-like melody. Thought seemingly contrary to the text, this character is quite befitting of the commemoration.

ADAPTATIONS

The total range of this work is originally a minor seventh (10 semitones), just one semitone wider than the Composite Unison Range. The errant pitch occurs just twice, in the same neumatic pattern, leading into a long melisma. In this edition, the singers start on B2/3 and have to go as high as G3/4 regularly. A4 could present challenges for boys on Stage 2. This is mediated by having these singers maintain F♯4 to avoid the momentary leap out of their tessitura.

Alternatively, the singers could sing D4 instead of F♯4 to create a harmonic interval of a fifth. Cooksey recommends encouraging boys in Stage 2 to use the falsetto register to approach higher pitches as a way of helping develop smoother register transitions.331

331 John M. Cooksey, Working with Adolescent Voices (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1999), 76.

121

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION: TONE

This unison setting allows the ensemble to work on unified vowels and developing a uniform choral tone. Establishing a good concept of choral tone is important during the adolescent voice change, as tone qualities are often husky and breathy. The [ɑ] and [u] vowels in “Alleluia” are particularly useful for this as they represent, respectively, both the most open and closed back vowels, which enable the back of the mouth to be most open, allowing for greatest resonance. All the pure Latin vowels, with the exception of [ɔ], have a melismatic pattern in this chant. This quality allows singers to move through their range on a constant vowel, working on maintaining consistent vowel shape and uniformity throughout their range.

The long phrases allow singers to work on breath management and/or stagger breathing, including initiating onset through a vowel shape (either an [ɑ] at the end of “Alleluia” or [i] at the end of “Domini”). In addition to developing pitch matching ability, choral tone, breath support, and phrasing, Cooksey also espouses that unison singing aids “in teaching concepts of expressive singing, including elements of control and refinement in the tone.”332

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION: VOCAL AGILITY

The melismatic nature of this chant also provides an opportunity for the adolescent boy to work toward greater flexibility at a time where vocal agility is compromised by his biology. Sally Hook found that boys with consistent choral training demonstrate greater improvement in vocal agility as they progress through the voice change when compared to their peers who have not trained vocally.333 This suggests that although the boy’s physiology is an obstacle, vocal agility is a skill that can still be developed during this period of transition. Her study on vocal agility in changing-voice males also suggests that boys move more accurately through pitches when there are lyrics as opposed to a single syllable (as in this melismatic chant).334 The teacher could introduce the melodic melismatic patterns by using an appropriate text, such as in Figure 17, to

332 Ibid., 36. 333 Sally A. Hook, “Vocal Agility in the Male Adolescent Changing Voice” (PhD diss., University of Missouri–Columbia, 2005), 80–81. 334 Ibid., 82–83.

122 enable the students to first become comfortable with the sequence of pitches, before moving to a sustained vowel.

Figure 17: Vocalise based on a motive from Alleluia, laudate pueri Dominum

In this vocalise above, the episemas (markings that resemble the modern “tenuto” but indicate a lengthening of the note) have been retained, so that the conductor can take some liberty in lengthening that note and having students get used to the final desired rhythm. The half notes have been employed as the beginning of a new phrase, so that the singers are encouraged to connect them to what follows as opposed to arriving at an inappropriate cadence. Conductors may consider instituting a poco crescendo over both of the first two half notes. This exercise can be done at varying pitch levels as part of a regular warm-up routine. Again, employ kinesthetic activities to reinforce the concepts of legato, lightness, and sustained energy through the line. Cooksey advocates that cultivating the lighter mechanism, particularly in the upper register, is helpful in developing increased vocal agility in Stages 4 and 5.335

Although this edition uses B2/3 as a starting pitch to satisfy the requirements of the Composite Unison Range, if an ensemble has a significant number of unchanged voices, they may consider starting on D3/4, which would fit better in the ranges of all but Midvoice II and IIA. At a higher pitch, the numerous descending patterns will allow changing voices to work at connecting their head voice to their emerging chest voice, as suggested by both Cooksey and Dilworth.336 Conversely, if an ensemble comprises mostly more mature voices, the pitch could be lowered by a third (starting on G3), and the ensemble can sing in unison. This would strengthen the focus on utilizing the upper register and working toward a light quality.

335 Ibid., 80. 336 Ibid., 60–61; Rollo A. Dilworth, “Working with Male Adolescent Voices in the Choral Rehearsal: A Survey of Research-Based Strategies,” Choral Journal 42, no. 9 (April 2012): 29.

123

PERFORMANCE SUGGESTIONS

As this is a unison setting, conductors could introduce the Solesmes notation of the chant to singers in order to demonstrate the neumes’ visual representation of the phrasing. Even without experience interpreting the Solesmes neumes, students will be able to recognize the melodic contour as well as the relative closeness of the neumes indicating quick movement through the syllables, a quality lost in the more familiar notation. The five-line notation used in this example has adjusted the spacing of the notes to more closely reflect the intent of the Solesmes neumes, but it is still more easily observed in the square notation. Ensembles should move quickly through the neumes, driving toward the notes with episemas, relaxing the tempo slightly as they approach the unshaded (open) notes. The liquescent at the beginning of the third system should be observed by closing to the [u] vowel on the B2/3 and moving quickly again to the [ɑ] vowel on

C♯3/4. The eventual goal should be to breathe only at quarter measures.

ASSOCIATED CHORAL REPERTOIRE

As with Pange lingua, this chant presents several avenues for exploration of other repertoire. Its connection to the feast of Holy Innocents immediately draws us to the popular Coventry Carol. John Cooksey specifically references this carol as an excellent example of a limited-range song for changing-voice boys to sing in unison.337 Earlene Rentz,338 Victor C. Johnson,339 and Dan Davison340 have also arranged this melody with adolescent voices in mind.

The text itself can be construed as simply a song of praise, which opens the door to many other repertoire choices. Davison’s Laudate Dominum was mentioned in the first chapter as a piece specifically composed for changing voices and is a popular selection for state and regional honor

337 Cooksey, Adolescent Voices, 36. 338 Earlene Rentz, Coventry Lullaby, SATB, Shawnee Press 35004859. 339 Victor C. Johnson, Coventry Carol, SATB, Lorenz 10/3856L. 340 Dan Davison, Coventry Carol, TTBB, Hinshaw Music 00275051.

124 choirs and festivals.341 Roger Emerson’s arrangement of O Sifuni Mungu is another song of praise often sung by middle school/junior high choirs.342

Johann Michael Haydn’s SSA setting of Laudate Pueri Dominum343 (which begins with its own Alleluia chant) is too challenging for changing voices but would be very manageable for unchanged treble ensembles, particularly at the Catholic choir schools that study chant with their younger singers. This chant setting might pair well with the Classical era work and provide the changing voices—otherwise relegated to acolyte duties—an opportunity to be part of the music- making experience.

341 “Laudate Dominum (TB) by Dan Davison,” J. W. Pepper & Sons, n.d., accessed April 9, 2018, https://www.jwpepper.com/Laudate-Dominum/10067350.item#/. 342 Roger Emerson, O Sifuni Mungu, SATB/SAB/TTBB, Hal Leonard 40326302/40326303/08744884. 343 Michael Haydn, Laudate Pueri Dominum, SSA, ed. Imre Sulyok, Baerenreither-Verlag BA 6219.

125

5.7 Mode V: Benedicamus Domino (“Let us bless the Lord,” Versicle at Conclusion of Divine Office)

Source: Liber Usualis (1961), page 22

Themes: Praise, Thanksgiving

Level of Floridity: Melismatic

Voicing: up to 3 parts

TRANSLATION (by André Heywood)

Benedicamus, Domino. Let us bless the Lord. Deo gratias. Thanks be to God.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND SIGNIFICANCE

This versicle was sung eight or nine times each day by the boys in Medieval monasteries, either at the close of each of the Divine Hours or immediately preceding the Marian antiphon that closed the Compline service. It also replaced the Ite missa est at the close of Mass during

126 penitential seasons.344 Rubrics outlining the appropriate liturgical presentation of this chant indicate that it was often sung in a place of primary importance (e.g., in front of the altar or in the center of the choir) by two boys (“Benedicamus a duobus pueris”).345

ADAPTATIONS

This setting employs not only the versicle (“Let us bless the Lord”) but also its response (“Thanks be to God”) as a repeat. Given the traditional role of the boys’ voices in intoning the chant, I have set the versicle in the upper voices (Cooksey Stages 0 and 1) with the lower voices joining in the response. Organum at the fifth at the beginning of the first melisma is employed in order to accommodate Stage 2 voices and possibly some Stage 3 voices. The texture thickens later in the melisma to ensure that each boy has a pattern of notes comfortable within his range. Specific parts are not assigned here in order that boys can follow the part on which they feel most comfortable. In the three-part section, a boy in Stage 3 may choose either of the top two parts, depending on where he believes he can be most successful.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION: REGISTRATION

Of particular use to the male changing voice is the downward melodic pattern that constitutes the A section in this typical AAB form. The 13-note pattern covers an octave range and, depending on the starting pitch, could force singers to switch registers. This register-bridging vocalise can be introduced in the warm-up portion of the rehearsal, starting on a pitch that will have most changing/changed voices in their falsetto (e.g., B♭4). Repeat the pattern, descending by a semitone each time. This will enable boys to practice bridging registers within a melodic context. This is an important part of range development in adolescent boys.346 Cooksey and Leck both

344 Jeffers, Translations and Annotations, 108. 345 Anne Walters Robertson, “Benedicamus Domino: The Unwritten Tradition,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 41, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 7. 346 Davids and LaTour, Vocal Technique, 214; Julie A. Skadsem, “Singing Through the Voice Change,” General Music Today 21, no. 1 (Fall 2007): 34.

127 propose the use of [u] for these vocalises, although Cooksey also suggests [i] for all singers and [ɑ] for Midvoice II and IIA.347 The use of an initial consonant to help with onset is also supported. Cooksey, Freer, Dilworth, and Leck all vouch for the inclusion of physical movements as part of the exercise.348 In the example below, I recommend singers execute a knee-bend or pretend to throw a frisbee as they sing the top pitch. The exercise can also be done in two parts using organum, as the chant adaptation does. While the two-part exercise causes each singer to go a bit outside of their comfort range, teachers should be aware that some boys in Midvoice II and especially IIA will have difficulties phonating in their falsetto at all.

Figure 18: Register bridging exercise based on Benedicamus Domino

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION: INTONATION

With its resemblance to C-major, this chant setting provides an easy approach to singing with solfège. The chant can be divided into three shorter melodic fragments:

1. d'-t-s-l-s 2. m-f-s-s-r-m-r-d

347 Cooksey, Adolescent Voices, 60–63; Henry Leck, The Boy’s Changing Expanding Voice: Take the High Road (Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corporation, 2001), DVD. 348 Cooksey, Adolescent Voices, 64; Patrick K. Freer, “Weight Lifting, Singing, and Adolescent Boys,” Choral Journal 52, no. 4 (November 2011): 32–41; Rollo A. Dilworth, “Research-Based Strategies,” 30; Leck, Expanding Voice, DVD.

128

3. d-r-m-f-m-r-d-d

Singers should solidify each of the three melodic fragments using solfège first, reinforcing sung solfège with Curwen hand signs. Once pitches are secure, they then move to a unified [ɔ] vowel to work on legato line. The octave leap at the first quarter bar will be particularly challenging in this regard. Working with just the vowel will also help to build good tone quality, vowel consistency, intonation, and resonance.349 The next step could be to advance to singing only the vowels, omitting all consonants. Singing through the text without consonants will help strengthen the sense of legato line, as well as help develop a clean, healthy vocal onset. Singers move through all five pure Latinate vowels within the first six pitches of the chant. Isolating these six pitches affords the ensemble the opportunity to arrive at uniformed vowel sounds, a cornerstone of ensemble intonation. The ensemble can also work on tuning the open fifth (E3-B3-

E4).

The defining aspect of this arrangement is the use of organum. This can serve as an introduction to the concept of harmony for beginning choirs. Magnus Williamson proposes that the introduction of organum be used as an intermediary step for young singers in discovering polyphony, to be followed by canonic singing.350 To prepare them for the tonal concept, the teacher may have all students sing the familiar “Mary had a little lamb” in unison, starting on an F♯ or G (to keep it within the Composite Unison Range). On the second time through, have some students start on C♯ or D instead, so that the parts are separated by a fifth throughout. Equipped with a tonal concept of how parallel fifths sound, the ensemble can apply that to the related passages in the chant. Open fifths provide intonation challenges for young singers. Organum provides a wonderful opportunity for them to embrace and overcome this particular hurdle.

349 Cooksey, Adolescent Voices, 50. 350 Magnus Williamson in Patrick J. Hawkins, “Medieval Music in the Junior High Classroom,” The Choral Journal 48, no. 9 (March 2008): 44.

129

PERFORMANCE SUGGESTIONS

As Medieval rubrics indicate that the versicle should be sung by two (and in some cases, three) boys, consider having a subset of the ensemble sing the “Benedicamus” on their own. These could be upper voices in unison to more authentically reflect the sound of the monastic choirboys. Although the liturgical rubrics recommend two voices, outside of the liturgical milieu, the use of three voices would produce a more unified sound. The full choir can then respond with “Deo gracias,” mimicking the choral/congregational response in the liturgy. The use of organum in the repeat should provide a thicker texture, and the choir should sound fuller.

The repeated melody after the first quarter bar should not be interrupted by a breath or any kind of break. Singers should be informed that “when there is a repetition in the melody we must realize that this is intended to express an increased intensity of feeling which must be rendered by a corresponding crescendo of tone.”351

ASSOCIATED CHORAL REPERTOIRE

There exist some advanced settings of this text by Dufay and Praetorius, among others; however, they are certainly beyond the skill of most adolescent ensembles. Several recent settings are more suitable for this age group and could be augmented by preceding their performance with the chant. Cristi Cary Miller’s setting is available in SAB and SSA voicing.352 If using the latter, a middle school boys’ program could sing the chant in prelude to a girls’ ensemble of the same age. The same could be done with Jim Taylor’s three-part treble setting.353 Greg Gilpin’s setting is available for mixed voices as well as for TBB.354 The tenor part in this version has some parts that would be challengingly low for boys in Cooksey Stages 0–2.

As the text of this chant is very generic, it can be paired with almost any song of praise or thanksgiving. Psalm 103 (“Bless the Lord, O my soul”) presents several opportunities for this,

351 Little, The Chant, 121. 352 Cristi Cari Miller, Benedicamus Domino, SAB/SSA, Hal Leonard 08552352/08552353. 353 Jim Taylor, Benedicamus Domino, SSA, Lorenz 15/1733R. 354 Greg Gilpin, Benedicamus Domino, SATB/SAB/TBB, Shawnee Press 35001971/35001970/35028110.

130 such as Joyce Eilers’s SAB or TTB arrangements of Mikhail Ippotitov-Ivanov’s setting,355 Hal Hopson’s SAB arrangement of Handel’s setting,356 and Ruth Watson Henderson’s original unison setting.357

355 Mikhail Ippotitov-Ivanov, Bless the Lord, O My Soul, arr. Joyce Eilers, SAB/TTB, Hal Leonard 08551615/08551616. 356 George Frideric Handel, Bless the Lord, O My Soul, arr. Hal Hopson, SAB, Carl Fischer CM8310. 357 Ruth Watson Henderson, Bless the Lord, O My Soul, Unison, Hinshaw Music 087633449.

131

5.8 Mode VI: Requiem aeternam (“Rest eternal,” Introit to Mass for the Dead)

Source: Liber Usualis (1961), page 1807

Themes: Death, Light, Life, Resurrection

Level of Floridity: Melismatic

132

Voicing: unison/optional 3-part

TRANSLATION (Jeffers, Translations and Annotations, 64)

Requiem aeteram dona eis, Domine: Rest eternal grant to them, O Lord, et lux perpetua luceat eis. and let perpetual light shine upon them.

Te decet hymnus Deus in Zion, A hymn befits thee, O God in Zion, et tibi redetur and to thee a vow shall be fulfilled votum in Jerusalem: in Jerusalem. exaudi orationem meam, Hear my prayer, ad te omnis caro veniet. for unto thee all flesh shall come.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND SIGNIFICANCE

The pueri were often employed to sing at Requiem Masses for deceased benefactors.358 This chant is the entrance antiphon for the Mass, which draws its name from the chant’s incipit. While the antiphon is highly melismatic, the verse (Psalm 64) is set to a syllabic psalm tone.

ADAPTATIONS

The entire chant has a range of only a fifth, well within the Composite Unison Range as described by Cooksey. This gives a few options for potential starting pitches. I opted to select B♭ as it would be the easiest for all parts, taking the Midvoice IIAs up to only an F4, within their range, though beyond their tessitura. Settling Baritones would have no difficulty singing the chant melody in the lower octave, but the B♭2 could present challenges for New Baritones. To mediate this challenge, I utilized pedal tones with brief stepwise deviations to match the melody, allowing Midvoice IIAs and New Baritones to always have a vocal line in their comfortable tessitura. Having the mature voices (Settling Baritones included) on the pedal tone also

358 Craig Wright, “Performance Practices at the Cathedral of Cambrai 1475–1555,” The Musical Quarterly 64, no. 3 (July 1978): 303.

133 eliminates the potential muddiness of the chant, given how low in the range it would be for those singers.

Depending on the constitution of the ensemble, the entire chant could be pitched a major third or perfect fourth higher (melody starting on D4 or E♭4), which would restrict the chant melody to unchanged voices and Midvoice I. The lower voices could choose whichever pedal point was most comfortable. The final note for the lowest voice would drop down to an octave below the melody rather than up to be in unison with the melody. The highly flexible nature of this melismatic chant might suggest that the melody is more aptly handled by the unchanged voices. At the written pitch, however, this edition does provide opportunities for voices in the middle to develop greater vocal agility.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION: ENTRAINMENT

In addition to vocal agility, this chant provides the opportunity to work on rhythmic entrainment. Can the singers move through the flexible rhythms in sync with one another? Can the lower voices be attuned to the melody, accurately changing pitch when indicated in the score by listening to the upper voices, rather than receiving a cue from the conductor? Martin Clayton describes the entrainment observed among ensemble musicians as inter-individual or intra-group entrainment and elaborates that it is “facilitated by the entrainment of attentional rhythms to auditory information, although other sense modalities—vision in particular—often also play a part.”359 Marc Leman contends that corporeal movements have an impact on musical entrainment as well.360

359 Martin Clayton, “What Is Entrainment? Definitions and Applications in Musical Research,” Empirical Musicology Review 7, nos. 1–2 (2012): 49–56. 360 Marc Leman, “Musical Entrainment Subsumes Bodily Gestures—Its Definition Needs a Spatiotemporal Dimension,” Empirical Musicology Review 7, nos. 1–2 (2012): 63–67.

134

Jordan espouses the significance of entrainment in musical learning, stating that “aural entrainment is a powerful tool that allows for other levels of rhythm learning to take place in a natural way.”361 Entrainment is the vehicle for discovery of expressivity and intonation.362

To aid in developing the ensemble’s intra-group entrainment, the singers could sit or stand in a circle where they can see each other. Different individuals can take turns “leading,” such that he is the focal point for the remainder of the ensemble, which tries to respond to his visual and corporeal cues. The pedal point voices need to feel the rhythm of the text sung by the melodic voices, so that they enter discretely and accurately. Singers must maintain a sense of the mode in order to tune the perfect fourths and fifths throughout. The melodic voices must move from syllable to syllable together as well as coordinate their dynamic swells and fades. As Jordan prescribes, the entrainment of the group unveils the expressivity of the ensemble and enhances their intonation.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION: BREATH MANAGEMENT

The literature on developing breathing skills with adolescent voices focuses mainly on the mechanics of breathing and seldom employs exercises that apply breath management to phonating melodic lines. As there can sometimes be a disconnect between warm-up exercises and techniques required for repertoire, the opportunity to engage in breath management exploration in the context of repertoire is beneficial. The legato style, limited range, and conjunct melody of this chant mimic some examples of breath management vocalises.363 Jordan argues that the notation of chant (specifically the lack of bar lines) forces us to sing with direction of line—a motion that continues forward through to the end of the phrase.

While consistently honest forward motion may be a simple concept, forward motion without pushing or forcing line forward requires a rather aware sense of “letting go” and “allowing” that, in turn, empowers sung sound to move forward in a natural and organic way. Sound can move forward by uploading weight, which then must be released. In chant, animating the breath at the start of the phrase allows the phrase to acquire a natural

361 Jordan and Whitbourn, Discovering Chant, 100. 362 Ibid., 88. 363 Davids and La Tour, Vocal Technique, 39.

135

upward momentum that is both honest and capable of sustaining a beautiful resonance and legato, without weight pushing sound forward.364

Singers should use physical movements to represent the breathing pattern, such as extending arms up so that they are parallel with the floor during inhalation and slowly returning them to the side of the body during exhalation and phonation.365 It is important that this motion be fluid (i.e., the arms never stop moving) as young singers have a tendency to lock neck and abdominal muscles at the end of exhalation.366 This visual and kinesthetic representation of breath provides a context for managing breath through to the end of the phrase.

When singers are familiar with the melodic pattern, have them sing through the line (with the suggested physical movements) on a tongue trill (rolled r). This is preferred to a lip trill as the [r] corresponds to the initial consonant. For students who cannot execute tongue trills, a lip trill will accomplish the same task with respect to breath management. As singers complete one phrase, they should engage in fluid arm motions to reinforce the concept of inhalation as the byproduct of exhalation.367 If the ensemble took group breaths only after the words “aeternam” and “Domine,” each successive phrase would be longer than the previous. This creates an interesting competitive challenge for adolescent boys.

PERFORMANCE SUGGESTIONS

As an introit, singers could experiment moving in procession while singing the piece. This can be accomplished without a conductor, encouraging the singers to listen to each other more closely. The florid melismas should be moved through quickly but smoothly, much like Medieval/Renaissance/Baroque ornaments, but without feeling too rushed or separated. The smooth legato line must never be compromised. The pedal tones in the lower voices could be sung right at the outset or could come in after the psalm verse is sung by the cantor.

364 Jordan and Whitbourn, Discovering Chant, 119. 365 Freer, “Weight Lifting,” 36. 366 Cooksey, Adolescent Voices, 42. 367 Freer, “Choral Warm-ups,” 60.

136

ASSOCIATED CHORAL REPERTOIRE

The Requiem introit can be used as an introduction (or follow-up) to any choral work focused on mortality or death. Popular selections for schools include settings of the John McCrae poem In Flanders Fields. Specific settings for adolescent voices include Lon Beery’s In Flanders Fields368 and Laura Farnell’s We Shall Not Sleep.369 Settings of Hush! Somebody’s Callin’ My Name by Rollo Dilworth370 and Brazeal Dennard371 are also suitable for this age group. Z. Randall Stroope’s Lux Aeterna (which draws its text from later in the Requiem Mass) serves as a suitable SSA companion to this work.372

368 Lon Beery, In Flanders Fields, TTB, Alliance Music Publications AMP0827. 369 Laura Farnell, We Shall Not Sleep, TTB, Alliance Music Publications AMP0898. 370 Rollo A. Dilworth, Hush! Somebody’s Callin’ My Name, 2-part, Hal Leonard 08552358. 371 Brazeal Dennard, Hush! Somebody’s Callin’ My Name, SATB/SAB/TTB, Shawnee 35009892/35009894/35009893. 372 Z. Randall Stroope, Lux Aeterna, SSA, Alliance Music Publications AMP0275.

137

5.9 Mode VII: Hosanna filio David (“Hosanna to the Son of David,” Antiphon for Palm Sunday)

Source: Liber Usualis (1961), page 580

Themes: Palm Sunday, Children, Triumph, King, Praise

Level of Floridity: Melismatic

Voicing: 2-part

• Upper voice: Cooksey Stages 0 & 1

• Lower voice: Cooksey Stages 2 & 3

138

TRANSLATION (by André Heywood)

Hosanna filio David: Hosanna to the Son of David: benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini. blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord. Rex Israel: Hosanna in excelsis. The King of Israel, Hosanna in the highest.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND SIGNIFICANCE

Palm Sunday was rich with chants sung by the pueri as they represented the Hebrew children laying palms before Jesus as he entered the city of Jerusalem. This event is commemorated in a preliminary service that precedes the regular Mass. While the Mass focuses on the passion and crucifixion, the preliminary has a much different tone, celebrating Jesus’s triumphant entry into Jerusalem. Twelve chants are associated with the preliminary and the procession (compared with only six for the Mass),373 the first of which is Hosanna filio David (“Hosanna to the Son of David”). In the current rite, this chant is used as an entrance antiphon at the beginning of the preliminary.374

ADAPTATIONS

Given the very specific reference to children in the chants during the preliminary, I decided to keep this chant for upper voices. This setting would work best with an ensemble of students in grades six or seven with a majority of singers either unchanged or in Midvoice I. Some accommodations have been made for Midvoice II and IIA. Organum at either a fifth or fourth below has been incorporated when the chant melody goes above F4.

373 Liber Usualis, 579–603. 374 Palm Sunday of the Passion of the Lord, in The Roman Missal, 273.

139

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION: EAR TRAINING

Before introducing the score, use Curwen-Kodály hand signs to prepare students for the intervals. The rhythm should be less important during this step than the accuracy of intervals. This short chant contains almost every kind of ascending and descending interval a perfect fifth or smaller, lacking only descending fourths and descending fifths. Working through these pitches in solfège helps singers become acclimated with the Mixolydian mode. As they sing through the melody, be sure to highlight the significance of “sol” (final) and “re” (dominant). “Do” is also important, but only in as much as it serves to highlight the arrival of “re.” Alternatively, the starting pitch can be introduced as “do” with the B♭ sung as “te,” perhaps serving as an introduction to that solfège syllable and hand sign. After introducing the intervallic relationships, teachers can then provide students with a score. The familiarity with the intervals already vocalized will allow students to match what they see on the page with what they have already sung (sound before symbol).375

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION: EXPRESSIVITY

The issue of teaching musical expressivity is a rather complicated one, particularly since musical expressivity is so difficult to define. John Sloboda suggests that musical expression consists of systematic, intentional (yet unconscious) deviations “of timing, loudness, timbre, and other elements, resulting in notes that are equal in the notation being performed unequally in some respect.”376 Sloboda continues by contending that expressive information is stored in extramusical templates, “which arise from a number of domains, the most plausible being those of bodily and physical motion, gesture, speech and vocal intonation, and expressions of emotion.”377 The pedagogy behind teaching musical expression then depends on how a teacher

375 Lowell Mason, Manual of the Boston Academy of Music: For Instruction in the Elements of Vocal Music, on the System of Pestalozzi, 5th ed. (Boston: J. H. Wilkins & R. B. Carter, 1839). 376 John A. Sloboda, “The Acquisition of Musical Performance Expertise: Deconstructing the ‘Talent’ Account of Individual Differences in Music Expressivity,” in The Road to Excellence: The Acquisition of Expert Performance in the Arts and Sciences, Sports and Games, ed. K. Anders Ericsson (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996), 116. 377 Ibid., 119.

140 helps a student acquire said templates. While this can be accomplished through conducting gesture, modeling/demonstration, or providing detailed verbal instructions, referential information is often used to foster students’ creativity.378 The provision of direct instructions (“crescendo through the phrase”) or modeling may lead most quickly to a desired effect but limits student creativity, whereas referential information (“imagine that you’re paddling an oar through rough waters”) may invoke the student’s own experience and engage them more fully in the creative process. The vividly descriptive narrative that underscores the context of this chant provides an excellent reference point for exploration in musical creativity and expression.

The instructional book Words with Wings379 provides instructors with scripts that include narratives that help young singers place certain chants within a recognizable religious occasion (e.g., Christmas, Easter, Pentecost). This is done to provide a context for young singers to understand the message of the chant in a language with which they are not familiar. While Words with Wings employs religious references, as that is its audience, teachers in the classroom or community choir setting can employ more general referential material for establishing the narrative behind Hosanna filio David. The following potential script is written in the style of the Words with Wings scripts.

Imagine that you’re in the midst of a big crowd. It’s a parade—and a very special one at that. What’s something that would get you really excited? Maybe it’s a visit from the royal family or the president. Maybe it’s your favorite professional sports team celebrating their recent championship. Maybe it’s the Santa Claus Parade! Whatever it is, everyone is extremely excited. They’re smiling and cheering as the parade passes through. And then—the big moment arrives. There they are. The queen. The president. The MVP. Santa! You yell out “Hooray!” Shout it out with me. “HOORAY!” You’re not quite sure she heard you. You want the queen to know that it’s you, cheering for her. Try again. “HOORAY!” Yes, that’s better. Now, you can hear trumpets echoing your cheers. It’s almost as if they’re saying “Hooray!” as well. Can you sing along with them? “Hooray-ay!” [Sing the first two

378 Brenda Brennan and Katherine Strand, “A Case Study of Teaching Musical Expression to Young Performers,” Journal of Research in Music Education 61, no. 1 (2013): 93; Paul Broomhead, “A Study of Instructional Strategies for Teaching Expressive Performance in the Choral Rehearsal,” Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, no. 167 (Winter 2006): 14. 379 Wilko Brouwers, Words with Wings (Church Music Association of America, 2012).

141

syllables on “sol” ascending to “re” for the final syllable. This pitch sequence should echo the opening three notes of the chant.] “HOORAY-AY!” Who knows what that interval is? [Encourage responses from singers until they answer correctly.] It’s a perfect fifth. If the lower note was “sol,” what would the upper note be? [Again, encourage responses.] It’s “re.” Can you sing your “hooray” cheer in solfège? “Sol sol re!” [Students repeat.] “Sol sol re re!” [Students repeat. Teacher then moves to the chant and engages students in echoing the four- note pattern with the text “Hosanna.”] Let’s review the solfège pattern we were learning earlier today. “Sol sol re re re do ti do re mi re.” [Students sing the pattern in solfège, then on text.] Can we go back to the parade now? Can you sing that line as if it’s a cheer for someone extremely important? [Students sing the pattern.] What did you do to make that sound like it was at a parade? Did you change the volume? How? Did you change the energy? How? What about your diction—how did that change? The tempo? How about your face? Did it look any different when you sang it at the parade than when you sang it earlier?

Figure 19: Sample Script for Exploration of Expressivity in Hosanna filio David

The script is merely a blueprint for how such an exploration might prove useful in arriving at an expressive character for the chant. Students engage in discussion about what they did to be expressive. Of particular importance for this chant is that students arrive at an energetic, vibrant character, something they may not readily associate with plainsong. Chant need not be slow and contemplative; sometimes it can be a joyful exaltation. To further assist in arriving at an energetic character, physical movements should be employed. Teachers in a case study by Brenner and Strand unanimously expressed that physical freedom was paramount to expressivity and that young people were easier students in this regard, as they possess greater physical

142 freedom.380 Returning to our parade analogy provides many opportunities for student creativity in movement.

PERFORMANCE SUGGESTIONS

Of special note here are the four liquescents (comparable to grace notes)—the first three on the [n] consonant and the final one on the [ks] sound. In the first three cases, singers should vocalize the [n] on the liquescent pitch very briefly before opening up to the next vowel on the next notated pitch. These liquescents all serve as a springboard to the next syllable. The final case, however, is more ornamental. Singers should move to the higher pitch, very briefly maintaining the [ɛ] vowel and then quickly moving to [k], thereby stopping the sound momentarily. The succeeding [s] initiates the next notated pitch.

As an introit, singers can use this piece in procession. Latin and English psalm verses can be used in between iterations of the antiphon.381

ASSOCIATED CHORAL REPERTOIRE

Hosanna filio David has a very specific reference—that of Jesus’s entry into Jerusalem. Earlene Rentz’s Hosanna to the King382 and Laura Farnell’s Hosanna! Hosanna!383 are Palm Sunday songs composed with adolescent voices in mind. While this subject matter may not be accessible to non-Christian ensembles, there are some selections that have made their way into the general repertoire of secular choirs. Moses Hogan’s arrangement of Ride On, King Jesus, for example, appears on numerous state and festival lists.384 Despite its overt sacred character, the popularity of the style and the arranger have catapulted it into contemporary choral canon, often regarded

380 Brenner and Strand, “Teaching Musical Expression,” 88. 381 Ruff, Canticum Novum, 90–91. 382 Earlene Rentz, Hosanna to the King, SATB/SAB, Earlene Rentz Publications ER02901/ER02902. 383 Laura Farnell, Hosanna! Hosanna!, Unison, Celebrating Grace. 384 “Ride On, King Jesus (SATB) by Moses Hogan,” J. W. Pepper & Sons, n.d., accessed April 13, 2018, https://www.jwpepper.com/Ride-On%2C-King-Jesus/3209301.item#/submit.

143 for its artistic merit and entertainment value rather than its religious message. It has been arranged for TTBB by Peter Eklund.385 Lon Beery’s arrangement of the “Sanctus” from Schubert’s Mass in F has been set with adolescent voices in mind.386

385 Peter Eklund, Ride On, King Jesus, arr. Peter Eklund, TTBB, Hal Leonard 08753673. 386 Franz Schubert, Sanctus (from Mass in F), TTB, BriLee Music Publishing BL970.

144

5.10 Mode VIII: Veni Creator Spiritus (“Come, Creator Spirit,” Hymn for Pentecost)

Source: Liber Usualis (1961), page 885

Themes: Spirit, Creation

Level of Floridity: Neumatic

Voicing: 2-part

• Upper voice: Cooksey Stages 2 & 3

• Lower voice: Cooksey Stages 4 & 5

145

TRANSLATION (adapted from Jeffers, Translations and Annotations, 231)

Veni creator Spiritus, Come, Creator Spirit, Mentes tuorum visita: Visit the souls of your devoted; Imple superna gratia With your divine grace fill Quae tu creasti pectora. The hearts which you have created.

BACKGROUND

This hymn was sung at both Terce and Vespers on Pentecost (or Whit) Sunday, a feast in honor of the Holy Spirit. Its invocation of the Holy Spirit also makes it an appropriate selection for Masses of vocation, such as ordinations, papal elections, consecrations of bishops, dedications of churches, and even royal coronations.387

ADAPTATIONS

As Hosanna filio David (5.9) was set for higher transitioning voices, I opted to set Veni Creator Spiritus for lower transitioning voices. The result is a traditional TTB ensemble, but one in which the voice parts have limited ranges. Unlike the chants for Palm Sunday and the feast of the Holy Innocents, there were no sources studied that revealed any particular reason for utilizing upper voices on chants for Pentecost. Each of the four phrases in the chant had a similar range (either a perfect fifth or a major sixth), but three of the four phrases had distinct tessiturae. The first phrase, though ascending to “re,” generally sat a fifth lower. The second phrase descends to “sol” near the beginning but quickly rises to sit a fourth or fifth higher. These tessiturae fueled the idea to set the first line for lower voices (basses) and the second line for higher voices (tenors). The third phrase had no clear tessitura, but due to its containing the highest pitch in the chant, I kept this phrase in the tenor voice. The fourth phrase had a low tessitura, but because of its smaller range (a fifth, compared to a sixth for the other phrases), and in order to finish the

387 Jeffers, Translations and Annotations, 235.

146 chant with a stronger sound, I had both tenors and basses sing the phrase, providing appropriate harmonies to prevent Midvoice II and IIA boys from having to sing too low.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION: BALANCE AND UNIFORMITY

After having completed pedagogical analyses for the seven previous chants, it occurred to me that this setting bore opportunities for summative review of the topics covered by the other chants.

The neumatic quality of the chant draws attention to both phrasing and text, as was the case with another hymn studied, Pange lingua gloriosi (5.5). Although not melismatic like Alleluia, laudate pueri Dominum (5.6), a vibrant tempo on this chant can help develop vocal agility. With phrases stretching a sixth, the opportunity to work on register transitions may present itself. The shifting of the melody between parts, as well as the moving pedal tones require an ensemble to develop a sense of rhythmic entrainment.

Much like Ut queant laxis (5.4), sight-singing and solfège can be exercised here. James Whitbourn suggests that this hymn be read through on solfège as well. Singers should be well acquainted with the melody before adding text, as syllabic texts are conducive to slowing tempi due to singers’ focus on the mechanics of the pitches rather than the flow of the text.388 Approximately 70 percent of the pitch transitions in this chant (29 of 41) are stepwise, which should make for a fairly successful sight-singing exercise.

Once singers have solidified pitches, they can move to singing only the vowel sounds (omitting all consonants). This will help achieve the “flowing style” that Whitbourn advocates. This works at developing legato line as was done with Victimae paschali laudes (5.3). Engaging the body in physical movements reflective of the legato line can also be helpful in achieving this.389 Such movements can be as complicated as involving the whole body or as simple as drawing a pattern

388 Whitbourn, Laudate, 38. 389 Cooksey, Adolescent Voices, 51.

147 on a chalkboard while singing. In addition to helping to develop legato, Cooksey suggests that physical engagement is integral in develop good choral tone.

Movements can be very effective not only in expressing aspects of singing but also in enabling young singers to increase vocal efficiency and encourage healthy body alignment and breathing. Smooth arm movements on a horizontal plane can encourage a relaxation response. . . . It is apparent that the creative use of gesture and body movement enhances tone production by eliminating unnecessary points of tension and stress in the body. It is up to the teacher and students to develop their own ongoing vocabulary of movements to enhance good tonal production.390

As they explore legato singing within the context of chant, singers can become their own conductors, engaging the body and fulfilling a desired physical/kinesthetic experience.391

With all of these pedagogical benefits for singers being explored, the conductor now has the opportunity to work on specific choral issues, such as balance and uniformity of sound. The shifting melodies encourage singers to be attentive to the other voice parts. When the tenors enter, they should aim to match the quality and dynamic of the basses, so as to maintain a sense of a continual phrase. Issues of balance also come into play when the pedal tone is present, as singers are encouraged to highlight the melodic material. The pedal tone vowels provide an opportunity to work on sustained uniformed vowels in a soft dynamic. A mixed formation could be employed here to encourage listening and promote balance.

PERFORMANCE SUGGESTIONS

There are six stanzas in this hymn, although only one is presented here. Whitbourn suggests alternating stanzas between upper and lower voices or different sections of the choir in order to add variety.392 That seems less important in this edition as variety is introduced through the

390 Ibid., 48. 391 Carol Beynon and André-Louis Heywood, “Making Their Voices Heard: A Social Constructivist Study of Youth and Men Who Choose to Sing,” UNESCO Observatory Journal of Multi-Disciplinary Research in the Arts 2, no. 1 (2010): 9. 392 Whitbourn, Laudate, 38.

148 addition of pedal tones. For adolescent voices, two verses would suffice, as that would be a substantial amount of Latin for them. English text settings, however, are available.393 As the slightly syllabic setting may cause the pace of the chant to slow, it is important to keep energy driving to the end of each phrase, even through the half measure.

ASSOCIATED CHORAL REPERTOIRE

There is no shortage of choral repertoire based on the theme of “spirit,” whether it be the Holy Spirit in the Christian tradition or the individual spirit (such as in Gerald Finzi’s My Spirit Sang All Day394 or Today My Spirit Sings by Dave and Jean Perry395). Earlene Rentz396 and Rollo Dilworth397 both have arrangements of the spiritual Every Time I Feel the Spirit suitable for adolescent voices. Andrea Ramsey’s TTBB setting of Veni Sancte Spiritus utilizes djembe along with contemporary rhythms and techniques.398 Venturing more into traditional Western art music, Russell Robinson has a TTB arrangement of Bruckner’s Locus iste (appropriate for the dedication of a church) with an optional piano accompaniment to provide extra support for young adolescent male voices.399

393 Betty C. Pugsley and Richard J. Pugsley, The Sound Eternal, vol. 2 (Orleans, MA: Paraclete Press, 1987), 87. 394 Gerald Finzi, My Spirit Sang All Day, SATB, Boosey & Hawkes 48009739. 395 Dave Perry and Jean Perry, Today, My Spirit Sings, 2-part, BriLee Music Publishing BL894. 396 Earlene Rentz, Every Time I Feel the Spirit, SAB, Heritage Music Press 15/1729H. 397 Rollo A. Dilworth, Ev’ry Time I Feel the Spirit, SATB, Hal Leonard 00215489. 398 Andrea Ramsey, Veni, Sancte Spiritus, TTBB, Hal Leonard 08753342. 399 Anton Bruckner, Locus Iste, arr. Russell Robinson, TTB, Mark Foster 00250270.

149

5.11 Toward a Contemporary Approach to Chant

The eight chants arranged and annotated in this chapter represent a sample of the chants suitable for changing voices and also represent one suggested approach to their arrangement, teaching, and performance. The chants selected have been explored using criteria that would suggest they hold some historical significance rather than just a religious significance. These criteria include range, level of floridity, and frequency among a variety of chant and pedagogical resources. Though their initial intent was sacred in nature, in many cases they have formed the basis for monumental choral works. Texts from the eight annotated chants in this chapter have all been utilized numerous times throughout the history of Western choral music, charting a new historical significance for the texts that may supersede their original liturgical purposes. Several of the remaining 69 chants demonstrate this quality as well, such as Hodie Christus natus est, Ave verum corpus, Jesu dulcis memoria, O magnum mysterium, and the Magnificat. These texts have been featured regularly in concert settings. Drawing connections between concert pieces and their original Medieval chant brings new historical significance to the performance without necessarily focusing on the religious intent of the chant. This historical contextualization facilitates the inclusion of chants in many choral curricula in both sacred and secular institutions.

Choral programs that are tied to churches or parochial schools, or an otherwise secular ensemble with no restrictions regarding religious music, could easily pursue many of the other chants not selected for this study. Furthermore, Cooksey’s Contemporary Eclectic Theory (as outlined in 3.2) has been used as a framework for the selection and arrangement of the chants in this chapter. Some of the more advanced community youth choirs or choir schools—who may have a greater interest in pursuing chant—may subscribe to the Expanded Voice Theory, in which case issues such as range may not be a factor for consideration. Nonetheless, this process demonstrates how historical research and adolescent voice pedagogy can be used to frame Gregorian chant in a way that is more easily accessible to contemporary classrooms.

150

Chapter 6 Conclusion

This study set out to explore the efficacy of chant as a pedagogical and programmatic tool for working with boys experiencing adolescent voice change. The historical significance of chant combined with existent and emerging research on adolescent male voice pedagogy culminated in a survey of chant repertoire suitable for changing voices. The three main questions of this study are in fact rooted in those three themes:

1. Pedagogy: How does chant support the development of adolescent changing voices? 2. History: How can these voices present historically informed performances of chant that meet the unique challenges of the boy’s changing voice? 3. Repertoire: How do history and pedagogy work together to inform our selection of chants for changing voices?

6.1 Pedagogical Implications of Chant Study by Changing-Voice Males

Cumulative research by James Jordan and James Whitbourn regarding the pedagogical benefits of Gregorian chant was juxtaposed with John Cooksey’s Contemporary Eclectic Theory (CET) of adolescent male voice change and the best practices for changing-voice boys as explored by his successors—Joanne Rutkowski, Terry Barham and Darolyne Nelson, Patrick Freer, Rollo Dilworth, Janice Killian, and Leon Thurman. The juxtaposition of these two bodies of research reveals several areas of overlap: namely, (1) limited range and tessitura, (2) relaxed vocal onset, (3) development of vocal agility, (4) improvement of auditory skills, (5) opportunities for expressive singing, (6) development of musicianship skills, and (7) meaningful aesthetic experiences. These areas of overlap suggested to me that singing chant through the voice change could facilitate musical development of adolescent males at a level consistent with their previous musical training and appropriate to their current vocal limitations.

A review of the literature revealed a significant, though dated, body of chant pedagogy resources that focus primarily on the interpretation of neumes and performance practice of the chant. Furthermore, available resources afford primacy to the religious nature of chant and its liturgical

151 role in the Roman Catholic rite. Jordan and Whitbourn’s research is the first extensive document to place chant practice in the context of vocal pedagogy. In the other arena, research on adolescent male voice change demonstrates a lack of accessible historical repertoire for changing-voice boys. This provided impetus for establishing a base repertoire of chant suitable for boys with changing voices.

Casual conversations with colleagues at religious choir schools has revealed that boys with changing voices in these schools are often excluded from singing (sometimes relegated to other ministerial duties) or otherwise discouraged from vocalizing in their emerging adult range. Research on the declining male participation in choral activities cites difficulty during the voice change and lack of confidence in ability as significant factors.400 This body of repertoire provides an opportunity for these singers to continue to be engaged in the music-making process while developing their new modal voice through successful singing experiences.

The chants identified in this study address vocal techniques such as legato singing, vocal agility, registration facility, diction, and breath management. The chants also aim to develop musicianship skills such as sight-singing, ear training, and improvisation, while also addressing ensemble techniques such as entrainment, intonation, balance, phrasing, and uniformity. These pedagogical themes align with the goals established by the researcher mentioned at the outset of this section as well as with many standard curricula. Improvisation, for example, is a mandatory curriculum standard in several North American jurisdictions and yet still perplexes a majority of teachers.401 Abandoning traditionally limited notions of improvisation allows us to consider the role students can play in making self-driven harmonic and expressive decisions that influence the performance. Chant may provide an easy introduction to the concept of harmonic improvisation

400 Steven M. Demorest, “Encouraging Male Participation in Chorus,” Music Educators Journal 86, no. 4 (January 2000): 38; Patrick K. Freer, “The Successful Transition and Retention of Boys from Middle School to High Shool Choral Music,” Choral Journal 52, no. 10 (May 2012): 10–11; Patrick K. Freer. “Hearing the Voices of Adolescent Boys in Choral Music: A Self-Story,” Research Studies in Music Education 27, no. 1 (December 2006): 70; André-Louis Heywood and Carol Beynon, “Finding a Voice: Why Boys (Don’t) Sing,” The Phenomenon of Singing 6 (2007): 110; Bevan T. Keating, “A Choral Organizational Structure for the Developing Male Singer" (DMA diss., Ohio State University, 2004), 2–3; Vincent Oakes, “The Developing Male Voice: Instilling Confidence in the Young Male Singer,” Choral Journal 48, no. 11 (2008): 115–18. 401 Ajay Heble and Mark Lever, “Introduction: Improvisation and Music Education: Beyond the Classroom,” in Improvisation and Music Education: Beyond the Classroom, ed. Ajay Heble and Mark Lever (New York & London: Routledge, 2016), 1-2.

152 through the use of organum, by empowering adolescent singers with the ability to navigate to a higher or lower harmonic part based on their own vocal needs. This type of engagement not only allows for a democratic approach to musicianship, but builds required aural and improvisatory skills and improves students’ capacity for understanding and assessing their own voice.

6.2 Historically Informed Performance of Chant by Changing- Voice Males

Unlike earlier chant resources, this study focuses on the pedagogical impact and historically- informed performance of Gregorian chant, as opposed to religious fulfilment or devotion. While the themes of the repertoire may be sacred, its study and performance are framed in the context of musical development. As such, this resource may be accessible to the conductor of a secular ensemble interested in pursuing Gregorian chant for artistic or historical purposes.

The teaching of historical style when exploring music of the traditional Western canon is an important part of a comprehensive music program. Teaching students about Baroque articulation, Classical concepts of ensemble balance, or dynamic variances in Romantic music are standard fare in the exploration of historical repertoire. Where chant provides an opportunity for this type of historical exploration is in its pedagogical suitability for changing voices. While music of later historical periods presents challenges for young singers in terms of range, phrasing, and dynamic capabilities (among other issues), chant is often void of these challenging elements, rendering it a viable alternative for the exploration of historical music. Furthermore, while historical repertoire for young singers is already limited, representation from the Medieval period is most scarce. Study of Gregorian chant can provide not only successful performance experiences because of its accessibility for the changing voice but also a more well-rounded music curriculum in which students are exposed to Western art music of all major eras.

153

6.3 Establishing a Repertoire Base of Chants for Changing- Voice Males

In addition to providing opportunities for exploration in historically informed performance, the long history of boys singing chant informs our selection of chants for this purpose. Several chants have a historical connection to the pueri oblati (monastic choirboys) or to young choristers in later times, as is evidenced in the chant pedagogy books of the early twentieth century. The connection of these chants to young singers throughout history suggests a potential affinity of young singers to the text or to other musical or ritual elements. Consideration of both pedagogical suitability and historical significance were important in establishing an appropriate body of chant repertoire suitable for transitioning voices.

I selected chants in consideration of their frequency in existent chant resources, their historical connection to the pueri oblati, and their accessibility to adolescent voices based on criteria established by Cooksey’s CET. An initial survey of the repertoire in 11 significant resources produced a base repertoire of 557 chants. Application of the aforementioned criteria narrowed the selection to 77 chants deemed suitable for changing-voice males. I arranged eight of the 77 chants in consideration of historical practice and pedagogical concerns, so that they can be studied in a classroom or community choir setting. The eight selected chants represent a variety of modes, genres, themes, and levels of difficulty. The arrangements, analyses, and teaching recommendations represent a variety of pedagogical topics of interest to practitioners who work with adolescent voices.

This body of repertoire provides a starting point for teachers and conductors unfamiliar with chant repertoire. Musical arrangements of the chants set them in comfortable pitch ranges for changing-voice males. Annotations of the selected chants provide historical and thematic contexts, descriptions of the adaptations made for changing voices, teaching strategies, performance suggestions, and lists of associated choral works.

At the outset of this dissertation, I referenced the work of composer Dan Davison who constructed a piece in the classical archetype suitable for changing voices (page 9). The arrangements of the chants here can also provide a framework for composers/arrangers interested in setting their own chant-like repertoire for transitioning voices. The paramount consideration should be adherence to the ranges and tessiturae suggested by Cooksey. Adaptability of the

154 melodic lines (to be transposed depending on the ensemble) should be considered, and opportunities for the varying voice parts to each have melodic material is important.

6.4 Recommendations for Future Research

This study has explored the pedagogical advantage of the study of chant by changing-voice males based on existent research. It is my desire that the processes outlined here will inform practice. Opportunities for an experimental design, case study, or survey-based research were unavailable at the time of this study due to a limited number of ensembles with changing-voice males with access to this repertoire. The 77 chants identified as suitable repertoire for these ensembles can serve to increase opportunities for experimental observation. Religious choir schools that currently relegate their adolescent boys to nonvocal duties can begin to engage their transitioning singers in chant, providing opportunities for case studies of these schools and valuable input from practitioners. While the accessibility of this repertoire may be understandably limited in the public school context, music teachers in parochial schools, religious choir schools, and community youth choir conductors may find value in this repertoire. Future studies should explore the efficacy of chant instruction in the development of skills and healthy vocal tone among adolescent males through comparison of programs that incorporate chant versus programs that do not. Pedagogical advantages beyond the skills addressed in these eight chants (e.g., improvisation, composition) should also be explored.

This study echoes Jordan and Whitbourn’s assertion that chant, in addition to developing musicianship skills and vocal technique, has a positive spiritual and aesthetic effect on singers, regardless of their religious affiliation. As Jordan and Whitbourn’s research focuses on more mature ensembles, further research is needed to explore whether this effect is replicated among younger adolescent singers.

The eight chants presented in this study are representative of the 77 chants deemed suitable for changing voices. Future possibilities exist for arrangement of the remaining 69 chants. While this study began with a base repertoire of 557 chants as found in various chant resources, there is potential for a complete survey of chants in the official Vatican and Solesmes chant books, as well as any anthologies of Ambrosian, Mozarabic, and Byzantine chant or English plainsong.

155

With tens of thousands of distinct musical compositions in this genre, the possibilities for changing voices are potentially substantial.

6.5 Custos

In chant notation, the custos resides at the end of each line, indicating the pitch at which the next line begins. Similarly, the end result of this study is intended as the starting point for a potentially new arena of research. This theoretical study provides practitioners with a valuable resource of repertoire and pedagogical ideas to be explored. Now established, this repertoire needs to be put to the test in classrooms and concert halls. Chant can enrich concert programs by providing contrast with other repertoire or connecting thematic elements. John Cooksey said that creativity is one of the most important factors in the successful teaching of adolescent voices.402 Chant certainly represents a genre that is unique in most programs catering to middle school/junior high age, but it provides myriad opportunities for musical growth and creative programming.

While chant may not serve as an all-encompassing answer to the problem of finding appropriate repertoire for the boy’s changing voice, it can be an integral component of a comprehensive program that engages adolescent boys in thoughtful, healthy, developmental vocal practices and historically-informed and well-rounded performances.

402 Sally Hook, “Changing Voice and Middle School Music: An Interview with John Cooksey and Nancy Cox,” Choral Journal 39, no. 1 (August 1998): 24.

156

Bibliography

Abbaye Saint-Piere de Solesmes. “Modern Times.” Accessed January 23, 2018. http://www.solesmes.com/GB/histoire/moderne.php. Adcock, Eva. “The Changing Voice—The Middle/Junior High Challenge.” Choral Journal 28, no. 3 (October 1987): 9–11. Adler, Adam H. W. “A Case Study of Boys' Experiences of Singing in School.” PhD diss., University of Toronto, 2002. Agustoni, Luigi, and Johannes Berchmans Göschl. An Introduction to the Interpretation of Gregorian Chant. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2006. Aldrich, Carol E. “Medieval Vocal Music in the Junior High School.” MM thesis, University of Southern California, 1963. American Choral Directors Association. A Life of Song: Middle School Junior High Reading Session. J. W. Pepper & Sons, 2017. ———. “Repertoire Junior High/Middle School.” Accessed January 20, 2018. https://acda.org/ACDA/Repertoire_and_Resources Ashley, Martin. “Broken Voices or a Broken Curriculum? The Impact of Research on UK School Choral Practice with Boys.” British Journal of Music Education 30, no. 3 (May 2013): 311–27. ———. How High Should Boys Sing? London: Routledge, 2013. ———. “Technique or Testosterone? An Empirical Report on Changes in the Longevity of Boy Singers.” Journal of Singing 67, no. 2 (November/December 2010): 137–45. ———. “The Angel Enigma: Experienced Boy Singers' Perceptual Judgements of Changing Voices.” Music Education Research 13, no. 3 (August 2011): 343–54. ———. “The English Choral Tradition and the Secular Trend in Boys' Pubertal Timing.” International Journal of Research in Choral Singing 4, no. 2 (Spring 2013): 4–27. ———. “The Spiritual, the Cultural and the Religious: What Can We Learn from a Study of Boy Choristers?” International Journal of Children's Spirituality 7, no. 3 (2002): 257–72. ———. “You Sing Like a Girl? An Exploration of 'Boyness' through the Treble Voice.” Sex Education 6, no. 2 (May 2006): 193–205. Augustine of Hippo. Confessions. Translated by Richard Geoffrey Pine-Coffin. Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1961. Barham, Terry J., and Darolyne L. Nelson. The Boy's Changing Voice: New Solutions for Today's Choral Teacher. Miami, FL: Belwin Mills, 1991. Barnum, Eric W. “100 Chants: A Resource for Choral Practice and Performance.” DMA diss., University of Washington, 2013. Bartlett, Dale L. “Effect of Repeated Listenings on Structural Discrimination and Affective Response.” Journal of Research in Music Education 21, no. 4 (Winter 1973): 302–17.

157

Battersby, Sharyn L. “A Brief History of the Ward Method and the Importance of Revitalizing Gregorian Chant and the Ward Method in the Music Classrooms of Parochial Schools.” Sacred Music 142, no. 4 (Winter 2015): 25–46. Bayerkohler, Carolyn E. “Suitable Vocal Range and Tessitura of the Male Changing Voice in the Published Cambiata Choral Music and the Author's Original Cambiata Choral Composition.” MS thesis, Southwest State University, 2002. Beery, Lon. “Appropriate Voicings for Middle School Choruses.” Choral Journal 36, no. 8 (March 1996): 15–20. ———. “Music for Men in the the Middle.” The Choral Journal 50, no. 4 (November 2009): 34–43. Behnke, Emil, and Lennox Brown. The Child's Voice: It's Treatment with Regard to After Development. Boston: Oliver Ditson & Co., 1885. Berry, Mary. “Gregorian Chant: The Restoration of the Chant and Seventy-Five Years of Recording.” Early Music 7, no. 2 (1979): 197–217. Beynon, Carol, and André-Louis Heywood. “Making Their Voices Heard: A Social Constructivist Study of Youth and Men Who Choose to Sing.” UNESCO Observatory Journal of Multi-Disciplinary Research in the Arts 2, no. 1 (2010). Blue, Thomas. “A Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Working with the Adolescent Brain/Voice.” Choral Journal 55, no. 9 (2015): 57–62. Borgerding, Todd M. “Imagining the Sacred Body: Choirboys, Their Voices, and Corpus Christi in Early Modern Seville.” In Musical Childhoods and the Cultures of Youth, edited by Susan Boynton and Roe-Min Kok, 25–48. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2006. Bowers, Judy. “Motivation in Middle School Choir.” Choral Journal 47, no. 5 (November 2006): 90–93. Bowyer, James. “Selecting Sight-Singing Curricula for the Choral Rehearsal.” Choral Journal 56, no. 2 (September 2015): 69–71. Boyd, Robert A., Diane Hires, and Mary Hopper. “Teaching with Standards: Repertoire in the Age of ‘Glee.’” Choral Journal 51, no. 7 (February 2011): 24–43. Boynton, Susan. “Boy Singers in Medieval Monasteries and Cathedrals.” In Young Choristers, 650–1700, edited by Susan Boynton and Eric Rice, 37–48. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2008. Boynton, Susan, and Eric Rice. “Introduction: Performance and Premodern Childhood.” In Young Choristers, 650–1700, edited by Susan Boynton and Eric Rice, 1–18. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2008. Boynton, Susan, and Isabelle Cochelin. “The Sociomusical Role of Child Oblates at the Abbey of Cluny in the Eleventh Century.” In Musical Childhoods and the Cultures of Youth, edited by Susan Boynton and Roe-Min Kok, 3–24. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2006. Brancaleone, Francis. “Justine Ward and the Fostering of an American Solesmes Chant Tradition.” Sacred Music 136, no. 3 (Fall 2009): 6–13.

158

Brandt, Gisbert. “A Lively and Systematic Approach to Learning Music.” Sacred Music 133, no. 1 (Spring 2006): 17–21. Brenner, Brenda, and Katherine Strand. “A Case Study of Teaching Musical Expression to Young Performers.” Journal of Research in Music Education 61, no. 1 (April 2013): 80– 96. Broomhead, Paul. “A Study of Instructional Strategies for Teaching Expressive Performance in the Choral Rehearsal.” Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, no. 167 (Winter 2006): 7–20. Brouwers, Wilko. Words with Wings. Richmond, VA: Church Music Association of America, 2012. Brown, Alise. “How the Ward Method Words.” Sacred Music 134, no. 3 (Fall 2007): 12–15. Brown, Charles P. “Range vs. Register: An Important Distinction in Choral Repertoire for the Adolescent Male.” DMA diss., University of Arizona, 2010. Busch, Stephen E. “Voice Classifications.” Choral Journal 14, no. 1 (September 1973): 21–24. Canfield, Jennifer L. K. “Middle and Junior High School Choral Repertoire: Directors’ Criteria for Selection, Quality, and Appropriateness.” PhD diss., Auburn University, 2009. Cardine, Eugène. Gregorian Semiology. Solesmes: Abbaye Saint-Pierre de Solesmes, 1982. Choral Songs for Voices of Limited Range. London: Novello & Co., 1955. Christenson, Peter G., and Jon Brian Peterson. “Genre and Gender in the Structure of Music Preferences.” Communication Research 15, no. 3 (June 1988): 282–301. Clayton, Martin. “Definition and Applications in Musical Research.” Empirical Musicology Review 7, nos. 1–2 (January–April 2012): 49–56. Coffman, Wesley S. “The Changing Voice—The Elementary Challenge.” Choral Journal 28, no. 3 (October 1987): 5–7. Collins, Don L. “Preferred Practices in Teaching Boys Whose Voices Are Changing.” Choral Journal 47, no. 5 (November 2006): 119–21. ———. “The Cambiata Concept—More Than Just about Changing Voices.” Choral Journal 23, no. 4 (December 1982): 5–12. ———. “The Changing Voice—A Future Challenge.” Choral Journal 28, no. 3 (October 1987): 19–20. Collins, Drew. “Using Repertoire to Teach Vocal Pedagogy in All-Male Changing Voice Choirs: Conversations With Six Master Teachers.” The Choral Journal 52, no. 9 (April 2012): 34 –41. Conrad, Robert M. “Developing the Boy's Changing Voice.” Music Educators Journal 50, no. 5 (April 1964): 68–70. Cooksey, John M. “Male Adolescent Transforming Voices: Voice Classification, Voice Skill Development, and Music Literature Selection.” In Bodymind & Voice: Foundations of Voice Education, edited by Leon Thurman and Graham Welch, 821–41. Iowa City: National Center for Voice and Speech, 2000.

159

———. “The Development of a Contemporary Eclectic Theory for the Training and Cultivation of the Junior High School Male Changing Voice: Part I, Existing Theories.” The Choral Journal 18, no. 2 (October 1977): 5–14. ———. “The Development of a Contemporary, Eclectic Theory for the Training and Cultivation of the Junior High School Male Changing Voice: Part II, Scientific and Empirical Findings: Some Tentative Solutions.” Choral Journal 18, no. 3 (November 1977): 5–16. ———. “The Development of a Contemporary, Eclectic Theory for the Training and Cultivation of the Junior High School Male Changing Voice: Part III, Deeloping an Integrated Approach ot the Care and Training of the Junior High School Male Changing Voice.” Choral Journal 18, no. 4 (December 1977): 5–16. ———. Working with Adolescent Voices. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1999. Cooper, Irvin. “A Study of Boys' Changing Voices in Great Britain.” Music Educators Journal 51, no. 2 (November 1964): 118. ———. “Changing Voices.” Music Educators Journal 48, no. 4 (February 1962): 148–49. ———. “The Junior High School Choral Problem.” Music Educators Journal 37, no. 2 (November 1950): 20–21. Cooper, Irvin, and Karl O. Kuersteiner. Teaching Junior High School Music. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1970. Cosenza, Glenda Lee. “Medieval Music for Middle School Chorus.” DMA diss., Temple University, 1997. ———. “Medieval Music for Middle School Chorus: A Music Preference Study.” Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 20, no. 2 (Spring/Summer 2002): 3–7. Cox, Nancy. “A Choral Rationale for Training Pubescent Boys in a Single Gender Environment.” Choral Journal 42, no. 8 (March 2002): 68–69. Crocker, Richard. An Introduction to Gregorian Chant. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000. ———. “Chant for the Masses.” In Gregorian Chant: Songs of the Spirit, edited by Huston Smith. San Francisco: KQED, 1996. Curwen, J. Spencer. The Boy's Voice. London: J. Curwen & Sons, Ltd., 1899. Dann, Hollis. Junior Songs. New York: American Book Co., 1918. Davids, Julia, and Stephen LaTour. Vocal Technique: A Guide for Conductors, Teachers, and Singers. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 2012. Demorest, Steven M. “Encouraging Male Participation in Chorus.” Music Educators Journal 86, no. 4 (January 2000): 38–41. ———. “The Challenge of the Middle School Chorus.” Music Educators Journal 86, no. 4 (January 2000): 21–22. Denison, Craig. “A Structural Model of Physiological and Psychological Effects on Adolescent Male Singing.” PhD diss., University of Miami, 2015. Dilworth, Rollo. “Working with Male Adolescent Voices in the Choral Rehearsal: A Survey of Research-Based Strategies.” Choral Journal 52, no. 9 (April 2012): 22–33.

160

Drummond, Tim. “Singing over the Wall: Legal and Ethical Considerations for Sacred Music in the Public Schools.” Music Educators Journal 101, no. 2 (December 2014): 27–31. Dyer, Joseph. “Boy Singers of the Roman Schola Cantorum.” In Young Choristers, 650–1700, edited by Susan Boynton and Eric Rice, 19–36. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2008. Eales, Andrew. “Sound before Symbol: Lessons from History.” Pianodao: The Way of Piano. October 17, 2015. Accessed January 29, 2018. https://pianodao.com/2015/10/17/sound- before-symbol-lessons-from-history/. Edwards, Darryl. “Puberphonia.” The Canadian Music Educator 48, no. 4 (Summer 2007): 54. Emge, Steven W. “The Adolescent Male: Vocal Registers as Affecting Vocal Range, Register Competence and Comfort in Singing.” PhD diss., University of Iowa, 1996. Ferretti, Donna T., and Marvin E. Latimer Jr. “A Content Analysis of ACDA National Conference Interest Sessions: 1960–2013.” The Singing Network 1, 2013. Accessed February 11, 2018. https://journals.library.mun.ca/ojs/index.php/singingnetwork/article/view/1807/1372 Fisher, Ryan A. “British and American Theories of the Changing Male Voice: An Historical Overview.” Journal of Historical Research in Music Education 31, no. 1 (October 2009): 37–47. ———. “Effect of Ethnicity on the Age of Onset of the Male Voice Change.” Journal of Research in Music Education 58, no. 2 (July 2010): 116–30. ———. “The Effect of Ethnicity on the Age-of-Onset of the Male Voice Change.” PhD diss., University of North Texas, 2008. ———. “The Impacts of the Voice Change, Grade Level, and Experience on the Singing Self- Efficacy of Emerging Adolescent Males.” Journal of Research in Music Education 62, no. 3 (October 2014): 277–90. Folstrom, Roger J. Review of Music Teaching in the Junior High and Middle School, by Frederick J. Swanson. Journal of Research in Music Education 22, no. 4 (Winter 1974): 332–33. Fowells, Robert M. “The Changing Voice: A Vocal Chameleon.” Choral Journal 24, no. 1 (September 1983): 11–18. Freer, Patrick K. “Adapt, Build & Challenge: Three Keys to Effective Choral Rehearsals for Young Adolescents.” Choral Journal 47, no. 5 (November 2006): 48–55. ———. “Boys' Changing Voices in the First Century of MENC Journals.” Music Educators Journal 95, no. 1 (September 2008): 41–47. ———. “Choral Warm-Ups for Changing Adolescent Voices.” Music Educators Journal 95, no. 3 (March 2009): 57–62. ———. “Foundation of the Boys' Expanding Voice: A Response to Henry Leck.” Choral Journal 50, no. 7 (February 2010): 29–35. ———. “Hearing the Voices of Adolescent Boys in Choral Music: A Self-Story.” Research Studies in Music Education 27, no. 1 (December 2006): 69–81.

161

———. “‘I'll Sing with My Buddies’—Fostering the Possible Selves of Male Choral Singers.” International Journal of Music Education 27, no. 4 (November 2009): 341–55. ———. “The Changing Voices of Male Choristers: An Enigma . . . to Them.” Music Education Research 18, no. 1 (2016): 74–90. ———. “The Successful Transition and Retention of Boys from Middle School to High Shool Choral Music.” Choral Journal 52, no. 10 (May 2012): 8–17. ———. “Two Decades of Research on Possible Selves and the ‘Missing Males’ Problem in Choral Music.” International Journal of Music Education 28, no. 1 (February 2010): 17– 30. ———. “Weight Lifting, Singing, and Adolescent Boys.” Choral Journal 52, no. 4 (November 2011): 32–41. Friar, Kendra K. “Changing Voices, Changing Times.” Music Educators Journal 86, no. 3 (November 1999): 26–29. Friddle, David. “Changing Bodies, Changing Voices: A Brief Survey of the Literature and Methods of Working with Adolescent Changing Voices.” Choral Journal 46, no. 6 (December 2005): 32–43, 46–47. Gackle, Lynne. “Finding Ophelia's Voice: The Female Voice During Adolescence.” Choral Journal 47, no. 5 (November 2006): 28–37. Garcia, Manuel. A Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing: Complete and Unabridged, translated by Donald V. Paschke. New York: Da Capo Press, 1975. Gebhardt, Rianne M. “The Adolescent Singing Voice in the 21st Century: Vocal Health and Pedagogy Promoting Vocal Health.” DMA diss., Ohio State University, 2016. Goodchild, Marie Antonine. Gregorian Chant for Church and School. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1944. Gordon, Edwin E. Roots of Music Learning Theory and Audiation. Chicago: GIA Publications, 2011. Grace, Harvey. “An Organist's Notebook.” The Musical Times 73, no. 1073 (January 1932): 637–38. Grashel, John W. “The Gamut and Solmization in Early British and American Texts.” Journal of Research in Music Education 29, no. 1 (Spring 1981): 63–70. Green, Georgia A. “Unison versus Individual Singing and Elementary Students' Vocal Pitch Accuracy.” Journal of Research in Music Education 42, no. 2 (Summer 1994): 105–14. Gregorio, Dominic. “Living the Chant.” In Discovering Chant: Teaching Musicianship and Human Sensibilities Through Chant, edited by James Jordan and James Whitbourn, 29– 32. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2014. Guido d'Arezzo. “Epistola de ignoto cantu.” In Source Readings in Music History from Classical Antiquity Through the Romantic Era, edited by W. Oliver Strunk. New York: Norton, 1950.

162

———. “Prologus antiphonarii sui.” In Source Readings in Music History from Classical Antiquity Through the Romantic Era, edited by W. Oliver Strunk. New York: Norton, 1950. Hall, Clare. “Gender and Boys' Singing in Early Childhood.” British Journal of Music Education 22, no. 1 (March 2005): 5–20. Harries, Meredydd L. L., J. M. Walker, D. M. Williams, S. Hawkins, and I. A. Hughes. “Changes in the Male Voice at Puberty.” Archives of Disease in Childhood 77, no. 5 (November 1997): 445–47. Hawkins, Patrick J. “Medieval Music in the Junior High Choral Classroom.” Choral Journal 48, no. 9 (March 2008): 40–47. Hawkins, Patrick J., and Amy Beegle. “The National Standards and Medieval Music in Middle School Choral and General Music.” Music Educators Journal 89, no. 3 (January 2003): 41–45, 59. Henry, Hugh. “Ut queant laxis resonare fibris.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. Heywood, André-Louis, and Carol Beynon. “Finding a Voice: Why Boys (Don’t) Sing.” The Phenomenon of Singing 6 (2007): 108–23. Hiley, David. Gregorian Chant. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. ———. Western Plainchant: A Handbook. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993. Hill, Joseph E., and August Kerber. Models, Methods and Analytical Procedures in Education Research. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1967. Hollien, Harry. “On Pubescent Voice Change in Males.” Journal of Voice 26, no. 2 (March 2012): e29–e40. Hollien, Harry, Rachel Green, and Karen Massey. “Longitudinal Research on Adolescent Voice Change in Males.” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 96, no. 5 (November 1994): 2646–54. Hook, Sally. “Changing Voice and Middle School Music: An Interview with John Cooksey and Nancy Cox.” Choral Journal 39, no. 1 (August 1998): 21–26. ———. “Vocal Agility in the Male Adolescent Changing Voice.” PhD diss., University of Missouri–Columbia, 2005. Hower, Eileen. “Designing a New Paradigm for Selecting Music for the Middle School Choir.” Choral Journal 47, no. 5 (November 2006): 62–71, 74. Hughes, Betty F. “A Study of Vocal Maturation in White and Nonwhite Adolescent Males of the Same Chronological Age.” EdD diss., University of Alabama, 1984. International Commission on English in the Liturgy, ed. and trans. The Roman Missal. 3rd typical ed. Washington, DC: United States Catholic Conference of Bishops, 2011. Jeffers, Ron. Translations and Annotations of Choral Repertoire, vol. 1: Sacred Latin Texts. Corvallis, OR: earthsongs, 1988.

163

Johnson, Brandon P. “Elements of Excellence: A Study of Musical and Non-Musical Factors Common Within Non-Conservatory College and University Choral Programs Recognized for Excellence.” DMA diss., University of Arizona, 2003. Johnson, Jefferson. “The What, Why, and How of Young Adult Male Choirs.” Choral Journal 52, no. 10 (May 2012): 28–37. Jordan, James, and James Whitbourn. Discovering Chant: Teaching Musicianship and Human Sensibilities Through Chant. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2014. Judith, Sister M. Square Notes: A Workbook in Gregorian Chant. Kansas City, MO: Angelus Press, 1962. Kasparian, Faith D. “The Constitutionality of Teaching and Performing Sacred Choral Music in Public Schools.” Duke Law Journal 46, no. 5 (March 1997): 1111–68. Keating, Bevan T. “A Choral Organizational Structure for the Developing Male Singer.” DMA diss., Ohio State University, 2004. Kennedy, Mary Copland. “‘It's a metamorphosis’: Guiding the Voice Change at the American Boychoir School.” Journal of Research in Music Education 52, no. 3 (Autumn 2004): 264–80. Killian, Janice N. “A Description of Vocal Maturation among Fifth- and Sixth-Grade Boys.” Journal of Research in Music Education 47, no. 4 (Winter 1999): 357–69. ———. “Choral Directors' Self Reports of Accommodations Made for Boys' Changing Voices.” Reports of Research in Music Education. Austin: Texas Music Educators Association, 2003. Killian, Janice N., and John B. Wayman. “A Descriptive Study of Vocal Maturation among Male Adolescent Vocalists and Instrumentalists.” Journal of Research in Music Education 58, no. 1 (April 2010): 5–19. Klein, Ellen D. “The Use of Sixteenth-Century Sacred Polyphony with a Junior High School Select Choir.” MM thesis, University of Southern California, 1965. Kriekard, Pamela D. “The Perceptions of Boys Regarding the Changing Voice.” MM thesis, Michigan State University, 2001. Kuenzig, Karen D. “The Justine Ward Method of Music Education as Implemented in the Parochial Schools of Bardstown and Louisville, Kentucky (1930–1960).” MM thesis, University of Louisville, 1993. Kursinski, Emil R. “Training the Boy's Unchanged Voice at the Junior High School Level.” MM thesis, University of Southern California, 1959. Leck, Henry H. “The Boy's Changing Expanding Voice: Take The High Road.” Choral Journal 49, no. 11 (May 2009): 49–60. ———. The Boy's Changing Expanding Voice: Take The High Road. DVD. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corporation, 2001. Leman, Marc. “Musical Entrainment Subsumes Bodily Gestures—Its Definition Needs a Spatiotemporal Dimension.” Empirical Musicology Review 7, nos. 1–2 (January–April 2012): 63–67.

164

Leonhard, Charles, and Richard J. Colwell. “Qualitative Research in Music Education.” Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, no. 49 (Winter 1976): 1–30. Lerew, Thomas Edward. “Programming for Success: A Study of Repertoire Selection Practices by Undergraduate-Focused, Religiously-Affiliated, Collegiate Choral Programs Nationally Recognized For Performance Excellence.” DMA diss., University of Arizona, 2016. Liber Usualis: With Introduction and Rubrics in English. Tournai: Desclée, 1961. Little, Velma Gertrude. The Chant: A Simple and Complete Method for Teachers and Students. Tournai: Desclée, 1949. Lorenz, Kim. A History of the Vienna Boys' Choir. Lewes: Book Guild, 1988. Lucas, Mark. “Real Men Sing . . . Choral Repertoire.” Choral Journal 52, no. 9 (April 2012): 43–48. Mackenzie, Morell. “Speech and Song: Part I—Speech.” The Contemporary Review 55 (1889): 850–63. ———. “Speech and Song: Part II—Song.” The Contemporary Review 56 (1889): 179–93. MacLeod, Robert. A Heritage of Song: Song Book for Adolescent Boys. London: Curwen, 1932. Marier, Theodore. A Gregorian Chant Master Class. Bethlehem, CT: Abbey of Regina Laudis, 2002. Martin, George C. The Art of Training Choirboys. London: Novello & Co., 1901. Mason, Lowell. Manual of the Boston Academy of Music: For Instruction in the Elements of Vocal Music, on the System of Pestalozzi. 5th ed. Boston: J. H. Wilkins & R. B. Carter, 1839. Mayer, Frederick D., and Jack Sacher. “The Changing Voice.” American Choral Review 6, no. 2 (1964): 3–20. McCallum, Wendy. “Repertoire as Curriculum.” Canadian Winds 5, no. 2 (2007): 105–8. McClung, Alan C. “Master Teachers in Middle-Level Choral Music: Pedagogical Insights and Practices.” Choral Journal 47, no. 5 (2006): 6–26. McConathy, Osbourne, John Beattie, and Russell V. Morgan. Music of Many Lands and Peoples. Boston: Silver, Burdett and Company, 1932. McKenzie, Duncan. “The Adolescent Boy's Voice in the Church Music Program.” Music Journal 2, no. 1 (1944): 30–31, 46. ———. “The Boy's Changing Voice.” Music Journal 14, no. 9 (1956): 29, 38–39. ———. Training the Boy's Changing Voice. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1956. MENC: The National Association for Music Education. Where We Stand. March 1997. Accessed February 21, 2018. https://nafme.org/my-classroom/journals-magazines/nafme-online- publications/where-we-stand/. Miller, Samuel D. “Guido D' Arezzo: Medieval and Musician Educator.” Journal of Research in Music Education 21, no. 3 (1973): 239–45.

165

Moller, Herbert. “Voice Change in Human Biological Development Herbert Moller.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 16, no. 2 (1985): 239–53. Moore, Melanie C. “The Adolescent Male Changing Voice: A Study of Age and Attitudinal Comparisons.” MA thesis, Texas Woman's University, 2002. Musica Sacra. “Words with Wings.” Accessed January 23, 2018. http://www.musicasacra.com/music-pedagogy-for-children/wings/. Napoles, Jessica, Sandra Babb, Rebecca Reames, Matthew L. Garrett, and Judy Bowers. “Beautiful Singing with Developmental Choirs.” The Choral Journal 53, no. 3 (2012): 55–65. National Association for Music Education. “Core Music Standards (Ensemble Strand).” June 4, 2014. https://nafme.org/wp-content/files/2014/11/2014-Music-Standards-Ensemble- Strand.pdf. Nye, Robert E. Review of Training the Boy's Changing Voice, by Duncan McKenzie. Journal of Research in Music Education 4, no. 2 (1956): 143–44. Oakes, Vincent. “The Developing Male Voice: Instilling Confidence in the Young Male Singer.” Choral Journal 48, no. 11 (2008): 115–18. OFSTED. “Making More of Music: An Evaluation of Music in Schools.” Office for Standards in Education Report, UK, 2005. Palkki, Joshua. “Gender Trouble: Males, Adolescence, and Masculinity in the Choral Context.” Choral Journal 56, no. 4 (2015): 24–35. Parker, Alice. The Anatomy of Melody. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2006. Parker, Matthew. The Whole Psalter Translated into English Metre, which Contayneth an Hundred and Fifty Psalmes. London: John Daye, 1567. Paroissien Romain. Solesmes: Imprimerie Saint-Pierre, 1896. Paroissien Romain. Rome, Tournai: Desclée, LeFebvre & Cie, 1903. Pence Brown, Emily. “Sacred Music in Secular Schools.” Music Educators Journal 103, no. 1 (2016): 14–15. Peraino, Judith A. “Re-Placing Medieval Music.” Journal of the American Musicological Society 54, no. 2 (2001): 209–64. Phelps, Roger P. Review of Teaching Junior High School Music, by Irvin Cooper and Karl O. Kuersteiner. Journal of Research in Music Education 14, no. 2 (1966): 156–57. Phillips, Kenneth H. Teaching Kids to Sing. 2nd ed. Boston: Schirmer Cenage, 2014. ———. “The Changing Voice: An Albatross?” Choral Journal 35, no. 10 (1995): 25–27. Phillips, Kenneth H., and Steven W. Emge. “Vocal Registration as It Affects Vocal Range for 7th and 8th Grade Boys.” Journal of Research in Singing 18, no. 1 (1994): 1–10. Pilkington, Steven. “The Spirituality of Chant.” In Discovering Chant: Teaching Musicianship and Human Sensibilities Through Chant, edited by James Jordan and James Whitbourn, 33–47. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2014.

166

Pius X. Tra le sollecitudini. The Holy See, 1903. Accessed December 2, 2013. http://www.sanctamissa.org/en/music/church-documents-on-liturgical-music/tra-le- sollecitudini.pdf. Pius XII. Musicae sacrae disciplina. The Holy See, 1955. Accessed October 21, 2013. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xii/encyclicals/documents/hf_p- xii_enc_25121955_musicae-sacrae_en.html. Pugsley, Betty C., and Richard J. Pugsley. The Sound Eternal. vol. 2. Orleans, MA: Paraclete Press, 1987. Quigley, Sr. Anna de Paul. The Cultural and Aesthetic Objective in Elementary School Singing: The Ward Method Exemplified by Comparison. Rochester, NY: Congregation of the Sisters of Saint Joseph, 1945. Quinn, Patricia A. Better Than the Sons of Kings: Boys and Monks in the Eartly Middle Ages. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1989. Ramsey, Andrea L. “Swagger, Gentlemanliness, and Brotherhood: Explorations of Lived Experiences in a High School Men's Chorus.” PhD diss., Michigan State University, 2013. Reames, Rebecca R., and Matthew Warren. “Recommended Literature for Middle-Level Mixed Choirs.” Choral Journal 57, no. 5 (2006): 76–88. Reardon, Colleen. “Cantando tutte insieme: Training Girl Singers in Early Modern Sienese Convents.” In Young Choristers, 650–1700, edited by Susan Boynton and Eric Rice, 195–215. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2008. Reynolds, H. Robert. “Repertoire Is the Curriculum.” Music Educators Journal 87, no. 1 (2000): 31–33. Rice, Richard, ed. The Parish Book of Chant. 2nd ed. Church Music Association of America, 2012. Richmond, John W. “Selecting Choral Repertoire as Pre-Curriculum ‘Planned Serendipity.’” Choral Journal 30, no. 10 (1990): 23–30. Roe, Don. “The Boy's Changing Voice.” Music Journal 17, no. 7 (1959): 40, 46. Ross, Joel. “The Boychoir Model: A Perspective on Retaining Changed Voices.” The Choral Journal 46, no. 10 (2006): 55–57. Ruff, Anthony. Canticum Novum: Gregorian Chant for Today's Choir. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2012. Ruiz Jiménez, Juan. “From Mozos de coro towards Seises: Boys in the Musical Life of Seville Cathedral in the 15th and 16th Centuries.” In Young Choristers, 650–1700, edited by Susan Boynton and Eric Rice, 86–103. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2008. Rutkowski, Joanne. “Testing and Grouping Voices for Successful Singing Experiences.” Choral Journal 22, no. 4 (1981): 11–15. ———. “Two Year Results of a Longitudinal Study Investigating the Validity of Cooksey's Theory for Training the Adolescent Male Voice.” In Proceedings: Research Symposium on the Male Adolescent Voice, edited by Maria Runfola and Lee Bash, 71–79. Buffalo: State University of New York, 1982.

167

Sassi, Stacey L. “Effects of Vocal Registration Training on the Vocal Range and Perceived Comfort of the Adolescent Male Singer.” DMA diss., Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, 2009. Scahefer, Edward. Catholic Music Through the Ages: Balancing the Needs of a Worshipping Church. Chicago: Hillenbrand Books, 2008. Schenbeck, Lawrence. “Liturgical Chant, Part II : Performance Practice.” Choral Journal 43, no. 1 (2002): 59–61. Schlesinger, Kathleen. “Organistrum.” Encyclopædia Brittanica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911. Schmitz, Katherine. “Chanting the Propers: A Comparative Study of Selected English Sources for the Catholic Mass.” DMA diss., University of Kansas, 2017. Schrembs, Joseph, Alice Marie, and Gregory Huegle. The Gregorian Chant Manual of the Catholic Music Hour. New York: Silver, Burdett and Company, 1935. Second Vatican Council. Sacrosanctum concilium. The Holy See, 1963. Accessed January 23, 2018. http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat- ii_const_19631204_sacrosanctum-concilium_en.html. Shelton, Tom T., Jr. “Repertoire and the Compositional Process: A Conversation with Composers of Junior High/Middle School Repertoire.” Choral Journal 57, no. 3 (2016): 28–38. Shewan, Robert. “Music Selection for High School Choir.” Music Educators Journal 52, no. 4 (1966): 129–30,132. Shrock, Dennis. Choral Repertoire. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Shrock, Dennis, and Paul Salamunovich. “An Interview with Paul Salamunovich: On Aspects of Communication.” Choral Journal 31, no. 3 (1990): 9–15, 17–18. Sibley, Thomas A. “The Developing Male Voice: Instilling Confidence in the Young Male Singer.” Choral Journal 48, no. 11 (2008): 115–18. Skadsem, Julie A. “Singing Through the Voice Change.” General Music Today 21, no. 1 (2007): 32–34. Sloboda, John A. “The Acquisition of Musical Performance Expertise: Deconstructing the 'Talent' Account of Individual Differences in Music Expressivity.” Chap. 4 in The Road to Excellence: The Acquisition of Expert Performance in the Arts and Sciences, Sports and Games, edited by K. Anders Ericsson, 107–26. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996. Smith, Richard A. “Recovering Gregorian Chant to Renew the Choral Repertoire: Part I.” Choral Journal 46, no. 8 (2006): 22–30. ———. “Recovering Gregorian in the Choral Repertory, Part II: Using the Tools of Gregorian Chant to Illuminate the Choral Music of Later Periods.” Choral Journal 47, no. 3 (2006): 22–28. Speake, Constance J. “Medieval Music and Children.” School of Music, University of Oregon, 1983.

168

Spurgeon, Debra. “Women's Choir Repertoire Performed at ACDA National Conventions in the Twenty-First Century.” Choral Journal 50, no. 3 (2009): 60–61. Standerfer, Stephanie L., and Lisa R. Hunter. “Square Peg for a Square Hole: A Standards- and Repertoire-Based Curriculum Model.” Music Educators Journal 96, no. 3 (2010): 25–30. Stewart, Elizabeth K. “The National Standard for Arts Education: A Selected Application to Representative Quality Choral Literature for Boys' Changing Voices.” MA thesis, Eastern Michigan University, 1999. Stockton, Phillip H. “A Historical Study of Irvin Cooper: Choral Music Educator and Founder of the Cambiata Concept.” Department of Music, The University of Mississippi, 2013. ———. “Classifying Adolescent Male Voices.” Choral Journal 55, no. 3 (2014): 85–88. ———. “Irvin Cooper (1900–1971) and the Development of the Cambiata Concept for Adolescent Changing Voices.” Journal of Historical Research in Music Education 37, no. 1 (2015): 75–87. Strand, Katherine. “Teaching Musical Interpretations through Choral Rehearsals.” Music Educators Journal 90, no. 1 (2003): 43–49, 56. Stratton, Jennifer. “Sacred Music in the Secular Context: A Place for Sacred Music in Newfoundland and Labrador Schools.” Canadian Music Educator 51, no. 3 (2010): 36– 38. Stubbs, G. Edward. “Should Breaking Voices Be Rested.” New Music Review 29, no. 344 (1930). Stupple, Caroline M. “The Male Changing Voice: The Student's Experience.” Teaching Music 15, no. 1 (2007): 36–41. Swanson, Frederick J. “Changing Voices: An Author's Answer.” Music Educators Journal 49, no. 1 (1962): 14–16. ———. “Growlers, Fryers and Other Rejects.” Choral Journal 23, no. 3 (1982): 5–10. ———. “The Changing Voice: An Adventure, Not a Hazard.” Choral Journal 16, no. 7 (1976): 5–14. ———. “The Ideal Boy Choir Tone.” Choral Journal 16, no. 4 (1975): 11–14. ———. The Male Singing Voice Ages 8 to 18. Cedar Rapids, IA: Laurance Press, 1977. ———. “The Proper Care and Feeding of Changing Voices.” Music Educators Journal 48, no. 2 (1961): 63–64. ———. “The Young Male with a Changing Voice.” National Association of Teachers of Singing Bulletin 38, no. 1 (1981): 32–34. ———. “When Voices Change: An Experiment in Junior High School Music.” Music Educators Journal 47, no. 4 (1960): 50–56. Sweet, Bridget. “A Case Study: Middle School Boys’ Perceptions of Singing and Participation in Choir.” Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 28, no. 2 (2010): 5–12. Tagg, Barbara, and Dennis Shrock. “An Interview with Helen Kemp.” Choral Journal 30, no. 4 (1989): 5–13.

169

Taylor, Shawn. “Choosing Choral Literature to Accommodate the Boy's Changing Voice.” MA thesis, California State University, Long Beach, 2009. Thurman, Leon. “Boys' Changing Voices: What Do We Know Now?” Choral Journal 52, no. 9 (2012): 8–21. ———. “Voice Health and Choral Singing: When Voice Classifications Limit Singing Ability.” Choral Journal 28, no. 10 (1988): 25–33. Thurman, Leon, Graham Welch, Axel Theimer, and Carol Klitzke. “Addressing Vocal Register Discrepancies: An Alternative, Science-Based Theory of Register Phenomena.” Second International Conference on the Physiology and Acoustics of Singing. 2004. Tomlins, William L. The Laurel Music-Reader. Boston: C. C. Birchard & Company, 1914. Treitler, Leo. “Homer and Gregory: The Transmission of Epic Poetry and Plainchant.” The Musical Quarterly 60, no. 3 (1974): 333–72. ———. “The Early History of Music Writing in the West.” Journal of the American Musicological Society 35 (1982): 237–79. Tucker, Abigail. “A Changing Voice Can Also Change a Life: The Sopranos Who Make Up Boys Choirs Occupy a Special Musical Niche—Until a Flood of Hormones Takes It Away.” Los Angeles Times, December 30, 2007. Villecco, Tony. “The Male Changing Voice—A Personal Experience.” Teaching Music 15, no. 3 (2007): 17. Vitry, Ermin. The Key to Chant-Reading. St. Louis: Fides Jubilans, 1955. Walters Robertson, Anne. “Benedicamus Domino: The Unwritten Tradition.” Journal of the American Musicological Society 41, no. 1 (1988): 1–62. Ward, Justine Bayard. Music Fourth Year: Gregorian Chant. Washington, DC: The Catholic Education Press, 1923. ———. That All May Sing: Book One, Teacher's Manual. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1976. ———. “The Reform in Church Music.” The Atlantic Monthly 97, no. 4 (1906): 10–11, 22–23. ———. The Ward Method: Instruction for Catholic Schools. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1976–1982. Weiss, Deso A. “The Pubertal Change of the Human Voice: Mutation.” Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica 2, no. 3 (1950): 126–59. Wellesz, Egon. Ancient and Oriental Music. London: Oxford University Press, 1957. Werner, Roberta. Reaching for God: The Benedictine Way of Life. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2013. Weydt, Bonita L. “The Changing Voice and Application of Research to Selected Literature for Middle School Choir.” Department of Music, Silver Lake College, 1999. Whitbourn, James. Laudate: Essential Chants for All Musicians. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications, Inc., 2014.

170

White, Christopher D., and Dona K. White. “Commonsense Training for Changing Male Voices.” Music Educators Journal 87, no. 6 (2001): 39–43. White, J. Perry. “Significant Developments in Choral Music Education in Higher Between Education Between 1950–1980.” Journal of Research in Music Education 30, no. 2 (1982): 121–28. White, James F. Roman Catholic Worship: Trent to Today. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2003. Whittaker, W. Gilles, Herbert Wiseman, John Wishart, and W. Norman Mellalieu. Clarendon Song Books for Boys with Changing Voices. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1935. Williams, Jana. “A Female Teacher's Perspective of Teaching Males in Middle and High School Chorus.” Choral Journal 52, no. 10 (2012): 18–27. Willis, Elizabeth C., and Dianna T. Kenny. “Phonational Gaps in the Developing Male Adolescent Voice.” Conference on Interdisciplinary Musicology. 2007. ———. “Relationship Between Weight, Speaking Fundamental Frequency, and the Appearance of Phonational Gaps in the Adolescent Male Changing Voice.” Journal of Voice 22, no. 4 (2008): 451–71. Wolfe, Nana. “Adolescent Identity Formation and the Singing Voice.” Choral Journal 57, no. 3 (2016): 49–52. Wolfe, Randall. “Boychoirs: The Voice Change.” Choral Journal 44, no. 9 (2004): 52–53. Wood, Henry J. The Gentle Art of Singing. London: Oxford University, 1930. Wright, Craig. Music and Ceremony at Notre Dame of Paris: 500–1550. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. ———. “Performance Practices at the Cathedral of Cambrai: 1475–1550.” The Musical Quarterly 64, no. 3 (1978): 295–328. Wright, Don. Youthful Voices. Toronto: Gordon V. Thomson, 1945. Zemek, Michael D. “Where’s the Evidence? Finding Support for Separating Middle and Junior High School Choirs by Gender.” Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 29, no. 1 (2010): 15–21. Zuberbueler, Amy. “The Ward Method: Chant from the Ground Up.” Sacred Music 133, no. 1 (2006): 14–17.

171 Appendix A: Comprehensive List of Surveyed Chants

Reference = LU – Liber Usualis; GR – Graduale Romanum; GS – Graduale Simplex; AM – Antiphonale Monasticum; LH – Liber Hymnarium; CS – Cantus Selecti; CC – Chants of the Church; AR – Antiphonale Romanum; AOPD – Antiphonarium O.P. (Dominican); CV – Cantus Varii; PM – Psalterium Monasticum P - Prevalence = Number of chant resources (maximum 11) in which the chant appeared M - Mode (if unlisted, range is not large enough to include both final and reciting tone, and so no mode is assigned) R - Range (in semitones) F - Floridity = S – syllabic; N – neumatic; M – melismatic FN - Function = D – Divine Office; P – Proper; O – Ordinary; R – Requiem; X – Unknown Genre = An – Antiphon; Ca – Canticle; Cm – Communio; Gr – Gradual; Hy – Hymn; In – Introit; Ky – Kyriale; Of – Offertory; Re – Responsory; Tr – Tract; Va – Varia

Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre A solis ortus cardine LU400 2 3 12 N Christmas, Annunciation D Hy

Absolve Domine LU1809 2 8 11 M R Tr Accept Jesus calicem LU932 1 6 14 M Corpus Christi D Re Ad cenam Agni providi LH74 1 8 14 S Easter D Hy

Ad dominum LU961 1 5 16 M P Gr Ad te, Domine GS53 1 2 11 S Advent D An Adeamus cum fiducia LU1612-1 1 5 11 M Mary P In Adeste fideles LU(21)1571 1 6 12 N Christmas P Hy

Adoramus te Christe LU1458 1 7 S D Re

Adorate Deum GR264 1 7 12 M P In

172 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre Adoremus in aeternum LU1853 2 5 9 S Sacred Heart P An Adoro te devote LU1855 4 5 12 S Blessed Sacrament P Hy

Agnus Dei (ad lib) I LU94 1 8 14 M O Ky

Agnus Dei (ad lib) II LU94 1 6 10 S O Ky

Agnus Dei I LU18 3 4 9 M O Ky

Agnus Dei II LU21 2 1 9 M O Ky

Agnus Dei III LU25 1 4 14 M O Ky

Agnus Dei IV LU27 2 6 10 M O Ky

Agnus Dei V LU30 1 4 12 M O Ky

Agnus Dei VI LU33 1 8 15 M O Ky

Agnus Dei VII LU36 1 8 14 M O Ky

Agnus Dei VIII LU39 2 6 12 N O Ky

Agnus Dei IX LU42 3 5 12 M O Ky

Agnus Dei X LU45 3 4 9 N O Ky

Agnus Dei XI LU48 2 1 14 N O Ky

Agnus Dei XII LU50 1 2 12 N O Ky

Agnus Dei XIII LU53 1 1 14 M O Ky

Agnus Dei XIV LU56 1 8 12 N O Ky

Agnus Dei XV LU58 2 1 12 N O Ky

Agnus Dei XVI LU60 1 1 11 N O Ky

Agnus Dei XVII LU61 5 5 17 N O Ky

Agnus Dei XVIII LU63 5 C 6 S O Ky Alleluia GS163 3 6 9 S Easter P Tc Alleluia GR239L 1 8 9* M Easter Vigil P An Alleluia AM474 1 7 9 N Low Sunday D An

Alleluia CS118 1 2 9 S X Hy

Alleluia AM138 1 8 7 S D An

173 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

Alleluia GR227 1 1 12 M O Al

Alleluia (12th after Pentecost) LU1229 1 3 12 M P Al Alleluia (Adorabo) GR270 1 7 12 M Dedication P Al Alleluia (Advent 4) LU354 1 3 17 M Advent P Al

Alleluia (Amavit eum Dominus) GR495 1 4 10 M P Al

Alleluia (Angelus Domini) GR201 1 8 12 M P Al

Alleluia (Confitebuntur) LU1147 1 7 12 M P Al

Alleluia (De profundis) GR367 1 7 16 M P Al

Alleluia (Dextera Dei) LU269 1 4 12 M P Al

Alleluia (Dicite in gentibus) GR212 1 8 12 M P Al

Alleluia (Domine in virtutue) LU1003 1 6 14 M P Al Alleluia (Dominus dixit) LU394 2 8 9 M Christmas D Al Alleluia (Emitte Spiritum tuum) LU879 1 4 10 M Pentecost P Al

Alleluia (Epiphany Octave) LU479 1 3 12 M P Al Alleluia (Excita Domine) LU336 1 4 8 M Advent D Al

Alleluia (Exivi a Patre) LU831 1 7 12 M P Al Alleluia (In Die Resurrectionis) LU809 1 7 14 M Low Sunday P Al

Alleluia (Jubilate Deo) LU479 1 3 12 M P Al Alleluia (Laudate pueri Dominum) LU428 2 4 10 M Holy Innocents P Al Alleluia (Loquebantus variis) LU888 1 1 12 M Whit Monday P Al

Alleluia (Magnus Dominus) LU1014 1 7 17 M P Al

Alleluia (Memento nomini David) GR490 1 5 11 M P Al

Alleluia (Oportebat pati Christum) LU822 1 4 12 M P Al Alleluia (Pentecost) LU880 1 2 10 M Pentecost P Al Alleluia (Post partum) LU1265 1 4 10 M Mary P Al

Alleluia (Quinque prudentes) GR502 2 7 12 M P Al

Alleluia (Quoniam Deus magnus) GR327 1 7 12 M P Al

174 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre Alleluia (Spiritus Sanctus) LU891 1 8 11 M Whit Tuesday P Al Alleluia (Venite ad me) LU973 1 8 12 M Sacred Heart P Al Alleluia (Video coelos) LU416 2 2 9 M Stephen D Al Alleuia (Ascendit Deus) LU848 1 4 8 M Ascension P Al Alma redemptoris mater (simple) LU277 4 5 12 S Mary D An Alma redemptoris mater (solemn) LU273 4 5 14 M Mary D An

Ambrosian Gloria LU91 1 4 10 M O Ky

Amen dico vobis LU574 1 1 12 N D An

Angele Dei 1 5 12 S

Angelus ad pastores ait LU397 2 7 12 N D An Angelus Domini LU787 1 8 16 M Easter Monday P Of Anima Christi CC83 1 8 5 S Corpus Christi X Hy

Anima Christi 1 1 14 N Corpus Christi X Hy Ante me LU334 1 1 11 N Advent D An Ascendit Deus GR287 1 1 14 M Ascension P Of

Asperges me, Domine LU11 6 7 10 N O An

Asperges me, Domine (ad lib I) LU13 1 7 9 N O An

Asperges me, Domine (ad lib II) LU13 1 4 10 N O An Assumpta est LU1605 1 7 11 S Assumption D An Assumpta est Maria GR592 1 8 16 M Assumption P Of Attende Domine LU1871 4 5 12 S Lent D Va Auctor beate saeculi LH117 1 1 12 N Sacred Heart D Hy

Audi, benigne LH48 1 2 7 S D Hy Ave Maria LU1861 5 1 12 S Mary D Va Ave Maria LU355 3 8 14 M Advent, Mary P Of Ave Maria CS278 1 6 5 S Mary D Re Ave maris stella LU1259 5 1 14 M Mary D Hy

175 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre Ave maris stella LU1262 1 7 12 N Mary D Hy Ave regina caelorum (simple) LU278 6 6 14 S Mary D An Ave regina caelorum (solemn) LU274 3 6 12 M Mary D An Ave verum corpus LU1856 4 6 10 N Blessed Sacrament P Hy Ave, Maria GS62 1 1 10 S Mary P Of Ave, maris stella LH258 1 1 12 N Mary D Hy Beata Dei genetrix LU1754 1 8 14 N Mary D An

Beata Dei genetrix LU260 1 2 10 N D An Beata Dei Genitrix Maria LU383 1 7 12 M Christmas D Re Beata es Maria LU339 1 8 12 N Advent D An

Beata mater LU1681 1 8 11 N D An Beatem me dicent AM221 1 8 9 N Mary D An Beati mundo GR514 1 1 16 M All Saints P Cm

Beati pacifici GS321 1 1 10 S D An

Beatus vir GR481 1 8 9 M P Tr

Benedicam Domino LU1484 1 1 14 M P Of

Benedicamus Domino CC44 1 6 8 M O Ky

Benedicamus Domino LU63 1 4 5 S O Ky

Benedicamus Domino LU22,124 1 5 12 M O Ky Benedicimus Deum caeli LU912 1 4 10 M Trinity P Cm Benedicta sit LU908 1 6 8 N Trinity D An

Benedictus 1 2 7 S D Ca Benedictus es AM312 1 1 10 S Trinity D An Benedixisti, Domine GS63 1 6 7 S Advent P Of Calicem salutaris GS135 1 2 7 S Holy Thursday P Cm

Calix benedictionis LU1535 1 4 14 M P Of Cantate Domino AMII63 1 6 7 S Christmas, Easter P An

176 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

Cantate Domino LU833 1 2 12 M P Co

Cantate Domino LU826 1 6 10 M P In Cantemus Domino AM61 1 E 5 S Easter D An

Chorus angelorum LU1769 1 8 12 N R An Christus factus est LU659 4 5 12 M Holy Week D An

Christus vincit CC89 1 8 S Christ the King P Hy

Circumduxit eam LU1671 1 7 12 M P Cm Cogitationes Cordis ejus LU970 1 5 11 M Sacred Heart P In Concordi laetitia CS131 2 6 10 S Easter, Mary P Hy Confirma hoc LU882 3 8 10 S Confirmation P Hy

Confitebor tibi Domini LU135 1 7 S D Ps Confitemini Domino GR191 1 7 9 M Easter Vigil P Al

Cor Jesu amantissimum 1 1 14 M Sacred Heart X Hy

Cor Jesu sacratissimum LU1853 2 1 8 S P An

Cor Jesu sacratissimum CS252 1 4 7 S P An

Corde natus ex parentis 1 5 17 S Christmas D Hy Creator alme siderum LU324 3 4 9 S Advent D Hy

Credo I LU64 4 4 8 N O Ky

Credo II LU66 1 4 8 S O Ky

Credo III LU68 4 5 12 S O Ky

Credo IV LU71 1 1 14 S O Ky

Credo V LU73 1 4 8 N O Ky

Credo VI LU75 2 4 8 N O Ky Crucem tuam LU741 2 4 10 N Good Friday P An Crux fidelis LU742 1 1 16 N Good Friday P Hy Cum ieiunatis AM332 1 7 9 S Lent D An Cum sublevasset oculos Jesus LU1093 1 1 10 N Lent D An

177 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

Da pacem, Domine LU1867 3 2 10 N P An De profundis LU499 1 8 12 M Septuagesima P Tr Dele, Domine GS86 1 4 7 S Lent D An Descendit Jesus cum eis LU473 1 1 12 M Holy Family P Cm Deus enim firmavit LU406 1 8 7 M Christmas P Of

Deus in adjutorium LU1027 1 7 12 N P In Dextera Domini GS151 1 8 7 S Easter Vigil P Of Dico vobis GR387 1 5 11 N Lent P Cm

Dies irae LU1810 6 1 15 S R Sq Dies Sanctificatus LU409 1 2 12 M Christmas P Al Diffusa est gratia GR423 1 6 12 M Mary P Cm Discite a me GR(08)439 1 8 11 M Sacred Heart P Al Dixit autem pater LU551 1 8 11 S Lent D An

Dixit Dominus AM124 1 7 5 S D Ps

Dixit Dominus ad Noe LU503 1 8 9 N D An Dixit Maria LU1417 1 8 10 N Annunciation D An Domine Deus meus in te speravi LU544 1 2 12 N Lent P Cm

Domine Deus salutis meae LU905 1 8 12 M P Of Domine Deus virtutum LU345 1 2 12 M Advent P Gr

Domine Jesu Christe LU1813 3 2 10 M R Of

Domine, quando veneris LU1787 1 8 12 M D Re Dominus dabit GR17 1 1 14 M Advent P Cm Dominus dixit LU392 3 2 7 M Christmas P In Dominus dixit ad me LU371 1 8 11 N Christmas D An

Dominus illuminatio mea LU998 1 2 13 N P In

Dominus regit me LU567 1 2 10 M P Cm

Dominus vobiscum (Ferial) 1 5 S O Tc

178 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

Dominus vobiscum (Most Solemn) 1 5 M O Tc

Dominus vobiscum (Pontifical) GR817 1 2 S O Tc

Dominus vobiscum (Solemn) 1 5 N O Tc Domus mea LU1247 1 1 9 N Dedication P An

Dum esset rex LU1233 1 3 10 N D An

Dum medium silentium LU433 1 8 10 N D An Ecce advenit LU459 2 2 10 M Epiphany, Christ the King P In Ecce Dominus veniet GR264 1 6 13 M Advent P Cm Ecce lignum LU735 2 6 12 M Good Friday P An

Ecce lignum (simple) GS140 1 4 S Good Friday P An Ecce Maria LU444 1 2 12 N Circumcision D An Ecce nomen Domini CS33 3 5 12 S Christmas D Va Ecce puer meus AM256 1 1 10 S Baptism of the Lord D An

Ecce sacerdos LU1176 1 7 9 S D An Ecce vidimus eum LU637 1 5 15 M Holy Thursday D Re Ego sum panis LU895 1 1 12 N Blessed Sacrament D An Ego sum pastor bonus LU820 1 3 8 N Easter D An

Ego sum pastor bonus GR225 1 2 12 N P Cm Ego sum qui testimonia LU568 1 8 10 S Lent D An Ego sum resurrectio LU1770 2 2 9 N Easter, Funeral R An

Ego sum vitis vera GR228 1 1 12 N P Cm Elegerent Apostoli Stephanum LU417 1 8 14 M Stephen P Of Esurientes replevit AMII46 1 1 10 N Mary D An Ex quo omnia LU915 1 5 12 M Trinity D An Exaltabo te Domine LU528 1 2 12 M Ash Wednesday P Of

Exaudi Domine vocem meam LU1002 1 4 12 N P In Exiit sermo inter fratres LU423 1 2 11 M John the Apostle/Evangelist P Cm

179 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

Exsultabant Domino LU1799 1 1 7 S R An

Exsultate Deo LU1226 1 7 12 M P Al Exsultavit cor meum LU1612 1 1 10 N Mary D An Exsultavit ut gigas LU352 1 6 12 M Advent P Cm Exsultet gaudio pater justi LU470 1 7 14 M Holy Family P In Exultemus et laetemur AR170* 1 3 10 N Easter D Hy Factus est adiutor GS88 1 1 7 S Advent, Mary P Of Fecit mihi magna LU445 1 8 10 N Holy Name D An Felices sensus beatae Mariae LU1637 1 1 12 M Seven Dolors P Cm

Fidelis servus GS364 1 3 8 N P Cm Fontes et omnia LU884 1 1 10 N Easter D An

Gaudeamus GR545 1 1 10 M P In

Gaudent in coelis LU1160 1 6 12 N D An Gaudete in Domino LU334 1 1 12 M Advent P In Germinavit radix LU483 1 1 9 N Christmas, Annunciation, D An Circumcision Gloria (ad lib) I LU86 1 8 19 M O Ky

Gloria (ad lib) II LU88 1 2 14 M O Ky

Gloria (ad lib) III LU89 2 2 13 M O Ky

Gloria (Ambrosian) LU91 3 4 10 M O Ky

Gloria I LU16 3 4 12 N O Ky

Gloria II LU19 2 1 17 M O Ky

Gloria III LU23 2 8 14 N O Ky

Gloria IV LU26 2 4 12 M O Ky

Gloria V LU28 1 8 12 M O Ky

Gloria VI LU32 1 8 12 N O Ky

Gloria VII LU34 1 6 10 N O Ky

180 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

Gloria VIII LU37 2 5 12 N O Ky

Gloria IX LU40 4 7 16 N O Ky

Gloria X LU43 3 8 14 N O Ky

Gloria XI LU46 4 2 7 N O Ky

Gloria XII LU49 1 4 12 N O Ky

Gloria XIII LU51 1 1 14 N O Ky

Gloria XIV LU54 1 3 12 N O Ky

Gloria XV LU57 2 4 9 S O Ky Gloria in excelsis Deo LU402 1 8 10 S Christmas D An Gloria laus LU586 2 1 14 N Palm Sunday P Hy Gloria tibi trinitas LU914 1 1 14 N Trinity D An Gratias tibi Deus LU907 1 1 12 M Trinity D An Gustate et videte GR303 2 3 10 M Easter P Cm Gustate et videte (Mozarabic) GS454 1 D 8 S Easter P Cm Habitabit GS353 1 4 6 S Holy Saturday D An Haec dies LU783 2 2 12 M Easter D An Haurietis aquas AM213 1 5 9 S Easter D An

Hi sunt GS343 1 1 12 M P In

Hoc corpus GR170 2 8 12 N P Cm Hoc est praeceptum meum AM622 1 8 10 S Holy Thursday D An Hodie Christus natus est LU413 5 1 12 N Christmas D An Hodie nobis caelorum Rex LU375 1 5 12 M Christmas D Re Hodie scietis GR38 1 6 10 N Christmas, Annunciation P In Holocaustum et pro peccato LU974 1 6 12 M Sacred Heart P Of Homo quidam AM1189 1 6 14 M Corpus Christi D Re Hosanna filio David LU578 3 7 11 M Palm Sunday P An

Hosanna in excelsis GS121 1 9 S Palm Sunday P An

181 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

Illumina faciem tuam LU501 1 1 12 M P Cm

Illumina oculos meo LU1000 1 4 15 M P Of In consilio AMII302 1 8 7 S Dedication D An

In conspectu GS412 1 5 9 S D An

In conspectu Angelorum LU1546 1 1 16 M P Of In domum Domini AMII221 1 2 7 S Advent, Dedication D An

In medio Ecclesiae GR493 1 6 12 N P In

In monte Oliveti LU633 1 8 9 M D Re In nomine Jesu LU446 1 3 14 M Holy Name P In

In omnem terram GS339 1 1 7 S P In

In paradisum LU1768 2 7 11 S R An

In salutari tuo LU1069 1 1 12 M P Cm In splendoribus GR44 1 6 10 M Christmas, Annunciation P Cm

Inclina aurem tuam GR300 1 4 7 M P Cm Innocentes pro Christo LU432 1 2 12 N Holy Innocents D An Intellige clamorem meum LU549 1 5 12 M Lent P Cm Inviolata LU1861 1 6 8 N Mary D Sq

Invocabit me LU532 1 8 12 M P In

Ite, missa est Ia GR821 1 5 N O Ky

Ite, missa est Ib LU19 1 7 9 M O Ky

Ite, missa est IIa LU22 1 3 10 M O Ky

Ite, missa est IIb LU22 2 5 12 M O Ky

Ite, missa est IV LU28 2 1 10 M O Ky

Ite, missa est V LU31 1 7 12 M O Ky

Ite, missa est VI LU34 1 7 7 M O Ky

Ite, missa est VII LU37 1 8 10 M O Ky

Ite, missa est VIII LU39 1 5 12 M O Ky

182 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

Ite, missa est IX LU43 2 1 9 M O Ky

Ite, missa est XI LU48 2 1 10 M O Ky

Ite, missa est XII LU51 1 8 5 M O Ky

Ite, missa est XIII LU53 1 1 5 M O Ky

Ite, missa est XIV LU56 1 8 7 M O Ky

Ite, missa est XV-XVIII LU59 2 4 5 N O Ky Ite, missa est, alleluia LU19 2 8 7 M Easter, Pentecost O Ky Iudica causam meam GS112 1 8 9 N Palm Sunday D An Jerusalem surge LU330 1 2 12 M Advent P Cm Jesu dulcis memoria LU452 4 1 12 S Holy Name P Hy Joseph fili David GS267 1 7 12 S Joseph P In

Jubilate Deo, omnis terra LU480 2 5 11 M P Of Justitiae Domini LU555 1 4 9 M Lent P Of Justorum animae LU1547 1 5 14 M Peter and Paul P Gr Justorum animae LU1549 1 3 12 N Peter and Paul P Cm

Justus ut palma LU1193 1 4 14 M P Of

Kyrie (ad lib) I LU79 1 1 17 M O Ky

Kyrie (ad lib) II LU80 1 1 17 M O Ky

Kyrie (ad lib) III LU81 1 2 9 M O Ky

Kyrie (ad lib) IV LU81 2 5 14 M O Ky

Kyrie (ad lib) V LU82 1 7 15 M O Ky

Kyrie (ad lib) VI LU83 2 8 19 M O Ky

Kyrie (ad lib) VII LU84 1 1 17 M O Ky

Kyrie (ad lib) VIII LU84 1 6 15 M O Ky

Kyrie (ad lib) IX LU85 2 8 15 M O Ky

Kyrie (ad lib) X LU85 3 1 14 M O Ky

Kyrie (ad lib) XI LU86 1 1 14 M O Ky

183 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

Kyrie (burial) LU1768 1 - 8 S R Ky

Kyrie eleison LU1807 4 6 10 M R Ky Kyrie I LU16 5 8 11 M Easter O Ky

Kyrie II LU19 3 3 12 M O Ky

Kyrie III LU22 2 4 10 M O Ky

Kyrie V LU28 1 8 14 M O Ky

Kyrie VI LU31 2 7 17 M O Ky

Kyrie VII LU34 1 8 12 M O Ky

Kyrie VIII LU37 3 5 13 M O Ky

Kyrie IV LU25 2 1 10 M O Ky

Kyrie IX LU40 3 1 17 M O Ky

Kyrie X LU43 4 1 17 M O Ky

Kyrie XI LU46 3 1 14 M O Ky

Kyrie XII LU48 2 8 12 M O Ky

Kyrie XIII LU51 2 1 14 M O Ky

Kyrie XIV LU54 2 8 14 M O Ky

Kyrie XV LU56 2 4 12 M O Ky

Kyrie XVI GR763 3 3 10 N O Ky

Kyrie XVII LU60 3 6 10 M O Ky

Kyrie XVIII LU62 1 4 11 N O Ky

Laetabimur GR359 1 2 13 M P Cm

Laetatus sum GR336 1 7 14 M P Gr Laetentur caeli LU387 2 2 11 S Christmas D An Lapis revolutus est CS67* 3 5 11 N Easter D An Lauda Jerusalem LU1277B 1 3 12 M Joseph O Of Lauda Sion salvatorem LU945 6 7 20 S Corpus Christi P Sq

Laudate Dominum LU562 2 2 10 M P Of

184 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre Laudate Dominum LU1275 1 3 12 M Holy Angels P Gr

Laudate Dominum LU776B 1 7 7 S Holy Saturday D Laudate Dominum GS199 1 1 7 S Trinity D An

Laudate Dominum omnes gentes LU776II 1 8 14 M P Tr

Laudemus Dominum LU1665 1 2 9 N D An Laus et perennis gloria AM535 1 2 7 N Trinity D An

Laus tibi, Christe 1 1 5 S Lent O Tr

Libera me LU1767 2 1 12 M R Re Litany of the Saints GR192 2 C 9 S Easter Vigil P Li

Litany of the Saints 1 C 11 S Easter Vigil P Li (extraordinary) Locus iste GR397 1 5 19 M Dedication P Gr

Lucis creator LU256 1 8 9 N D Hy Lumen ad revelationem LU1357 2 8 7 S Presentation D An

Lux aeterna LU1815 3 8 10 S R Cm Lux fulgebit LU403 1 3 12 M Christmas P In

Lux perpetua LU262-1 1 1 12 M D An Magi videntes stellam LU455 1 8 10 N Epiphany D An

Magnificat (simple) LU212 2 8 9 S D Ca

Magnificat (solemn) LU218 2 8 7 S D Ca

Magnificat (Tone 1) LU213 1 8 N D Ca Magnum haereditatis mysterium LU444 1 2 9 M Circumcision D An Mandatum novum LU671 1 3 10 S Holy Thursday P An

Manducaverunt GR278 1 1 10 M P Cm Maria mater gratiae LU1863 2 2 14 N Mary D Hy

Media vita CS41 1 4 10 M D An Meditabitor in mandatis tuis LU548 1 2 12 M Lent P Of

185 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre Memento mei LU718 1 8 7 S Good Friday D An

Memento mei Deus LU1791 1 2 12 M D Re

Memento verbi tui GR346 1 4 9 N P Cm Mirabile mysterium AM274 1 8 10 N Circumcision D An Miserere mei Deus LU526 2 1 12 M Ash Wednesday P Gr

Miserere mei Deus 1 7 S O Tr

Misericordias Domini LU385 1 4 S Christmas D Ps

Mysterium Fidei 1 10 S O Tc Nativitas tua LU1627 1 1 10 N Mary D An Natus est AMI80 1 8 7 S Christmas D An Nigra sum LU1259 1 3 10 S Mary D An Nos autem GS129 1 7 9 N Holy Thursday P In Nos qui vivimus AM132 1 P 10 S Easter D An

Nunc dimittis LU271 2 3 10 S D Ca Nunc dimittis LU1363 1 8 14 M Purification P Tr

Nunc dimittis 1 3 10 S D Ca O admirable commercium LU442 4 6 10 N Circumcision D An

O crux ave (Vexilla regis) LU1461 1 1 10 N D Hy O crux benedicta! LU1631 1 1 12 M Seven Dolors D An O Emmanuel LU342 1 2 13 N Advent D An O filii et filiae CS118 4 2 12 S Easter X Hy O magnum mysterium LU382 3 3 12 M Christmas D Re O panis dulcissime CS20 1 1 14 S Blessed Sacrament P Sq O quam gloriosum LU1732 2 6 10 N All Saints D An O quam suavis est LU917 1 6 14 M Corpus Christi D An

O sacrum convivium LU959 3 5 14 M D An

O sacrum convivium 1 1 14 S An

186 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

O salutaris hostia 2 8 11 S Blessed Sacrament Hy

O salutaris hostia 2 1 10 S Blessed Sacrament Hy O salutaris hostia LU1854 1 7 11 N Blessed Sacrament P Hy

O salutaris hostia 1 6 13 S Blessed Sacrament Hy O salutaris hostia I LU941 3 8 10 N Blessed Sacrament P Hy O salutaris hostia VI CS7 1 4 11 N Blessed Sacrament D Hy O sapientia LU340 1 2 14 N Advent D An O virgo virginum AOPD131 1 2 14 N Mary D An O vos omnes LU767 2 8 10 M Holy Saturday D Re O vos omnes GR(08)439 1 7 14 M Sacred Heart P Gr

Octo sunt beatitudines 1 8 9 M Oculi mei LU552 1 7 12 M Lent P In Omnes amici mei LU693 1 3 12 M Good Friday D Re

Omnes de Saba LU482 1 8 7 S D An Omnes gentes GR297 1 6 12 M Ascension P In Omnes gentes quascumque fecisti LU449 1 8 12 M Holy Name P Cm Omnes qui in Christo GR61 1 2 10 M Baptism of the Lord P Cm Omnis terra GS215 1 4 7 S Epiphany P In Oportet te GR95 1 8 7 S Lent P Cm

Oremus pro Pontifice LU1866 3 1 14 N P Va Pacem meam GR228 1 5 9 N Easter P Cm

Panem de caelo GR319 1 5 11 M P Cm Pange lingua gloriosi LU957 7 3 12 S Corpus Christi D Hy Panis angelicus AR96 1 1 14 N Blessed Sacrament P Hy Panis angelicus LU922 1 4 12 N Corpus Christi P Hy

Panis quem ego dedero GR322 1 1 10 M P Cm Parce Domine LU1868 3 1 12 S Lent D An

187 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre Pascha nostrum GR199 3 6 11 M Easter P Cm

Pater fidei nostrae LU510 1 6 12 N D An

Pater noster II 1 3 S O Tc

Pater noster, A GR812 1 8 S O Tc

Pater noster, B 1 7 S O Tc

Pater noster, C 1 8 S O Tc Pater, si non potest GR149 2 8 9 N Palm Sunday, Good Friday P Cm

Per signum crucis LU1460 1 8 6 N D An Popule meus GR225 1 1 12 M Good Friday P Va Postula a me LU1773 1 4 10 M Christ the King P Of Primum quaerite GR325 1 6 10 N Confirmation P Cm Proprio Filio suo LU712 1 7 11 N Palm Sunday, Good Friday D An Psallite Deo H72 1 1 9 S Ascension, Christ the King D An Psallite Domino LU849 1 1 14 M Ascension P Cm Puer natus est LU408 3 7 10 N Christmas P In Puer natus in Bethlehem CC129 5 1 10 S Christmas X Hy

Puer nobis nascitur MG 1 14 S Christmas P Hy Pueri Hebraeorum LU581 3 1 12 N Palm Sunday P An Pueri Hebraeorum vestimenta LU582 1 1 12 S Palm Sunday P An Quem vidistis LU377 1 4 11 M Christmas D Re Quem vidistis pastores LU395 2 2 7 S Christmas D An Qui manducat GR383 2 6 12 M Holy Thursday P Cm Qui meditabitur GR67 1 3 12 M Lent P Cm Qui vult venire GR484 1 1 10 M Lent, Confirmation P Cm

Quinque prudentes GR507 1 5 16 M P Cm

Regina caeli jubila 1 5 9 S Easter X Hy

Regina coeli (BVM) 1 1 14 N Mary D An

188 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre Regina coeli (simple) LU278 7 6 10 S Mary D An Regina coeli (solemn) LU275 3 6 10 M Mary D An Repleti sunt LU884 1 8 9 S Pentecost D An

Requiem aeternam LU1807 8 6 7 M R In

Requiem aeternam LU1808 1 2 12 M R Gr

Resonet in laudibus 2 5 9 S Christmas X Va Rex pacificus LU364 1 8 10 S Christmas, Christ the King D An Rorate caeli LU353 2 1 14 N Advent P In Rorate caeli desuper LU1868 4 1 12 S Advent D Va Sacerdos et Pontifex LU1840 2 1 9 N Bishop P An Sacerdotes Domini LU949 1 4 10 M Corpus Christi P Of

Sacerdotes eius GR448 1 2 8 M P In Salva festa dies AR166* 1 4 12 S Easter D Hy

Salva nos LU271 1 3 10 S D An Salve mater misericordiae CC137 3 5 14 S Mary D Va Salve Regina (monastic) AM176 1 1 17 M Mary D An Salve Regina (simple) LU279 5 5 12 M Mary D An Salve Regina (solemn) LU276 4 1 14 N Mary D An Salve virgo singularis CS116 1 6 10 S Christmas X Va

Sancti Angeli Custodes LU1667 1 8 11 N D An

Sanctus (ad lib) I LU92 1 1 15 N O Ky

Sanctus (ad lib) II LU93 1 4 12 N O Ky

Sanctus (ad lib) III LU93 1 8 9 N O Ky

Sanctus I LU18 3 4 10 M O Ky

Sanctus II LU21 2 1 14 M O Ky

Sanctus III LU24 1 4 12 M O Ky

Sanctus IV LU27 3 8 12 M O Ky

189 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

Sanctus V LU30 1 4 10 M O Ky

Sanctus VI LU33 1 3 12 M O Ky

Sanctus VII LU36 1 8 16 M O Ky

Sanctus VIII LU38 2 6 14 M O Ky

Sanctus IX LU42 2 5 12 M O Ky

Sanctus X LU45 3 4 9 N O Ky

Sanctus XI LU47 4 2 13 M O Ky

Sanctus XII LU50 1 2 13 M O Ky

Sanctus XIII LU52 1 8 14 N O Ky

Sanctus XIV LU55 1 1 14 M O Ky

Sanctus XV LU58 2 2 9 N O Ky

Sanctus XVI LU59 1 2 9 N O Ky

Sanctus XVII LU61 3 5 12 M O Ky

Sanctus XVIII LU1814 2 8 S O Ky

Sapientia aedificavit LU989 1 7 10 S D An Scapulis suis LU537 2 3 10 M Lent P Cm Scitote quia prope est LU365 1 8 12 S Advent D An Si iniquitates observaveris LU1774 2 D 7 S Lent D An Sicut cervus desiderat LU776BB 1 8 11 M Easter Vigil P Ca Sit nomen Domini GS248 1 7 10 N Christ the King D An Sitientes GR114 1 2 12 M Lent P In

Sitivit anima mea GR700 1 2 8 N D An Spiritus Domini LU878 1 8 14 M Pentecost P In Spiritus Domini replevit LU884 1 8 7 N Pentecost D An Spiritus Domini super me GS340 1 2 7 N Confirmation P Of Spiritus qui a Patre GR233 1 8 14 S Easter, Pentecost P Cm Spiritus Sanctus docebit GR232 1 8 12 N Easter, Pentecost P Cm

190 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

Spiritus ubi vult spirat LU906 1 8 11 M P Cm Splendor paternae gloriae LH191 1 8 10 S Christmas, Annunciation D Hy Stabat Mater LU1634v 3 2 12 S Seven Dolors P Sq Stabat Mater (simple) LU1424 2 6 12 S Seven Dolors D Hy

Stetit angelus LU1656 1 1 15 M P Of Sub tuum praesidium LU1861 1 7 11 N Mary D An

Subvenite Sancti Dei LU1765 1 4 12 M R Re

Super flumina Babylonis LU1065 1 1 12 M P Of Surrexit Dominus LH79 3 6 8 M Easter D An

Surrexit pastor bonus 1 1 14 M D Re

Tantum ergo I CC144 1 5 12 N X Hy

Tantum ergo III CC145 1 5 13 N D Hy

Tantum ergo IX CS247 1 4 12 S X Hy Te decet laus AM1260 1 1 12 M Blessed Sacrament D Hy Te decet laus AM1261 1 2 17 M Blessed Sacrament D Hy

Te deum laudamus LU1832 3 3 13 N D Hy

Te deum laudamus LU1834 1 3 12 N D Hy

Te Joseph celebrent LU1447 1 1 14 S D Hy Tenebrae factae sunt LU703 1 7 14 M Good Friday D Re Terra tremuit GS161 1 8 9 N Easter P Of Terribilis est GR397 1 2 10 M Dedication P In Tota pulchra es AMIII329 2 4 9 N Mary D An Tota pulchra es CV3 1 1 12 S Mary D Va Tota pulchra es CC152 1 5 12 S Mary D Va

Tota pulchra es LU1320 1 1 8 N D An Tribus miraculis LU466 1 1 9 M Epiphany D An

Tristis est anima mea LU635 2 8 9 M D Re

191 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

Tu es Deus PM177 1 C 5 S D An Tu es Petrus LU1332 1 2 10 M Peter P Tr Tu es Petrus GR550 1 6 7 M Peter P Cm Tu es qui venturus es LU333 1 8 9 N Advent D An Tui sunt caeli LU410 1 4 12 M Christmas P Of Tulerunt lapides Judaei LU574 1 1 10 N Lent D An Ubi caritas et amor LU675 5 6 10 N Holy Thursday P An Ut queant laxis LU1504 1 2 9 S John the Baptist D Hy Veni creator spiritus LU885 8 8 11 N Pentecost D Hy Veni et ostende nobis LU343 1 2 8 M Advent P In Veni sancte spiritus LU880 4 1 14 S Pentecost P Sq

Veni sancte spiritus LU1837 2 8 12 N D An

Veni sponsa Christi LU1217 1 8 16 M P Tr Veni, redemptor LH11 1 2 9 S Advent D Hy Veni, veni Emmanuel LH 1 1 12 S Advent D Hy

Venite adoremus LU1052 1 2 11 N P In

Venite filii LU1010 1 5 14 M P Gr Venite, adoremus eum GS76 2 8 7 S Epiphany P An Verbum bonum et suave CS119 1 8 12 S Epiphany, Mary P Sq Verbum caro factum est LU390 1 8 14 M Christmas D Re Verbum caro factum est LU469 1 8 14 N Holy Family D An Verbum supernum LU940 2 8 10 N Corpus Christi P Hy Vespere autem OP195 1 8 12 S Holy Saturday D An Vexilla regis LU575 5 1 10 N Palm Sunday, Good Friday D Hy Victimae paschali laudes LU780 4 1 14 S Easter P Sq Videntes stellam LU481 1 7 12 S Epiphany D An Video caelos apertos LU418 1 8 14 N Stephen P Cm

192 Chant Reference P M R F Feast(s) FN Genre Viderunt LU410 3 1 12 M Christmas, Epiphany P Cm Vidi aquam LU12 4 8 11 M Easter, Pentecost O An Vidimus stellam GS80 1 4 7 S Epiphany P Cm Vinea mea electa LU697 1 8 9 M Good Friday D Re Virga Jesse floruit LU1267 1 8 12 M Mary P Al Viri Galilaei LU850 2 7 9 N Ascension D An Visionem LU550 1 1 9 N Lent D An Visionem quam vidistis LU550 1 1 9 N Lent D An

Vos qui secuti estis AM794 1 2 9 N D An

193 Appendix B: Index of 77 Selected Chants by Modality

Chants in Mode 1 Chant Reference R F Feast(s) FN Genre Ave Maria LU1861 12 S Mary D Va Ave maris stella LU1259 14 M Mary D Hy

Cor Jesu sacratissimum LU1853 8 S P An

Dies irae LU1810 15 S R Sq Hodie Christus natus est LU413 12 N Christmas D An Jesu dulcis memoria LU452 12 S Holy Name P Hy

Kyrie X LU43 17 M O Ky Puer natus in Bethlehem CC129 10 S Christmas X Hy Pueri Hebraeorum LU581 12 N Palm Sunday P An Rorate caeli desuper LU1868 12 S Advent D Va Sacerdos et Pontifex LU1840 9 N Bishop P An Salve Regina (solemn) LU276 14 N Mary D An Veni sancte spiritus LU880 14 S Pentecost P Sq Vexilla regis LU575 10 N Palm Sunday, Good Friday D Hy Victimae paschali laudes LU780 14 S Easter P Sq Viderunt LU410 12 M Christmas, Epiphany P Cm

194 Chants in Mode 2 Chant Reference R F Feast(s) FN Genre Alleluia (Video coelos) LU416 9 M Stephen D Al Dominus dixit LU392 7 M Christmas P In Ego sum resurrectio LU1770 9 N Easter, Funeral R An

Gloria XI LU46 7 N O Ky O filii et filiae CS118 12 S Easter X Hy Quem vidistis pastores LU395 7 S Christmas D An

Sanctus XI LU47 13 M O Ky Stabat Mater LU1634v 12 S Seven Dolors P Sq Ut queant laxis LU1504 9 S John the Baptist D Hy

Chants in Mode 3 Chant Reference R F Feast(s) FN Genre O magnum mysterium LU382 12 M Christmas D Re Pange lingua gloriosi LU957 12 S Corpus Christi D Hy

Chants in Mode 4 Chant Reference R F Feast(s) FN Genre Alleluia (Laudate pueri Dominum) LU428 10 M Holy Innocents P Al Creator alme siderum LU324 9 S Advent D Hy

Credo I LU64 8 N* O Ky Tota pulchra es AMIII329 9 N Mary D An

195 Chants in Mode 5 Chant Reference R F Feast(s) FN Genre Adoremus in aeternum LU1853 9 S Sacred Heart P An Adoro te devote LU1855 12 S Blessed Sacrament P Hy

Agnus Dei XVII LU61 17 N O Ky Alma redemptoris mater (simple) LU277 12 S Mary D An Alma redemptoris mater (solemn) LU273 14 M Mary D An Attende Domine LU1871 12 S Lent D Va

Benedicamus Domino LU22,124 12 M O Ky Christus factus est LU659 12 M Holy Week D An

Credo III LU68 12 S* O Ky Ecce nomen Domini CS33 12 S Christmas D Va Lapis revolutus est CS67* 11 N Easter D An

Resonet in laudibus 9 S Christmas X Va Salve mater misericordiae CC137 14 S Mary D Va Salve Regina (simple) LU279 12 M Mary D An

196 Chants in Mode 6 Chant Reference R F Feast(s) FN Genre Alleluia GS163 9 S Easter P Cm Ave regina caelorum (simple) LU278 14 S Mary D An Ave regina caelorum (solemn) LU274 12 M Mary D An Ave verum corpus LU1856 10 N Blessed Sacrament P Hy

Kyrie eleison LU1807 10 M R Ky O admirable commercium LU442 10 N Circumcision D An Pascha nostrum GR199 11 M Easter P Cm Regina coeli (simple) LU278 10 S Mary D An Regina coeli (solemn) LU275 10 M Mary D An

Requiem aeternam LU1807 7 M R In Surrexit Dominus LH79 8 M Easter D An Ubi caritas et amor LU675 10 N Holy Thursday P An

Chants in Mode 7 Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

Asperges me, Domine LU11 7 10 N O An

Gloria IX LU40 7 16 N O Ky Hosanna filio David LU578 7 11 M Palm Sunday P An Lauda Sion salvatorem LU945 7 20 S Corpus Christi P Sq Puer natus est LU408 7 10 N Christmas P In Viri Galilaei LU850 7 9 N Ascension D An

197 Chants in Mode 8 Chant Reference R F Feast(s) FN Genre Alleluia (Dominus dixit) LU394 9 M Christmas D Al Ave Maria LU355 14 M Advent, Mary P Of Kyrie I LU16 11 M Easter O Ky Lumen ad revelationem LU1357 7 S Presentation D An

Magnificat (simple) LU212 9 S D Ca

Magnificat (solemn) LU218 7 S D Ca Pater, si non potest GR149 9 N Palm Sunday, Good Friday P Cm Tristis est anima mea LU635 9 M Holy Thursday D Re Veni creator spiritus LU885 11 N Pentecost D Hy Venite, adoremus eum GS76 7 S Epiphany P An Vidi aquam LU12 11 M Easter, Pentecost O An

Chants in Mode C Chant Reference R F Feast(s) FN Genre Agnus Dei XVIII LU63 6 S O Ky Litany of the Saints GR192 9 S Easter Vigil P Li

Chants in Mode D Chant Reference R F Feast(s) FN Genre Si iniquitates observaveris LU1774 7 S Lent D An

198 Appendix C: Index of 77 Selected Chants by Range (in Semitones)

Chants within the Composite Unison Range Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Genre

Agnus Dei XVIII LU63 C 6 S O Ky Dominus dixit LU392 2 7 M Christmas P In

Gloria XI LU46 2 7 N O Ky Lumen ad revelationem LU1357 8 7 S Presentation D An

Magnificat (solemn) LU218 8 7 S D Ca Quem vidistis pastores LU395 2 7 S Christmas D An

Requiem aeternam LU1807 6 7 M R In Si iniquitates observaveris LU1774 D 7 S Lent D An Venite, adoremus eum GS76 8 7 S Epiphany P An

Cor Jesu sacratissimum LU1853 1 8 S P An

Credo I LU64 4 8 N O Ky Surrexit Dominus LH79 6 8 M Easter D An Adoremus in aeternum LU1853 5 9 S Sacred Heart P An Alleluia GS163 6 9 S Easter P Cm Alleluia (Dominus dixit) LU394 8 9 M Christmas D Al Alleluia (Video coelos) LU416 2 9 M Stephen D Al Creator alme siderum LU324 4 9 S Advent D Hy Ego sum resurrectio LU1770 2 9 N Easter, Funeral R An Litany of the Saints GR192 C 9 S Easter Vigil P Li

Magnificat (simple) LU212 8 9 S D Ca Pater, si non potest GR149 8 9 N Palm Sunday, Good Friday P Cm

Resonet in laudibus 5 9 S Christmas X Va Sacerdos et Pontifex LU1840 1 9 N Bishop P An Tota pulchra es AMIII329 4 9 N Mary D An

199 Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Genre Tristis est anima mea LU635 8 9 M Holy Thursday D Re Ut queant laxis LU1504 2 9 S John the Baptist D Hy Viri Galilaei LU850 7 9 N Ascension D An

Chants beyond the Composite Unison Range Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Genre Alleluia (Laudate pueri LU428 4 10 M Holy Innocents P Al Dominum) Asperges me, Domine LU11 7 10 N O An Ave verum corpus LU1856 6 10 N Blessed Sacrament P Hy

Kyrie eleison LU1807 6 10 M R Ky O admirable commercium LU442 6 10 N Circumcision D An Puer natus est LU408 7 10 N Christmas P In Puer natus in Bethlehem CC129 1 10 S Christmas X Hy Regina coeli (simple) LU278 6 10 S Mary D An Regina coeli (solemn) LU275 6 10 M Mary D An Ubi caritas et amor LU675 6 10 N Holy Thursday P An Vexilla regis LU575 1 10 N Palm Sunday, Good Friday D Hy Hosanna filio David LU578 7 11 M Palm Sunday P An Kyrie I LU16 8 11 M Easter O Ky Lapis revolutus est CS67* 5 11 N Easter D An Pascha nostrum GR199 6 11 M Easter P Cm Veni creator spiritus LU885 8 11 N Pentecost D Hy Vidi aquam LU12 8 11 M Easter, Pentecost O An Adoro te devote LU1855 5 12 S Blessed Sacrament P Hy

200 Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Genre Alma redemptoris mater (simple) LU277 5 12 S Mary D An Attende Domine LU1871 5 12 S Lent D Va Ave Maria LU1861 1 12 S Mary D Va Ave regina caelorum (solemn) LU274 6 12 M Mary D An

Benedicamus Domino LU22,124 5 12 M O Ky Christus factus est LU659 5 12 M Holy Week D An

Credo III LU68 5 12 S O Ky Ecce nomen Domini CS33 5 12 S Christmas D Va Hodie Christus natus est LU413 1 12 N Christmas D An Jesu dulcis memoria LU452 1 12 S Holy Name P Hy O filii et filiae CS118 2 12 S Easter X Hy O magnum mysterium LU382 3 12 M Christmas D Re Pange lingua gloriosi LU957 3 12 S Corpus Christi D Hy Pueri Hebraeorum LU581 1 12 N Palm Sunday P An Rorate caeli desuper LU1868 1 12 S Advent D Va Salve Regina (simple) LU279 5 12 M Mary D An Stabat Mater LU1634v 2 12 S Seven Dolors P Sq Viderunt LU410 1 12 M Christmas, Epiphany P Cm

Sanctus XI LU47 2 13 M O Ky Alma redemptoris mater LU273 5 14 M Mary D An (solemn) Ave Maria LU355 8 14 M Advent, Mary P Of Ave maris stella LU1259 1 14 M Mary D Hy Ave regina caelorum (simple) LU278 6 14 S Mary D An Salve mater misericordiae CC137 5 14 S Mary D Va Salve Regina (solemn) LU276 1 14 N Mary D An Veni sancte spiritus LU880 1 14 S Pentecost P Sq

201 Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Genre Victimae paschali laudes LU780 1 14 S Easter P Sq

Dies irae LU1810 1 15 S R Sq

Gloria IX LU40 7 16 N O Ky

Agnus Dei XVII LU61 5 17 N O Ky

Kyrie X LU43 1 17 M O Ky Lauda Sion salvatorem LU945 7 20 S Corpus Christi P Sq

202 Appendix D: Index of 77 Selected Chants by Floridity

Syllabic Chants Chant Reference M R Feast(s) FN Genre Adoremus in aeternum LU1853 5 9 Sacred Heart P An Adoro te devote LU1855 5 12 Blessed Sacrament P Hy Agnus Dei XVIII LU63 C 6 O Ky Alleluia GS163 6 9 Easter P Cm Alma redemptoris mater (simple) LU277 5 12 Mary D An Attende Domine LU1871 5 12 Lent D Va Ave Maria LU1861 1 12 Mary D Va Ave regina caelorum (simple) LU278 6 14 Mary D An Cor Jesu sacratissimum LU1853 1 8 P An Creator alme siderum LU324 4 9 Advent D Hy Credo III LU68 5 12 O Ky Dies irae LU1810 1 15 R Sq Ecce nomen Domini CS33 5 12 Christmas D Va Jesu dulcis memoria LU452 1 12 Holy Name P Hy Lauda Sion salvatorem LU945 7 20 Corpus Christi P Sq Litany of the Saints GR192 C 9 Easter Vigil P Li Lumen ad revelationem LU1357 8 7 Presentation D An Magnificat (simple) LU212 8 9 D Ca Magnificat (solemn) LU218 8 7 D Ca O filii et filiae CS118 2 12 Easter X Hy Pange lingua gloriosi LU957 3 12 Corpus Christi D Hy Puer natus in Bethlehem CC129 1 10 Christmas X Hy Quem vidistis pastores LU395 2 7 Christmas D An Regina coeli (simple) LU278 6 10 Mary D An Resonet in laudibus 5 9 Christmas X Va Rorate caeli desuper LU1868 1 12 Advent D Va Salve mater misericordiae CC137 5 14 Mary D Va

203 Chant Reference M R Feast(s) FN Genre Si iniquitates observaveris LU1774 D 7 Lent D An Stabat Mater LU1634v 2 12 Seven Dolors P Sq Ut queant laxis LU1504 2 9 John the Baptist D Hy Veni sancte spiritus LU880 1 14 Pentecost P Sq Venite, adoremus eum GS76 8 7 Epiphany P An Victimae paschali laudes LU780 1 14 Easter P Sq

Neumatic Chants

Chant Reference M R Feast(s) FN Genre Agnus Dei XVII LU61 5 17 O Ky Asperges me, Domine LU11 7 10 O An Ave verum corpus LU1856 6 10 Blessed Sacrament P Hy Credo I LU64 4 8 O Ky Ego sum resurrectio LU1770 2 9 Easter, Funeral R An Gloria IX LU40 7 16 O Ky Gloria XI LU46 2 7 O Ky Hodie Christus natus est LU413 1 12 Christmas D An Lapis revolutus est CS67* 5 11 Easter D An O admirable commercium LU442 6 10 Circumcision D An Pater, si non potest GR149 8 9 Palm Sunday, Good Friday P Cm Puer natus est LU408 7 10 Christmas P In Pueri Hebraeorum LU581 1 12 Palm Sunday P An Sacerdos et Pontifex LU1840 1 9 Bishop P An Salve Regina (solemn) LU276 1 14 Mary D An Tota pulchra es AMIII329 4 9 Mary D An Ubi caritas et amor LU675 6 10 Holy Thursday P An Veni creator spiritus LU885 8 11 Pentecost D Hy Vexilla regis LU575 1 10 Palm Sunday, Good Friday D Hy Viri Galilaei LU850 7 9 Ascension D An

204 Melismatic Chants Chant Reference M R Feast(s) FN Genre Alleluia (Dominus dixit) LU394 8 9 Christmas D Al Alleluia (Laudate pueri Dominum) LU428 4 10 Holy Innocents P Al Alleluia (Video coelos) LU416 2 9 Stephen D Al Alma redemptoris mater (solemn) LU273 5 14 Mary D An Ave Maria LU355 8 14 Advent, Mary P Of Ave maris stella LU1259 1 14 Mary D Hy Ave regina caelorum (solemn) LU274 6 12 Mary D An Benedicamus Domino LU22,124 5 12 O Ky Christus factus est LU659 5 12 Holy Week D An Dominus dixit LU392 2 7 Christmas P In Hosanna filio David LU578 7 11 Palm Sunday P An Kyrie eleison LU1807 6 10 R Ky Kyrie I LU16 8 11 Easter O Ky Kyrie X LU43 1 17 O Ky O magnum mysterium LU382 3 12 Christmas D Re Pascha nostrum GR199 6 11 Easter P Cm Regina coeli (solemn) LU275 6 10 Mary D An Requiem aeternam LU1807 6 7 R In Salve Regina (simple) LU279 5 12 Mary D An Sanctus XI LU47 2 13 O Ky Surrexit Dominus LH79 6 8 Easter D An Tristis est anima mea LU635 8 9 Holy Thursday D Re Viderunt LU410 1 12 Christmas, Epiphany P Cm Vidi aquam LU12 8 11 Easter, Pentecost O An

205 Appendix E: Index of 77 Selected Chants by Genre

Antiphons Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Adoremus in aeternum LU1853 5 9 S Sacred Heart P Asperges me, Domine LU11 7 10 N O Christus factus est LU659 5 12 M Holy Week D Cor Jesu sacratissimum LU1853 1 8 S P Ego sum resurrectio LU1770 2 9 N Easter, Funeral R Hodie Christus natus est LU413 1 12 N Christmas D Hosanna filio David LU578 7 11 M Palm Sunday P Lapis revolutus est CS67* 5 11 N Easter D Lumen ad revelationem LU1357 8 7 S Presentation D O admirable commercium LU442 6 10 N Circumcision D Pueri Hebraeorum LU581 1 12 N Palm Sunday P Quem vidistis pastores LU395 2 7 S Christmas D Sacerdos et Pontifex LU1840 1 9 N Bishop P Si iniquitates observaveris LU1774 D 7 S Lent D Surrexit Dominus LH79 6 8 M Easter D Tota pulchra es AMIII329 4 9 N Mary D Ubi caritas et amor LU675 6 10 N Holy Thursday P Venite, adoremus eum GS76 8 7 S Epiphany P Vidi aquam LU12 8 11 M Easter, Pentecost O Viri Galilaei LU850 7 9 N Ascension D

206 Marian Antiphons Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Alma redemptoris mater (simple) LU277 5 12 S Mary D Alma redemptoris mater (solemn) LU273 5 14 M Mary D Ave regina caelorum (simple) LU278 6 14 S Mary D Ave regina caelorum (solemn) LU274 6 12 M Mary D Regina coeli (simple) LU278 6 10 S Mary D Regina coeli (solemn) LU275 6 10 M Mary D Salve Regina (simple) LU279 5 12 M Mary D Salve Regina (solemn) LU276 1 14 N Mary D

Kyriale

Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Agnus Dei XVII LU61 5 17 N O Agnus Dei XVIII LU63 C 6 S O Benedicamus Domino LU22, 124 5 12 M O Credo I LU64 4 8 N O Credo III LU68 5 12 S O Gloria IX LU40 7 16 N O Gloria XI LU46 2 7 N O Kyrie eleison LU1807 6 10 M R Kyrie I LU16 8 11 M Easter O Kyrie X LU43 1 17 M O Sanctus XI LU47 2 13 M O

207 Alleluias Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Alleluia (Dominus dixit) LU394 8 9 M Christmas D Alleluia (Laudate pueri Dominum) LU428 4 10 M Holy Innocents P Alleluia (Video coelos) LU416 2 9 M Stephen D

Canticles

Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Magnificat (simple) LU212 8 9 S D Magnificat (solemn) LU218 8 7 S D

Responsories Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN O magnum mysterium LU382 3 12 M Christmas D Tristis est anima mea LU635 8 9 M Holy Thursday D

Introits Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Dominus dixit LU392 2 7 M Christmas P Puer natus est LU408 7 10 N Christmas P Requiem aeternam LU1807 6 7 M R

208 Offertories Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Ave Maria LU355 8 14 M Advent, Mary P

Communia Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Alleluia GS163 6 9 S Easter P Pascha nostrum GR199 6 11 M Easter P Pater, si non potest GR149 8 9 N Palm Sunday, Good Friday P Viderunt LU410 1 12 M Christmas, Epiphany P

Sequences

Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Dies irae LU1810 1 15 S R Lauda Sion salvatorem LU945 7 20 S Corpus Christi P Stabat Mater LU1634v 2 12 S Seven Dolors P Veni sancte spiritus LU880 1 14 S Pentecost P Victimae paschali laudes LU780 1 14 S Easter P

209 Hymns Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Adoro te devote LU1855 5 12 S Blessed Sacrament P Ave maris stella LU1259 1 14 M Mary D Ave verum corpus LU1856 6 10 N Blessed Sacrament P Creator alme siderum LU324 4 9 S Advent D Jesu dulcis memoria LU452 1 12 S Holy Name P O filii et filiae CS118 2 12 S Easter X Pange lingua gloriosi LU957 3 12 S Corpus Christi D Puer natus in Bethlehem CC129 1 10 S Christmas X Ut queant laxis LU1504 2 9 S John the Baptist D Veni creator spiritus LU885 8 11 N Pentecost D Vexilla regis LU575 1 10 N Palm Sunday, Good Friday D

Litanies Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Litany of the Saints GR192 C 9 S Easter Vigil P

Varia Chant Reference M R F Feast(s) FN Attende Domine LU1871 5 12 S Lent D Ave Maria LU1861 1 12 S Mary D Ecce nomen Domini CS33 5 12 S Christmas D Resonet in laudibus 5 9 S Christmas X Rorate caeli desuper LU1868 1 12 S Advent D Salve mater misericordiae CC137 5 14 S Mary D

210