Legacy and Veracity of the Fascist

CEU eTD Collection In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Masters of Arts Legacy and Veracity of Dichotomy: the Fascist-Antifascist Nationalism Studies Program Central European University A Thematic Approach Advisor: Mária Kovács Budapest, Hungary Derek Werderitch Submitted to 2009 By CEU eTD Collection Bibliography VII – Conclusion VI- The EndofState-Antifascism V- AntifascistIdentity IV-Historical Background: Wartimeand theFormation Resistance of AntifascistStates III - IdeologyAntifascisman as II -Literature Review I -Introduction Table of Contents Table of Contents ...... 15 ...... Neofascism Anti-antifascism Antifascism? Nationalist of Antifascism Failures Post-Soviet Nationalism Germany of Reunification Breakup of Yugoslavia Germany Yugoslavia & Germany East Yugoslavia states, Antifascist and Elsewhere Germany Yugoslavia Distinction Positive-Negative the of Context in the andSupport Mobilization Positively-Negatively Defined Ideologyas an Analytical Category ...... 26 ...... 22 ...... 16 ...... 43 ...... 50 ...... 1 ...... 42 ...... 47 ...... i ...... 22 ...... 5 ...... 34 ...... 38 ...... 37 ...... 41 ...... 18 ...... 35 ...... 10 ...... 34 ...... 19 ...... 11 ...... 15 CEU eTD Collection backward, and by backward, wasfueled of event singular the WWII. Cold the within War asameta-narrative existed which dichotomy looked antifascist forward, toward a good life equivalent tocaricatures of Adam Smith or Karl Marx, the fascist- While Cold-Warthe binary had asits basis which thosecompeting looked worldviews the most direct examples of which contain anti-constructions, begs the question of origin. thereby creating a new national identity. The role of the historian in this fascist-antifascist History was a necessary tool in creating postwar consensus on the events of the war, and and any moreideologies clear.states their however,make antifascist of these foundations the extremely clear. It is the war's end. The identification of this event as the source does not, is origin of point their work, in this followed be will which Republic, Democratic German phenomenon. capitalist bourgeoisie essentially andin fascism,response to it and was defined according tocommunist criteria as being an of history is evident both in their in rise response togrowing industrial capitalism in Europe, than a comprehensive movement. That proletariatthe is therather than subject, driving class rather bourgeoisie, tothe response as a proletariat the positioned Marx hadalways However, European Jews strengthened the anti-Semitism of the fascists in Germany and France. and in Germany fascists the of anti-Semitism the strengthened Jews European and Bolshevism between drawn connections The rhetoric. anti-Bolshevik or anti-Marxist power of the fascists, whose ascent, in Italy, Germany, and elsewhere, was aided by a strongly geopolitical stage. The chronological primacy of this ideology had a great effect in the rise to the onto birth its as Revolution November the of event the and Marxism, with begin I -Introduction It is difficultpin to down the origins of the Cold War binary. Perhaps it is best to Creating a structure of the historical past based on the pendulum swing of reactions, For the antifascists states, theFor antifascists states, Federal Socialistthe Republic of Yugoslavia andthe 1 CEU eTD Collection uprising in Germany inand war Yugoslavia. from communism was more radical than the rest of the Eastern Bloc, with genuine popular Yugoslavia's agenuine opposition. popular And,dissimilarities,despite vast their emergence and manufactured, entirely almost with Germany's endsof extreme the antifascism, power of their wartime experience in shaping the postwar state, as well as their occupation of and Czechoslovakia. However, YugoslaviaGermany and duein East stand out, part tothe and others still had achieved postwar legitimacy based on wartime resistance, such as France of 'antifascism turned state ideology'. Other postwar states used the rhetoric of antifascism, antifascism. understandingorthodox fascism of was necessary, which against defineto their decretory dichotomy will be shown to have been subordinated to the aims of the state. Furthermore, an borders with the West, creating a context for comparison to western interpretations of well as their eventual destruction, will be examined in chapters V and VI, respectively. names, statues of leaders, and days of commemoration. The formation of these symbols, as the codification of school books, and by the public display historyof in the form of place of a state, undertaken consciously, and as a reaction against the previous state, is evidenced by positioning of somethemselves against other ideology. This of process changing the identity their or of their areaware reactionsim, individuals and Insome states cases participants. its by shaped consciously necessarily not is itself structure The afterward. writing useful in making senseof labelingthe done onthe part of observers and commentators instance, Hungary and Poland. violence. These examples, however, are in contrast to the rather quiet transitions in,for 1 Romania existswithin category,this having experienced popular demonstrations, coup, and Theirs was also aunique geographic position in terms of the Soviet Bloc, sharing SFR Yugoslavia and the German Democratic Republic will be used as the exemplars The providedstructure by anti-relationships the descried in workis this especially 1 2 CEU eTD Collection Mannheim's sense, insofar as it has a vision of the 'good' or 'end' in society- antifascism must dividing role of antifascism in these states. that means for the changing position of antifascism, and also the simultaneously unifying and will make use of two themes, the distinction between positive and negative ideology, and what process. reactionary this may elucidate countries of antifascism these the while the rise of wingright politics in post-communist countries has been in noted 1990s,the terms with their troubled histories speak to a greater shortcoming of the antifascistmyth. And undergonebased in antifascism. on process anewidentity communist creating the resistancedemonstrate victims and of both acknowledgement or elevation Selective a in underwentpositive, ideology. which to produce order processes states total these place in what would become communist dominated antifascist states, can highlight the importance. For this reason, the existence of non-communist resistance groups, and their postwar binary relationship of the Cold War, between communism and democracy,is of great such asantifascism. such see G.Robert Moeller, “War Stories: 2 The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic squarely within the context of the theirformation, division of Germany versus union in Yugoslavia, place state antifascism important differences, namely their distance from Stalin, and the process which occurred in Yugoslavia was essentially open, and provided guest-worker labor in the West. Their merely Radio Free Europe, but WestGerman and Italian television. As of the 1960s, from the West,support monetary not received extensive signal of andwerewithin range between dividedthe Germanys. Both antifascism, especially YugoslaviaGermany andEast of Germany,” While fascism may be aptly termed a positive ideology, a or total ideology in to in coming deficiencies their of similarity the formation, in their different Though Due to thisfocus work's onthe antifascist EastGermanystates of and Yugoslavia, the The American Historical Review realpolitik , the limiting factor of an ideological position 3 Vol.101,No. 4 1996):1008-1048 (Oct., 2 This investigation CEU eTD Collection progenitors, whichprogenitors, will be detailed below. wider asis publicsupport particularly to the relevant caseof Yugoslavia's partisan orasa negative construction, antifascism's ideology 'particular' in Mannheim, for a allows seeks to oppose fascism through countering the positive elements of that system. That ideology. be asanegative 'end' of described lacksthe of society, It aprescription andrather 4 CEU eTD Collection Andrew Neofascism Hewett, “Ideological Positions in the 3 Fascism Debate,” In positions ofLukacs,Horkheimer and Adorno, and “Liberal, the consensus.” postwar student of Hegel. Hewett offers a survey of prevailing interpretations of fascism, noting the fascism in particular in the ideological frameworks of Marx, Mannheim, and Oakeshott, a instate insufficiency theory.the demonstrate in beto order will compared definitions state antifascism, and hence their definitions fascism,of as compared to current theories and technical lessimportantexamination claims than state andpublic understanding. Visions of a make such WWII of terms after these and understandings loose variable Paxton, O. the and antifascismismost well notably developed, by of those Frankfurtthe School and Robert a synthesis based on this relationship. While the theoretical literature on the topic of fascism Marxist thesis-antithesis relationship. Yet this work will not consider explicitly the arrival of sweeping movements” angle of historiography, rather than a social history. relationships from extending WWII totoday. In this sense, thepresentwork is of 'broad, the the historical narrative. While Hobsbawm's bias is Marxist, this text uses a view of anti- throughout is evident a theme in that Hobsbawm, Eric of work the unlike not is work present the of methodology The disciplines. many of sources from drawn been has information II - Literature Review extreme rightism,in the context of the fascist-antifascist dichotomy of this work. notion of “functional equivalence” allows for amore fruitful assessment of neofascism and is also used as a theoretical background, particularly for his broad definition, which with the On the issue of ideology, Howard Williams is used particularly for his analysis of analysis his for particularly is used Williams Howard ideology, of issue the On Tosome the extent, theoreticalbackgroundfor this is work in rooted Hegelianthe or As no single book or author has addressed the topic which is central to this work, The longevity of polarized and a antagonistic creates worldviews problematic situation , ed. , AngelicaFenner andEric D.Weitz,New 19-42. York: Palgrave, 2004. 5 Fascism and 3 Paxton CEU eTD Collection 5 4 politics. influencing western circles, political butthat pressure from keptthis work reaching public the or historiansthat did deviatefrom this line,and thattheir had work achieved recognition in depiction of the Fascist past to conform to the needs of an antifascist regime. Jarausch notes Historians are shown to have been corroborating the regime, and consciously modeling the profession in East Germany as one limited to local resources and censored politically. has been eitherinflated identified or selectively. Jarauschadequately thehistoricalportrays interpretation of the past. In producing this past, the role of antifascism or wartime resistance 'facts'. other and has involved, personalities the politicizedeffected historiography the of trustworthiness in historical research. Though certain facts are unequivocal, such as the starting dates of wars or, it may correspond to the nationalist currents which arose during that era. increased opening mobility the of ortheeasingarchives, citizens, of of political opposition; identify the reason for the reevaluation. It can be attributed either to practical causes, such as work of Jozo Tomasevich. Tito's death, and several English language books indicate a renewed interest, particularly the of Yugoslavia and East Germany. The Chetniks in particular have been re-evaluated since groups is central to the analysis of the reappearance of nationalism which corresponds the end of non-communist resistance on the postwar antifascist states is small, work focusing on these skewedpolitically,in are as caseabove. note the sources their impactthat they And whilethe Yugoslav scholars writing in English during the 1970s are clearly not state ideologues. Yet, See Jozo Tomasevich, Jozo See See Konrad H. Jarausch, “The Failure of EastGerman Antifascism: Some Ironies of History as Politics,” The state antifascism of Yugoslavia and East Germany is one which required anew The year and place of publication is especially useful meta-textual information. meta-textual The year is and of especially useful place publication German Studies Review 4 The Chetniks 5 This scholarship is problematic, however, because itis difficult to (Stanford: Stanford University 1975) Press, , Vol.No.14, 1(Feb.,1991): 85-102 6 CEU eTD Collection 6 See Martin 6 SeeMartin Lee, However, the story is extremely complex, and politicized. So as to avoid claims of blame or idea the and of anti-antifascism. imagery, occurrences these between connections the and of wartime reincarnation the rolenationalism, both the understand of to in explained order problematically, More work. presentregard tothe breakup of the Yugoslaviamustbe brief. The reunification of Germany,in particular, is not contentious in of itself, at leastin with explained given be will events these work, this of focus primary the not is it As mentioned. by these movements, which is, in turn, vital to postwar state formation. comparisonthrough of gives competing groups, arough guide to popularthe enjoyed support movements which did not produce antifascist states. The numbers of participants, particularly division of Germany. Additionally,itincludes the activities of those resistance fighters and reasons. The narrative of the end of WWII explains both the origins of Yugoslavia and the in portraying the exorcism of fascism in Germany and Croatia as a failure. organizations,neofacist complicity the and the of Nazicriminalsis Allies in useful pardoning and conflicts in later of escaped Nazis commentsinfluence on Its backedby is not the data. the extent theradicalsymbolism organizations Croatian Force, of this and support to Defense Croatian fightingunits 1991,and after support the given by American andEuropean neo-Nazi among symbolism Ustasha of recycling the of examples useful offers book this While country on the Continent, which based its legal system on a racist conception of citizenship.” Rightinpopulists Eastern Europe were implicitly legitimized by Germany, strongest the “Far following: suchas the bold statements, contains and readsasconspiriological, work includingneofascism in Germany Europe, post-1989 and Yugoslavia. times,At however, this In For amore general understanding, the end of these antifascist states must at least be isThe historical background of states these vital investigation forthis to several The Beast ReawakensThe Beast The Beast Reawakens The , Martin Lee offers a sampling of extreme neo-Nazism and (London: Little,and Brown Company, 1997) 7 6 CEU eTD Collection Rabinbach and Jarausch. The needthe for anew unified identity. Scholars working in fieldthis include Diner, Probst, on victory over fascism has been well discussed since the reunification of Germany, due to Yugoslavia variably. only based identity created and legitimation as the a state Antifascism logy. ideo ideological stand opponents tomore critically oppose Yugoslav Germanand East history and communist rule in Yugoslavia and East Germany, and second, those written by exiles or bias. First, the censorship and state control of those sources which emerge form the time of manner, is anditsources may understood that be biased. the re-telling of invictimhood, this will period simplified an proceed acknowledgedly Ustasha and Chetnik symbols amidst the war in Yugoslaviais in welldocumented, works on Moscow's of version communism. to maintained aproximity as these be isolated which did ordid notaffect the East German and Yugoslav states, especially insofar developed. From the abundant analyses of post-Soviet rightism and neofascism, elements can Europe,andmoreEastern Soviet specifically former and Germany Yugoslavia,is well Yugoslavia,former of with little contributiondiscussions from to German sources. limited mostly is anti-antifascism of theme the Conversely, system which required opposition and enemies, they are not inherently correlative themes. dominates. And while antifascism and nationalism can be seen as two sides of an ideological analysis of the successes and failures of antifascism as a state doctrine, the national question degenerated into war, which theliterature dominates describing this era.Rather than an 67: 'Legaciesthemeissue, No. of Antifascism.’ On hand, other the breakupthe of Yugoslavia Finally, information is available on the topic of antifascism in East Germany and The contexts of the sources used in this work create two worrisome conditions for Thankfully, the literature dealing with neofascism, both in Western Europe and post- New German Critique 8 is also of particular usefulness for its The reoccurrence of The reoccurrence CEU eTD Collection Smith is also vital to the mythological function of antifascism. of function mythological the to vital also is Smith to be of Gellnerianthe andsort, encompassingboth extreme andbenignforms. Anthony 7 See: Anthony D. Smith, D. Anthony See: 7 too is case problematic the ofnationalistantifascism explored. in nationalism Here Yugoslavia,neofascism, anti-antifascism. on works more theoretical and Press, 1999)and Ernest Gellner, Where nationalism is discussed, it can be assumed to mean, unless otherwise clarified, Myths andMemories of the Nation Nations and Nationalism 9 (Oxford: Oxford University 7 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983) CEU eTD Collection leaders or participants in these programs. Paxton notes of the fascists: commonly carry. This results, in part, from the prevalence of self-identification among of such textsand thinkersreduce doesnot soliditythe meaningof which these terms are asthese insofar antifascism Fascists and antifascists would characteristically be defined as those whofollow fascism and participants. To whatideal areparticipants looking, andwhere it does comefrom? of beingconnotation contrary the to rational thought. carries Second, it suggests a certainideology epistemological First, unity in problematic. is itself ideology term the However, befirst clarified. must ideologies fascism, as of and nature antifascism the ideology practice, and of intersection the to address remains, after the fall of European communism, aninstitution to which it owes much. In order bloody and oppressive regimes in history the of Europe. The legacy of relationshipthis that its a complex ideological phenomenon, but one which is highlighted by some of the most from as early as the 1920s, the fascist-antifascist relationship has existed more subtly, given culminating in the end of one of the most bipolar relationship of all, the Cold War. However, of history. Notably, the short twentieth century displays such dichotomies throughout, antifascism. These relationships provide a framework for the investigation of certain periods romanticism-rationalism, empire-colony, occidental-oriental, and presently,fascism- 8 Howard Howard Williams, 8 III - an IdeologyAntifascism as an idea, unlike the materialist liberals and socialists. Hitler talked ceaselessly of leaders“Thefascist themselves saying never stopped they that were prophets of Fascism, and its (nominal) antithesis, antifascism, are best understood as ideologies. Binary relationships are an established anduseful historical andanalytical device: Concepts of Ideology Concepts of ideologies codified by texts and thinkers. 10 (Sussex: Wheatsheaf1988 Books, 8 However, lack the ), xi CEU eTD Collection to antifascism, isto antifascism, by reinforced toward which 'totalitarianism' the fascists aspired. and 'particular' respectively. negatively defined ideologies, as used here, areroughly correlative with 'total' Mannheim's antithesis, rather than a comprehensive formulation of an ideal society. Positively and its of removal the to limited is teleology Its goals. in its singular or codified is which defined negatively, that its, in opposition to fascism. Though still an ideology,it is not one work forwork an understanding of from shiftthe ideology inparticular tototal communist- Aredt's inclusion of communism label the under totalitarianismof isuseful present the to ideology but as an ethos, a way of being in the world.” memory of those who experienced it, antifascism was usually notperceived as doctrine or continuance of the Popular Front movement, of which “Hobsbawm also recalls that in the and Yugoslavia after WWII. The particular nature of antifascism is in some respects a to advance such a vision as a state ideology compounded with communism in East Germany society, vision good of cases aparticular nature. the inmostIt lacks protean comes andonly nature must only be seen as a different, less comprehensive type. less be must comprehensive seen only asadifferent, nature its ideological in caseof the antifascism, areabsent of worldview statements Where these Positively-Negatively Ideologyasan Defined Analytical Category 12 Paxton, 152.12 Paxton, O. Robert Paxton, 9 11 “Introduction:Legacies of Anson Rabinbach, Antifascism” 10 Williams,23-40. (Winter, 1996): 7. This work proceeds on the premise that antifascism is an ideology is antifascism which isnecessarily ideology proceedson that premise an the This work Though fascism itself is difficult to define adequately, antifascism is of a particularly of is antifascism adequately, define to is difficult itself fascism Though attention of the whole world. Mussolini vaunted the power of the Fascist Creed.” Weltanschauung The Anatomy Fascismof , or'worldview', an uncomely world he successfully forced on the 10 11 (New (New York: Vintage2004), 15. Books, 11 The totality fascism,of ascompared New German Critique 12 Hannah , No. 67 9 CEU eTD Collection understand the phenomenon. the understand oraccusers adherents its as insofar 'real' as beassessed only andcan forms, inmany exists amorphous character which is only bound by occasionally a formalized ideology. Instead, it Yugoslavia. In light of this caveat, the existence of antifascism will be shown to be of an necessarily remain static within a dynamic situation, such as WWII or the breakup of is ideology causeof with often the conflictin fact, state resistance. and ideologues, are notnecessarily state antifascistcitizens fascist or of a that Itisactions. acknowledged undertaken at thelevel individual,the of andis only by evident individual'san or statements It shouldbe understood that in the context of this work, adherence to anideology must be and anti-antifascism. ideologies these between and relationship the endstates or of antifascist decline in tothe will be endrelation examined the century twentieth of the of at neo-fascism fascism. Theemergenceand Italian cases of German historical paradigmatic tothe response also allows a closer discussion of the antifascism that was codified as state ideology in Comintern Congress, the events of the Spanish Civil War, and the rise of the Popular Front. It This is in part to distance wartime and post-war antifascism from the products of the Seventh fascist, as these were the groups against which the postwar antifascist states were positioned. history, the fascists of Italy, Nazis of Germany, and Ustasha of Croatia will be considered existing fascisms at any time. For the purposes of this paper, with its focus on post-WWII of anti-antifascism. occurrence interesting the for allows antifascism communist state of form inthe ideology defined antifascist states. The transformation of antifascism from a negatively defined toa positively 13 See Paxton for the exclusion of Franco, Romania, &c. Because fascism is arguably a non-political force, in the sense that it is more of a Furthermore, beliefs and actions are located both in time and context, and do not multiple the by complicated additionally is fascism against oneself Positioning 12 13 CEU eTD Collection undertaken under orders of Nazi and Ustasha command, and of the extreme anti-Semitism cleansing ethnic systems, namely the of these jurisdiction underthe committed atrocities art. Aryan approved of wholesomeness the Youth and Hitler degenerate art in the case of Nazi Germany, which opposed the structure and 'morality' of the more purely social instances of resistance are also evident, as in the culture of 'swing kids', or politics. Socialist humanism is a competing worldview, not acompeting political party. The revealsThis quote both negativelythe defined nature of antifascism as well as its vague following; violence, and of particular vision of the telos of society. Howard Williams offers the right- from wing authoritarianismfascism are, most strongly,distance publicwhich displays of both symbolscriteria of the group, The of movement. or ideology non-political a is also, antifascism majority, parliamentary via be solidified not may or may which movement social non-fascist right, liberal democrats, and communists. As Klaus Mann wrote in 1938: encompasses many political and social categories. These include rightist conservatives or the the approach to the winter of 1932-33. Antifascism is this contextis an umbrella term which Opposition to fascism may therefore take political or juridical forms, asit had in Germany in 43. Cited in43. Cited James D. Wilkinson, 15Rabinbach 3, Klaus Mann, "DerKampf um Jungen die Menschen," Kiirbiskern 2(1975): 14 Williams,68. UP, 1981)21. After WWII, fascism as an ideology became associated with the full extent of the Germans. individual of needs German Fascists saw the reality of the individualthe connected with his nation a through bond mystical of unity... exercise of electoral his rights and through rights of nation representation, the with Fascistsconnected as preferred to see individual the seeing than Rather defend; what the latter defend; defends, it the what will destroy. for point, the practice of fascism. What the latter destroys, socialist humanism will define the nature and appearance of what we want. Our vision will oppose, point Fascism however paradoxical - this sounds -makes iteasierfor us to clarify and The Intellectual Resistance inEurope 14 13 Volk as transcending the existence and existence the astranscending 15 (Cambridge: Harvard CEU eTD Collection value to the extent that dictated national heroes, monument construction, and foreign foreign policy. and construction, monument heroes, national dictated extent that to the value is in itselfof real, as it shaped either public identity or propaganda, and was pursued as a state antifascism,to amythological asopposed upholds this work construction, that mythology the fascism,is more difficultly found and labeled. And, despite doubts as to the reality of is now form evenless ideology, Antifascism to able a positive necessary asthe antithesis, decline and democratization has removed formalized antifascism from politicalthe stage. V.in chapter and especially WestEast German interpretations of the be Thirdfurtherwill discussed Reich triumphal communism. This selective engagement with the past, and the discrepancy between showsEurope thisthat humanitarian legitimation was secondary considerations of to German antifascism, which exists in contrast to a 'Holocaust identity' prevalentin Western East characterize holocaustof the late acknowledgement andthe of Nazism motivations assume a moral high-ground against fascism. However, the downplay of the racial could and antifascism VichyNazi than Germany of before, ever characteristic More France. While YugoslaviaGermany andEast states, existed asexplicitly theirantifascist 14 CEU eTD Collection to examine the extent of participation. The numbers of participants in the Chetnik and in theChetnik of participants Thenumbers participation. extentof the to examine of a state,thestruggleor an reinstitute exiled to government. resistance groups, as their aims are not the resistance of fascism as much as the preservation nationalist of non-communist, those here are termed positive Ideologies recognized. negatively defined ideologies allow for a variety of beliefs so long as a common enemy is aims, and the necessity of the coincidence of group ideology and individual interest, while ideology tohave due definedless receivedare predicted support tothespecificity of their differentdegrees of support for differentresistancegroups. Groups advancing apositively VI: Anti-antifascism. resistance groups to 'antifascist' status will be demonstrated in several contexts below and in of The elevation by afterward. label being applied or the resistance, time of their wartime broadly, was the form which was most prevalent during the war. Germans, oragainst wartime rationing orforced labor. This form of resistance, understood antifascism. individuals Instead, may orgroups mobilize against occupation, against however, resistance in general does not necessarily imply a particular ideology such as nonviolent, and of various motivations, political, moral, and nationalist. Importantly, Mobilization and Support in the Context of the Positive-Negative Distinction ofthePositive-Negative intheContext andSupport Mobilization Formation of Antifascist States of Antifascist Formation IV- Historical Background: Wartime Resistance andthe Considering the role which resistance had in legitimizing post-war states, it is useful Using the negative-positive distinction as an analytical device helps to explain the Resistance groups mayResistance groups be identified as antifascisteither by ideology an held atthe Resistance in WWII took many forms, both armed and passive, violent and 15 CEU eTD Collection 1941: program is codified in which documentthe was sent by Mihailovic tohis commanders in II. In pursuance of this aim, they advocated and enacted the killing of ethnic rivals. This Peter monarch exiled of the reinstallation the and of a greater-Serbia realization aimed atthe competing forcompeting theloyalty samepopulation.the of instances in some were they for distinction, negative-positive the illustrate best organizations cities and strongholds,leaving much of the countryside unaffected, and still armed. These two of particular circumstances quickly overtook mechanizedAxis troops wherein occupation, attributed to the difficulty of the terrain, the legacy of mountain banditry, as well as the lead partisans,Tito. by Broz Josip The prevalencein of resistance has been Balkans the arosenative in groups response tooccupation. The Serbian andChetniks, communist It is in contextwhichresistancethis emerged. groups Inwhatwould become Yugoslavia, two totheirand homes. returned and equipment, arms their retained had collapsed, whose country widely engage the infantry of the opposition. Therefore, after defeat, those fighting men, under nominal Axis control. The swift advance of armor which had forced surrender did not collaborationist state was created in Croatia, while Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Serbia were left Poland will be raised as a possible contradiction to this Poland beraised as will pattern. this a possibleto contradiction in and Germany Resistance distinction. positive-negative basedon the rate of participation communist partisan movements in Yugoslavia corroborate the theory above as it relates to the Yugoslavia . The struggle for the freedom of all of our people1. under the scepter of His The mission of our units is: The Chetniks organized by Draža Mihajlovi In April,1941, of moved Kingdom the forcesAxis through Yugoslavia. A 16 ü exhibited anationalist-royalist ideology, CEU eTD Collection Chetnik in efforts alliedrescuing airmen. Magazine, and wasposthumously the Legionawarded of Meritby president Truman for combating the Axis in the Balkans. His image appeared, with praise, on the cover of Time what is what today Serbia. 's Chetniks are estimated at 10,000 at their peak, with an operating range limited tomost of to be killed for each German soldier dead, and 50 for each soldier wounded. Draža Mihajlovi clashes, the Wehrmacht adopted a policy of collective punishment, wherein 100 civilians were protection of Serbian civilians againstreprisals by German Soldiers. After some early Clearly this constitutes a positive ideology. 16 DražaMihajlovi Yet, the Allies recognized Mihajlovi Chetnik operations remained limited,Chetnik remained operations duetoboth limitedmanpower for and the their disposition at the given moment. basedon aretobetreated occupation Italian the under livingterritory on Croats against our population,i.e. they are to be turned over to the People's Court. The crimes for horrendous the merit theirand with in beaccordance areto treated Ustaše Bosniaks, Albanians, revolution. socialist of favor in and Dynasty the against fighting are they as communists the with collaboration no be may There and anti-state minorities of national of cleansed the areas The settlement 7. The punishment of all Croats and Bosniaks 6. who have mercilessly The creation of direct common borders between Serbia and Montenegro, 5. The cleansing of all national minorities and 4. anti-state elements from state The struggle for the incorporation into our social structure of those 3. non- . The creation of Greater Yugoslavia, and within it 2. Greater Serbia, nationally patriotic, and honest families). elements by Serbs and (tobe Montenegrins considered arepoor, destroyedpeople our in these tragic days; Herzegovina; Sandžak, and the Bosniak populations andCroat from Bosnia and as well as Serbia andSlovenia by cleansing the Bosniak population from territory; Shkodra; with andnorthern Albania as well as Bulgaria and Carinthia), Istria, liberated Slovenian territories under Italy and Germany (Trieste, Gorizia, Herzegovina, Srem, Banat, andBa Banat, Srem, Herzegovina, ethnically clean within the borders of Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Majesty, the King Peter II; ü , “Instructions” ü and his Chetniks as a valuable asset in asset hisChetniksasavaluable and 16 17 þ ka; ü CEU eTD Collection command gradually sided with communistthe partisans, dueto largertheir operating capacity. including Catholic the church. The most decisive of actions resistance within originated Soviet pact. Liberal resistance, therefore, was small in comparison to conservatives, shocking Nazi- the after especially wartime little to resistance, and contributed outlawed, was limited to a handful of intellectuals. The German communist party, the KPD, was prewar group, Germany and Elsewhere thewar,entered whomerely survived. threethousand of Poljana, wasconcluded May 15, 1945.Of twelvethe thousand communist party members Ljubljana. Fighting continued after the German surrender, the last battle of which, The Battle landtraditional warfare. Theirmilitary in of successes culminated capture Zagreb the and Liberation in Peoples totheirtactics, the guerilla addition previous Army participated body, the People's Liberation Army and Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia (NOV i POJ). In attempt lastassassination included1944, the unsuccessful on Tito. of which an launchedpowers seven antipartisan offensives, between autumnthe 1941 andof spring the of war, into aformal fighting unit.Partisan efforts had been effective to the extent that Axis Union. Tito's partisans numbered over 800,000 and had transformed, over the course of the Soviet between the and Germany pact endedformal non-aggression the Barbarossa Operation andits headJosip Broz Tito, began for strugglethe in liberation of June 1941, only after Resistance in Resistance with comparably non-existent, Germany most noteworthy the was The communist under partisans Tito, by a formal1942 hadcoalesced into military Communist resistance in Yugoslavia, under supervision the of Communistthe party Practical considerations seem to have taken precedent, as precedent, andAmerican havetaken British seemto considerations Practical Neu Begginen, dissolving before the outbreak of hostilities, and the White Rose 18 CEU eTD Collection Yugoslavia. Because the partisans had played a major role in the liberation of Yugoslavia, and Yugoslavia’ were set up which were to become the basis for the Socialist Federal Republic of rather the reconstruction of pre-war politics, ormore extremely, Wilhelmine political order. positive ideology, used loosely, of these participants is not the formation of a new state, but bulwarkextremism, against both communist andfascist,in yearsthe approaching 1933.The as a right the bolster to effort the of is an extension In away, resistance this conservative rightist-conservatives circles in circles Wehrmacht, Hitler.the assassinate to several rightist-conservatives with attempts which evidence the theme of antifascism as the gelling agent of identity in these states. the differencesbetween states, communist antifascist are self-described both Nonetheless, motivations. and consequences different strikingly had so doing their yet antifascist, &Yugoslavia Germany East states, Antifascist antifascist. as identified necessary components in inand Germany Yugoslavia a neededtoproduce state so strongly intoan explicitly antifascist state, merely a communist one. This suggests the additional considerable obstacle both to Germany and the Soviet Union. Yet, Poland did not develop generate large andseveral diverse support, hundred thousand atits peak in 1943, and was a in Germany. However,conservatives of Home the even theresistance to or able Army was occupation; essentially nationalistic. In this way,it appears similar to Mihailovic's Chetniks, reinstallation of governmentthe in exile andthepreservation Polishof culture during Yugoslav cases above. Its resistance was non-communist. Rather it was directed at the As Tito's partisans liberated territory, ‘Anti-Fascist Councils of National Liberation of YugoslaviaGermany, andEast emerged from wardefiningthe themselves as The case of the Polish Home Army exists in contrast to the model followed by the 19 CEU eTD Collection much of its support. found Nazism wherein bourgeoisie, petit the and capitalism to opposition communism's also possible, citing both the historical lesson of communism's triumph over fascism in WWII, and inconstructed such away to as oppose those whichthings they hadmade thought fascism Soviets, more closely mirrored Russian policies. State antifascism in East Germany was liberation Stalin's their to owed Red Army. possessed aunique autonomy,namely incommunist comparison to states which postwar due to militarythe and political they power had acquiredin doing so,the resulting state example, during among authors émigré 1930s. the The degreewhich to communism broadly, for circulating, antifascism philosophical and political more the from different antifascism justified the means. The inclusion of the historical event of Soviet triumph,makes this state- victories was used as proof that the communist system was somehow better, as if the ends had by communistpartisans.victorious liberated/occupied The realitythe postwar communistof by Soviet Union, communistvictorious liberated/occupied and the Yugoslavia was Germany was East occupation. liberation or either states of these formation Communism was both the cause and result of these states. Different perspectives will call the Wall. protective rampart still stands in some places in Berlin, where it is better known as the Berlin antifascist the German antifascism, of East nature aim. preventative the of As anartifact fascist state. Communism was claimed tobe a consequence, rather than the precipitant of this another preventing of interest in the solidified was Germany East of antifascism The (SED). of the Social Democrats (SPD) under soviet guidance,forming the Socialist Unity Party Both in Yugoslavia and in East Germany, antifascism was tied to communism. The disbanded communist party The disbandedcommunistparty and(KPD) wasrevived remnants combinedthe with Germany,East havingbeen by German or the Republic, occupied Democratic the 20 CEU eTD Collection subchapters in the subsequent chapter. in subchapters subsequent the willin respective beaddressed Stalinismstates their or in antifascist shapedthese particular, 21 CEU eTD Collection standardization or homogenization of antifascism and resistance in general. resistance and of antifascism homogenization or standardization state ideologies which espoused antifascism as their raison d'être is one which required the role. necessarily evident, its use as a legitimizing principle by elites plays a strong developmental of the individual, or of the greater population, a belief in oradherence to antifascism is not considerations suchas reconstruction,a stateapparatus. andbuilding Andlevel whileat the by formation practical are necessarily driven formation identity state corollary and Postwar Germany a portion divided from the former German state now occupied by the Western allies. somewhatdifferently, process occurred with Yugoslavia and state, anexpandedfederal East process of nationalistidentity formation, or reformation. In each newly formed country, this was transformed intoa positive state ideology. This forms one component in each nations' sense of common destiny.” Second, itprovides thecountry's nationalitiesnumerous with historical self-definition and a Partisan Myth. Its purpose is twofold. First, it ensures the leading role of the communists. writing in 1979 said of “Yugoslavia'sthis: isself-image based on what Ihave called the partisans, waspromulgated publicthrough remembrance of Ludanyi,heroes. antifascist Yugoslavia 17 Andrew“Titoist Ludanyi, Integration of Yugoslavia: ThePartisan &theHungarians Myth V-Identity Antifascist The gelling agentof antifascism,new nationhood, embodied by communistthe The transformation of the loose or specious antifascistelements during WWII to the In both and German In both the Yugoslav ideology of antifascism negative original cases,the 17 The distinction of myth, as opposed to ideology, is not trivial 22 CEU eTD Collection this downplay of communist centralism: communist of downplay this inpreserve communism cultivated federal to order moderate the was explains system. Sekulic communistleadership in East Germany or Poland, who had been groomed in Moscow. A which would hinge on Tito's independent acquisition of power, ascomparedpostwar to greatly explains theriftwhich developed between Stalin and Tito, themost cynicalview of 19 Duski “Nationalism Sekulic versusDemocracy: Legaciesof Marxism,” 18 225. Ludanyi, elections thusly: in national the postwar dimension describes of Sekulic itsnationalism. tolerance enshrine of establish character the Yugoslaviawas to communist dictatorship, aforced and than of those who still held strong national convictions. This federal, democratic approach, rather desires theconflictby federal the after immediately addressing thereby promising a structure, mandate victory,the of partisans wereabletogathersupportboth during antifascist and support which hadbeen arousedfor the partisans during warwas the evident. In addition to meaning that it did not reflect a total ideology, but rather a limited particular. The broad of is characteristics partisanship, and mass-movement equitable with negatively-defined the rational foundation.” on customs, traditions, folklore, and mores, many of which have a mystical rather than a intellectual than an ideology, but as a consequence has greater emotional appeal. It is based here, and Ludanyi takes care to explain this terminology thusly “A myth is less precise and of of the Vojvodina,-1975,” 1945 Journal ofPolitics, Culture, andSociety, The primary The primary of concern the Yugoslav Communistparty being national the question have would not been successful. of perspective new Yugoslavia Partisan free of Serbian the domination, movement perspective protecting the rights of all non-Serbian nations, while offering the Without in federal the therevolution. victory the offering for beThe samecan said dissatisfaction more than support of the social program of the Community party. During elections, postwar for votes the communists expressednational 18 The mythological as opposed to ideological strength of the movement Polity 19 , Vol.No. 2(Winter, 12, 1979): 283. Vol.No. 6, 1(Autumn, 1992):119. 23 International CEU eTD Collection Marxistinterpretation of antifascism as amethod of preventing a reoccurrence of fascism and legitimation, and the offering of national heroes. While strongly Germanystood behind a beeventual discussedto dissolution in chapter. following the nationhood or nationalism within the federal structure can be kept in mind as an omen of the of tolerance initial the Therefore, federalized. was party been caseasthe communist havethe to itself shown has opposite the structure, federal national the overcome to planned originally the Yugoslav government. And whileposition central ofleadership the communistthe was the independence from the Soviet Union,indicates a certain tolerance of nationalism within Moorthy,noted. death before the writingof Tito, helps toexplain irregularities: these and bloc itsduly is Soviet from divergences the also of Stalinist communism characteristic enemies. internal and external partisan combat, formal Yugoslav identity required the cohesion of the state againstboth device its enemy-status. through Due primarily violent the founding to state, the of through thusly vital to the preservation of the state, in the context of federalism,but also as a unifying 21 Krishna K. Moorthy, “Model Based onMyth.” 20 119.Sekulic, 30/32 Special Number1971): 1535. (Jul., However, nationalism remained aformal enemy of the new state. Nationalism was where communist. everywhere Itwasdefeated forthemovement. catastrophe political policy brought pursue revolutionary goals was immediately as condemned "leftdeviations." This background. The of attempts such some local leaders as Djilasin Montenegro to At the same time they were careful enough to push communism as a goal in to the The role of antifascism as a former of identity in Yugoslavia is largely limited to state by includingThe abandonment of tenets, internationalism,certain asevidenced Marxist break,the only after Yugoslavia’s from expulsion cominform.the improvised his version of Marxist theories – and so also Milovan Djilas – to justify and there allies were evolved after the break with Stalin and not before it. Kardelj mark which The characteristics the Yugoslavsdifferent asso out from Russians the economies planned centrally the from distinct notably was economy Yugoslavia’s 20 24 Economic andPolitical Weekly 21 , Vol. 6,No. CEU eTD Collection Chetniks. partisanship, the seats of two enemies of the partisans, the Croatian Ustasha, and the Serbian was additionally damaged by war,the andwhich included alongside thecenters of communist madeFederalism good practical sense in a united landwhoseunderdeveloped infrastructure identity. in the Yugoslav communism of ahead isstrongly ideology avague as antifascism than identities rather cosmopolitanism, national of distinct acceptance the aswell reason, as commercial enterprise is inconsistent with the basics of both Stalinism and Marxism. For this private for of borders openness the economy and of the privatization gradual least, the war,therefore Yugoslavia the purpose afederalfor of peace. To structure insteadadopted say and executed 17July 1946. was collaboration triedand crimesfor against civilians andChetniks collaborationist, accused purging remnants the of Chetniks,the and Mihailovic. executing Mihailovic asleader of the guilt inguilt Yugoslavia for wasreservedprimarily Croatians. in the new state. Rather than a guilty past shared by a widely complicit German population, or collaborationist, the Ustasha and Chetniks, and would need to be removed or rehabilitated movementmeant agenerally less complicitpopulace. Two groupswere condemned asfascist identify as perpetrators,certain groups thewide for and support participation in partisan the new leadership largely evaded the issue of a guilty past. And while both states were able to stereotyped understanding,for waspunished its Ustasha past through exploitationthe itsof much of the leadership, which embodied right-wing conservatism abroad. Croatia, in a self- Yugoslavia. Complicity of the Catholic Church has been attributed to the successful escape of in intoplace as they just restof what became had been the wereput councils their place, Yugoslav parallels de-Nazification includeto thefinalization of partisan hegemony by Unlike in East Germany,Unlike in East partisans of communist the Yugoslavia constituted the which Reincluding Croatia was eased by the flight of many high ranking Ustasha officials. In 25 CEU eTD Collection Role of the Holocaust” describes the holocaust as describes later theholocaust Rolethe founding Holocaust” the 'Europeanness' actof of the of occurrence another and violence.ethnic Probst's“Founding Lothar in Myths the Europe preventrather to but fascism, political of reoccurrence of forthe the prevention necessarily of horror andimplemented holocaust, measures not to the universally reacted were rather fascism, west and the antifascism between adichotomy than rather perpetuating of fascism. Therefore, components economic or political to the as opposed Nazi regime, convention, the West, and western Europe at large were more struck by the horrors of the Stalinist to comparable antifascism communist a pursued Germany East While Fascism. of identities of both East and West are strongly shaped by two distinct appraisals of the war and Germany system. the criticize to begin individuals these when 1907s in the appear only names Their 22 Brklja Maja government. Brklja new the of ranks the filled officials government Serbian fascist, and collaborationist hegemony in the form of the new state apparatus. As their wartime state apparatus had been economic resources, in supporting the less south,and developed subjection Serbian to 23 Brklja Society with the Croats. Serbian CPC members claimed that Serbs in Croatia did not enjoy equal rights (CPC) when they are put in the context of the 1950 protest in which several list with names of the Serbian members (!) of the Communist Party of Croatia anonymous, and we learn their names in special situations: we read, for example, a Communist Party of Croatia do not have exact names. They are to a great extent cultural project of communist theirin the own free will.participated Perhaps never this is why claims, the members narrative of the the intellectuals, Croatian As Germany was divided among the victorious allies after WWII, the emerging þLü , Vol.No. 1 17, (Fall, 2003): 47. , footnote 55. footnote , þLü “What Past Is Present?” Is Past “What þLü 22 describes theexclusion-as-punishment describes thusly: International Journal ofPolitics, Culture, and 26 23 CEU eTD Collection Germany against Russia. This portrayal positions the Soviet Union as,first, the necessary perspective,communist of both WWI aggression by by and WWII, imperialist characterized similarity,here mentioned tothe refers from interpretation the The historico-teleological note: Moretheoretically,German state. andGundermann East Diner of Soviet triumph became a legitimizing force, both of communism and of the soviet-style necessarily opposed by the leveling effects of Communism. Furthermore, the historical event industrial capitalism in producing such a militarized state, were, in East German doctrine, These circumstances,identified as the role of the small middle class, and the power of acknowledging the complicity of the people. Monteath summarizes this divergence: East Germany which attributes the ills of that regime to an ideological elite, without occupation zones, this perpetuated a vision of the fascist past in the Soviet zone, and later in three has in in zone than been argued tobemore extreme other Soviet the the Nazification Whilede- resistance. a amongcreate consensus wartime and to Nazi sympathies, of populace 25 Peter Monteath, “Narratives of Fascism in the GDR Buchenwald and the 'Myth of 24 See Lothar Probst, “Founding Myths in Europe and the Role of the Holocaust,” utilized by the EU. 26 Dan Diner and Christian Gundermann. “On the Ideology of Antifascism,” German Critique Antifascism,” Critique rather as a product but of a set phenomenon of circumstances German liable to arisedistinctively a as in not a capitalist system.interpreted is, that fascism, as been. In the German Democratic Republic, by contrast, Nazism was process andfraughthave Federal might the awkward that however Republic, of the socialist system and the historico-teleological interpretation of reality of interpretation connected withhistorico-teleological it.the and system socialist the of obsolete. Therefore, Soviet the Union's both victory thesuperiority corroborates obviously superior social formation over one which has become historically means not only the just outcome of a just war, but also the actual triumph of an From a communist or pro-communist perspective, the victory of Soviet weapons The Nazi past was The Nazi past As a unifying devicein Germany,East antifascism state both attempted cleanseto the , No. 67 , No. (Winter, 1996): 126. European Legacy 24 , No. 90, No. , Taboo, Trauma,45-58 Holocaust2003): (Autumn, 26 internalized . Vol.4,No.1 (1999): 99. - that is, integrated into the historical experience of experience into is, historical integrated the - that 27 universalized New German New 25 CEU eTD Collection state: strongly due to their proximity, shows that the wartime past was shaped by the ideology of the Ladd, focusing on public space,ideologies in particularly most Berlin competed where The portrayal of the war by Eastand Westis and was especially evidentin monuments. Brian nation was seen by the GRD to be a historical necessity in order to ensure peace in Europe. itself was renounced in the 1974 constitution of the GDR. simultaneously from responsibility of nationalism for the Nazi movement, the term 'nation' By way of distancing the EastGerman state from the previously unified Germany, and continues: order.” social of the Federal Republic, which was prone to a return of fascist rule because of its capitalist and Germany Hitler of both antithesis the be to itself understood Germany] [East profession, had supposedly produced the Nazis. As stated by Dan Diner, “due to this antifascist a fascism,susceptible to reappearance which of it understill functioned capitalist as the order industrial bourgeoisie which had driven militarism and expansionism. structure of the Third Reich,racial basedon purity, andpublic ownership stymied the hierarchical the to opposition in direct was individuals on effect equalizing communism's by imperialism embodiedNazi as capitalistGermany. to response Within new state, the product of WWI, and response toimperialism. And second, in WWII, as the necessary 30 29 Jarausch,H Konrad 28 Diner, 127. 27 Diner,127. AfterHitler, Brandon Hunziker. (Oxford:Oxford University 66.Press, 2006), situated situated Federalthe Republic in a logical and historical continuity with fascism. GDR and the "Third Reich"; on the other hand, Marxist-Leninistfascism theory development was the comparison - via the theory of totalitarianism between- the On the one hand, from the early Federal Republic's perspective, the apex of this perceive theFederal interpretation The communistto ascontinued Republic 27 National self-definition in contrast to the 'other Germany' was mutual. Diner 66. After Hitler: Recivilizing Germans, Hitler:Recivilizing 1945- After 28 29 The end of the unified German 1995. Translation by 28 30 CEU eTD Collection Mary Nolan, whose appraisal accepts even the most broad interpretation of of resistance: broad interpretation most even the appraisal accepts whose Mary Nolan, incompatibility. attempts onHitler,most notably 20July the was largelyplot, due ignored to their political within Wehrmacht circles assassination the forthenumerous conservative responsible of that Thearguably resistance, a heroicmoreby antifascist. productive labeled others) 1989,1971 spentto warimprisoned the as anda communist, thusly beclaimed (orwas to from Republic leader and of German Democratic SED of Honecker,the the general secretary Erich under revived Nazism persecuted antifascists. speak of, were andrelabeled communists resistance is problematic. In Germany, where there was no mass antifascistmovement to regime.However, of German issue the Nazi the over and German resistance troops Soviet by from achieved stemsvictory Germany in East heroic self-understanding the In contrast, government sponsored thissponsored government understandingvictimization: of from Eastern Europe at the war's end. Moeller, shows the extent towhich the West German under tyranny, the soldiers who suffered in Soviet POW camps, as well as Germans expelled 32 RobertG. Moeller, “War Stories: The Search for aUsable Pastin the Federal Republic of 31 Ladd Brian Germany,” A victimized self-understanding in the west included, beside the vision of a public living a public of vision the beside included, west in the self-understanding A victimized first government. first and Refugees War-Damaged of afterin the office creation the shortly Adenauer's Germans from the the of East" was formally"expulsion initiatedthe by document the Ministryto foreffort Expellees, A systematic period. postwar the of memories of POWs and expellees as sources for writing the "contemporary history" was also apparent in its sponsorship of two projects that sought to collect the andsuffering loss of German record tocreating adetailed commitment The state's West Germany was a land of victims, East Germany a land of heroes. and West reveal a divergence in attitude that goes beyond political programs. Differencesconquering heroes. in memorial iconography the in sculpture of East as not victims, suffering as others and them commemorated monuments its The west did link its identity to anti-Nazis such as the men of July 20, 1944. But The lack of resistancewidespread in has beennoted,mostGermany strikingly by The American Historical Review The AmericanHistorical The Ghosts of Berlin.The Ghosts of 32 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997),206. 29 , Vol.No. 4(Oct., 1996): 101, 1023. 31 CEU eTD Collection In this process, some were excluded groups differently or valued based on their connection to 35 Gregory Wegner,“In the Shadowofthe ThirdReich: andThe 'Jugendstunde' the 34 41. Nolan, 33 Mary Nolan,“Antifascism under Fascism: German Visions and Voices,” to be not merely members, but ideologues of the new antifascist state. This passage indicates the totality of this operation, through state control of a youth cultivated schools. Wegner, then Blessing have examined the extent of this socialization in schools: against war. Nazisduring the the fought had Army People's National own their that believed actually schoolchildren German East their heritage. Such was the separation of the Nazi past from the youth of the new state that public who was trained to believe the victory over fascism, rather than fascism itself, was German policy of remembrance, with Nazis and collaborationists severely punished, and a The reality of such a limited resistance in Germany was the problem addressed by the East communistsimprisoned and 20,000killed, their affect ontheNazi regime washardly felt. Whilereports Gestapo givenumbers exact of opponents,punished with an 150,000 estimated Critique Vol.No. 19, 1(Feb.,1996): 128. Legitimation of Anti-FascistHeroes forEast German Youth,” about their commitment to and readiness for democracy. to andreadiness commitment their about troubling about German questions the population's ties totheNazi regime and done by many from socialists latethe 1930s on - the numbers raised deeply as a term of moral approbation rather than of political designation - and that was indeed. Even if one extended the term antifascist toall opponents of Hitler, using it meager was aware, werepainfully antifascists asexiled of The record resistance, socialist society" in cooperation with the school and local community. strong and essential inelement preparationthe young peopleof for life in and work markingfascist thepassage education from youth represented "a to adulthood, anti- of dimension special a Jugendweihe, The country." the throughout problems schools" as "a national task and an example for the progressive for anddemocratic The Ministry creation Education of the described "anti-fascist solution of school Socialization in this new vision of heroic triumph over fascism was undertaken in On the inverse side of opposition was the official recognition of victims of fascism. , No. 67 (Winter, 1996): 41. 30 33 German Studies Review 35 New German , 34 CEU eTD Collection members formed a clear majority.” a members formed clear communists andnon-communists served on the VVN's Berlin by committee, 1948 SED originally formed by KPD.Monteaththe states: Whereas in 1946 roughly numbersequal of Those Persecuted by the Nazi by Nazi the Regime Persecuted Those Nazi tovictimsof terror. attributed value inmates.” communist-led by rather but soldiers by American not played was be stylized intoan act of bold self-liberation,in which the central role in overthrowing SS rule generally, communism demonstrate theconqueror fascism.as of inmates was drawn upon in order to justify the postwar leadership by communists, more position inof communists this operating instance, within Germany and uniting diverse guards to flee to safety.” presence of immediate Thuringia, asthe persuading through they troops advanced American describesMonteath this spurious interpretation as one which “Had much dowithto the much of as theracial enemies. therein, leadNazi as for persecution resistance communist execution important communists,of including Ernst Thälmann, exaggeratedly the and heroic formation. identity in accordance with their understanding of antifascism, used both as a political tool and one of victimsorganization German toward aptly of narrowing leadership's the display East attitudes of the Nazi camp Buchenwald, and the changing membership of a postwar victims discussion national The antifascism. communist namely state, the of ideology legitimizing the 36 Peter Monteath, “Narratives of Fascism in the GDR Buchenwald and the 'Myth of 39 Monteath, 102.39 Monteath, 104.38 Monteath, 104.37 Monteath, Antifascism,'” Another illustrative example is the changing membership of the Organization For Organization the of membership changing is the example illustrative Another While Buchenwald is acknowledged by the state, the reasons for doing so include the European Legacy 36 Yet in the creation of an antifascistmythology “These events could 39 . Vol.4,No.1 (1999): 104. Later, “under the influence of a wave of anti-Semitism (Vereinigung der Verfolgten desNaziregime) 31 38 This belies the different the belies This 37 The leadership or VVN, CEU eTD Collection formally, more extreme, East Germans could identify with a purified state distanced from from distancedformally, its identify Germans a purified could state with more East extreme, the themes of identity above, victor vs. victim. Where de-Nazification had been, at least feelings, while the left distanced itself decidedly from from nation.”itself the whiletheleft decidedly distanced feelings, number greater than in the west, where “only right-wing circles maintained affirmative factor.legitimizing a as communism of primacy the and victimization of politicizing the displaying for resistance and a representation as a victim in the VVN. His work, however, remains useful insofar bevalidity the of drawnbetween can asaconnection problematic, somewhat 20Julythe group. This makes distinction resistance-victim the inMonteath relationship incompatibility. Furthermore, their victimhood is not as correlative with wartime resistance as homosexuals, and Jehovah's Witnesses does not appear to originate in political communism. The exclusion of representatives of other victimized groups, such as Jews, movement was composed of primarily pre-war conservatives, totally incompatible with state VVN, their replacement by communists as of 1949 is quite predictable, as the 20 July in general. The issue of politicized memory is especially evident in the case below. ofselectiveelevation occurrence the than rather communists, group- is elevated the presently the West will be detailed in the section below, Failures of Antifascism. What is important unique of acknowledgement victims isnot German Eastthe to in Similarstate. occurrences Witnesses, persecuted by the Nazis, were also banned in the GDR as of 1949. the flight from the GDR of most Jewish functionaries in January 1953.” stemmingfrom Sovietthe Union, relationship the worsened in earlythe culminatingin1950s, 42 102.41 Monteath, 102.40 Monteath, After Hitler, Jarausch suggests that merely half of East Germans identified with the nation, a While members of the the 20 July group had originally occupied three seats of the 67. 32 42 This observation parallels observation This 40 Jehovah's Also, 41 Such selective Such CEU eTD Collection emerged,most notably in international context the of sport. pride. The popularity of inpride Germany among wider the population has only recently dark past,whereas the West hadstillcontend with to a guiltwhich peopledrove national from 33 CEU eTD Collection antithesis to communist antifascism, given its necessity in fascism. in necessity its given antifascism, communist to antithesis Central to the present examination is the theme of nationalism, positioned as a rough by antifascism, and whether these ideas are tied to a certain historical situation or temporality. scholarly sphere and in public discourse, to define exactly what is understood by fascism and the in inability an indicates itself terminology the of legacy The politics. right-wing new antifascism. Beyond this, the legacy of the fascist-antifascist dichotomy lives on, pushed by failure issueof state is successor the Thecentral narratives. and wartime both antifascist the to do with state antifascism, the disappearance of these states has allowed for areevaluation of characteristics, respectively. characteristics, implicit tolerance of nationalism, the reassertion of Croatian nationhood can be read with a perception humiliation of punishment or during the Yugoslav era, anddueto state's the victimsgreater-Serbianism. A of thenarrative of to is correlative in position Croatia aim freedomof from forces which would prevent the rise of nationalism. The anti-Yugoslav communistimplications. Todor Kulji its of weightthe carries antifascism and where anticommunism, state; multinational divisible into two positions: anti-Yugoslavia, where antifascism is equitable with the Breakup ofYugoslavia 43 Todor Kulji VI- The End ofState-Antifascism berlin.de/antirassismus/archiv/54kuljicen.html Antifascism.” and Antifascism Decretory The reactions to antifascismThe reactions to in contextthe of breakupof the Yugoslavia aregenerally While of communism processes forthe European disintegration have little ornothing ü , “Revised Remembrance on Fascism in Serbia and Croatia. Between 43 Importantly, and necessarily, both reactions have the ultimate ü assigns the Croatian and Serbian positions these http://www.zag- 34 CEU eTD Collection totality of their education in state antifascism is in described: state totality their education of moreover, it had no single narrative of the war which had ultimately divided them. The great obstacles in reunification. After 1989,themixed population hadsinglenoidentity, but Yugoslavia.” forbid anyalliancesbetweenformer Yugoslav countries reformation and the of any “Great- Yugoslav identity,most strikingly evident in the clause of the Croatian constitution which process.the Theirs was a newly individual identity,intentionally from distanced unifiedthe the past with western interpretations, while Croatia, Slovenia, or Serbia were without peers in explain this phenomenon, insofar as East Germany was able to reconcile its interpretation of and state formation. In some sense, the differences between reunification and division may history of antifascism, particularly the role of the communist partisans in national liberation while 1989, of dissolution the Yugoslavia hascreated new shared representing problems of the in in Germany hasbeen since reunification Nazi revised the portrayal East of past politicized of the past has implications in the understanding of the present. Interestingly, however, the As ithas been shown in the twocases, EastGermany and Yugoslavia, that the monopolization Reunification ofGermany Reunification 44 Brklja narrative:’ degree of vindictiveness. Brklja enhanced their striving toward the ultimate goal theultimate goal enhancedhistory-- their nation-state. of the toward their striving only but people Croatian the weaken not did however, repression, and Humiliation onlybasically one, real/imaginedwere and"others" opposed OtherThese of century. the Croatian nation--twentieth the the Serbs. throughout others by repressed The constructed self-image of the Croatian nation portrays Croats as humiliated and As referenced in chapter V,in chapter As referenced in GRDcreated the reeducation antifascist totality of the þLü , 48. , þLü offers the following, paraphrasing the 'prevailing 35 44 CEU eTD Collection of such issues as fascism and war guilt in this interaction. in this guilt war and legacy fascism as the issues of such of demonstration a as remains connection obvious the conspirological, somewhat The limited of scope such neofascist supportshould indicate this be position to atleast materiel,is of symptomatic a continuedfascist sympathy membersin of German government. to suggest German that tosupport,inwillingness moneygeneral, and through and war groups of the Croatian far right. Martin Lee, who describes this collaboration goes as far as in neofascist groups and sponsorshipthe Croatia by neofascist Germany propagated German soldiers had been present in World War II.” whereGerman in in countries participate operations not army should German rulethe the that consider force aquasi-normal instrument of Governmentpolitics... Policy was determined by 47 Libal,106. Yugoslavia.” of German's own potential military role, both in general and with regard to the crisis in independenceuse offorce against alsosheds republicsseeking the lighton issuea certain the of force in international diplomacy. Libal describes how “This almost visceral aversion to the relevant to the present work. First, warguilt was evident as a limiting factor in German use 46 Michael Libal, 45 Wegner,128. (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1997),106. Second, as will be continued in the subsequent chapter on neofascism, a link between link a neofascism, on chapter subsequent in the be continued will as Second, Germany'sin involvement the Yugoslav crisis in and1991 1992contains twothemes Ernst Thalmann Pioneers ...and the Free German Youth. camps andmuseums youth along with organizations including,among others, the public media, an elaborate network of historical memorials,decades. former Schools concentration in the GDR participated in this process along with the family, campaignelaborate in history for both adults and children over aperiod fourof legacy built of the of an on the becamepart Third anti-fascism" Reich sanctioned concerted efforts of the East German government toframe a program of "state- ideology and the system of political socialization organized by the GDR. The The collapse of the East German state in 1989 symbolized the utter failure of an 46 Hecontinues, “Germany certainly expressed afundamental unwillingness to Limits ofPersuasion: Germanyandthe Yugoslav Crisis,1991-1992 47 36 45 . CEU eTD Collection postwar antifascism. postwar of climate the and anti-imperialism post-colonialism, between the connection demonstrated identity. national their is disposal their at attempt now to distance themselves people fromwhen the officialThus ideological universe, the only positive referenceidentification. point social of points most dismantled and society of reaction to the long years of Communist Party rule which have destroyed the traditional fabric The present outbursts of nationalism in post-socialist eastern European countries are a this resurgence aremany varied, Selecland butRenata offers thusly: a basicframework which exhibit the racist extremism and even symbols of past fascist regimes. The reasons for fall of the Berlin Wall has allowed for a resurgence in nationalism, the most extreme forms of extreme, has three important implications for the legacy of antifascism. successors of Yugoslavia and EastGermany, the reemergence of nationalism, both benign and the advantages of union, as described by Jarausch. In the countries in focus here, the or Yugoslavia,nationalism that and thedesire distinctfor or nationhood was pursued despite which had previously been encompassed within a multinational state such as Sovietthe Union areclear, components a newis foridentity newly namely nation needed that emergent states 49 Hobsbawm,Eric Rondald GSuny, 48 Renata Salecl,“Nationalism, Anti-Semitism, and Anti-Feminism in Eastern Europe,” Nationalism Post-Soviet German Critique Soviet Union (Cambridge: Cambridge University 1990) Press, The decline European of communism, evidenced by breakup the of Yugoslavia and the Suny offers a post-colonial analogy for the former Soviet Union, and Hobsbawm has First, the continued existence of fascist elements speaks to the failure of the antifascist (Stanford: Stanford University 1993) Press, The Revengeofthe Past: Nationalism, Revolution, andtheCollapse of the , No. 57 (Autumn,, No. 51. 1992): 49 Nations andNationalism Since1780:Programme, Myth,Reality Whatever the mechanism for this reemergence of nationalism, two 48 37 New CEU eTD Collection Yugoslavia, beginningin illustrates 1980s,the the failure of SFRYthe in achieving its goal of states. in antifascist careers their continued have regimes infascist implicated extremist rhetoric and symbolism. In the most radical, though isolated cases,individuals the former Soviet Union,is that they have direct historical progenitors to draw upon for in unlike in danger fascism in countries, the nationalism of a reemergence extreme these or transition from fascism communism,to such as Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia. Therefore and could be considered generally by including other stateswhose history includes the pasts, respectively. This is due to the historical occurrence of fascism within these countries, of the success of de-Nazification or dealing with the Ustasha (and perhaps Chetnik), and Nazi remainedfascism a In oppose. to YugoslaviaGermany,East and an equates this assessmentto whether East German of Yugoslav antifascism has failed is tied to the issue of whether there of The question tooppose. which fascism identifiable aclearly yet remained there sentiments, pact. During the war, antifascism was conflated with resistance, anti-occupation and anti-war Hitler-Stalin of the the war, particularly due to outbreak the before era subsided well Front that antifascism has failed. But whose antifascism? The vague antifascism of the Popular a dissatisfaction with a state whose legitimacy is so tied to antifascism: anti-antifascism. is tothe argumentimportant seentoemerge aninteresting anti-relationship work, from of this antifascism, theissue raising of possibilitythe nationalistof antifascism. Third, andmost WWII, nationalist groups have sought tocloak their social and political aims in terms of program, especially de-Nazification. Second, due to the prevalence of antifascism after Failures of Antifascism Failures Even where direct connections are absent, the success of nationalism in politics in in nationalism thesuccess politics of areabsent, connections directEven where Given the reappearance of extreme rightism and neofascist groups, itcould be groups, said neofascist and of rightism extreme reappearance Given the 38 CEU eTD Collection government functionaries. government which Serbia occupied in Yugoslavia, possessing land the greatest area,and themajority of less likely toidentify as Yugoslavs. This canbeattributed to therelative position of power dramatically, Serbia. rates of Yugoslav identification withamongparents those Croat in most andBosnia, Yugoslav identity as a defensive strategy for of note: The concept Sekulic minorities. national protect for capacity its to minor acceptance religion. The existence of a Yugoslav identity, at least on census forms, did achieve some continued toidentify as the nationality of their titular republic, or, where applicable, by displays,andsuch as token the Yugoslav mostcitizens team,Olympic of Yugoslavia assert had nationalism tothat of wrong reappeared. from unity, claims Aside propagandistic level, state the the and small proportion individualsof identifying as'Yugoslav',itwould be unity and gradual centralization. Based on both the leniency showed toward nationalism at 52 Konrad Jarausch, “The Failure of EastGerman Antifascism: Some Ironies of History as 51 for oldnew cliches.” phrases ideological as they had“simply substituted Germany state,Eastthe little at through their reforming publicidentity,accomplished attempt fascism aspects of Jarausch notes its due that, by-products. to and of totalitarian nature the issue of nationalism, can be attributed to its inability dealto with the racial and humanist 50 Sekulic, Dusko, Garth Massey, and Randy Hodson, “Who Were the Yugoslavs? Failed in present.” the police state Honecker's of thethreat Erich failed tocriticize GDRhistorians most in past, menace the upon Nazi from the sameauthor,“Fixated the this criticism: thesis totalitarian the provides Vol. 59, No. 1 (Feb., 1994): 95. Politics,” After Hitler, Sources of a Common Identity in theFormer Identity Yugoslavia,”a Common of Sources The failure of antifascism in East Germany is,in addition to its inability addressto the As introduced earlier,As introduced in V, chapter the materialist bytheprevailing causes ascribed German Studies Review 57. 50 Serbians, however, even those living outside Serbia, were found to be 52 , Vol. 14,No. 1 (Feb., 1991): 86 minority nationalities 39 American Sociological Review is supported by higher 51 In an earlier article anearlier In , CEU eTD Collection notes the deficiencies which have resulted from the East German portrayal of fascism: Third Reich. East Germany did not widely discuss the Holocaust until the 1980s. Jarausch Marxistideology were insensitive to the pernicious racial politics which characterized the with following:the norms ofinterpretation became a political act.In Western Europe, themethis is evidenced from accepted the divergence types, general and western eastern these between politicized 55 Michel Wieviorka, “Racism, the Extreme Right, and Ideology in Contemporary France: 54 1017. Moeller, German53 96. East Antifascism”, of “The Failure into atrocities Jews.” of the massextermination the Socialist National collapse to and anti-Semitism with exclusively persecution following from Moeller: exclusions “These revealeda West Germantendency equateracial to forcedhomosexuals, laborers, who and those had undergone forcedsterilization, provokes the Roma, the West notably social categories, of number persecuted German of a avoidance remarks. concluding chapter's final in the be continued will argument This fascism. and racism their skirting of official doctrine, had gone unaddressed despite the intuitive links between but the oversight, on the part of the East German antifascistmechanism, issues which, by In Western Europe during the late 1960s, neither racism,nor anti-Semitism, nor the (on university(on campuses). physically even and politically them opposed and concern for cause a movements right the extreme left, which was very active at the time, considered the existence of extreme- with in discussions about European societies. However,in several European countries, be reckoned force to an organizing constituted as apolitical phenomena right extreme This quote corroborates not only the distinct western and eastern opinions of the past, population. the of majority the of racism and collaboration authoritarian in the behavior hommagefailed toanantifa consensus [sic] fascistoid toextirpate roots the of clearer publiccommitment toanti- values Nazi andpractices. Butritualized In contrast to western tendencies to forget and excuse, the GDR started with a Conversely, and as an extension of the 'Holocaust identity' theory advanced by Probst 53 55 54 As the interpretations of the pasthad become 40 CEU eTD Collection antifascist stance by Hitler stanceantifascist by that wasagun-control claiming proponent. militias haveincludedAmerican Jewsandextreme-right minorities, and ethnic “affected an fascist,”-- announced the formation of “an Anti-Fascist Patriotic Center” in1995. of“an Center” Patriotic formation announced the Anti-Fascist fascist,”-- backed by Boris Mironov, quoted as saying “If Russian nationalism is Fascist, then I'm a wider appeal. Lee gives several examples, including a group of Russian ultranationalists-- masks and thus turn antifascism intoa relative category.” needs. Various nationalistic currents (Chetniks, Domobrans, etc.) are putting on antifascist antifascism has been recognized asEurope’s patriotism,is hastobe adjusted tosuitnational Yugoslavia, adopted the antifascistlabel. Kulji holocaustidentity described above, emerging political most movements, notably in whether from the legitimizing principle of national resistance, communist antifascism, or the should be seen as lacking, at leastin beshould at seen aslacking, wider discourse. the detection and evaluation of both the fascist past and new incarnations of extreme rightism andtherefore biased, be seen as observer. should tendencies and eastern western Thus,both 58 390. Lee, 57 390. Lee, 56 Kulji Weitz, (New York: Palgrave,219. 2004), In Innovation?” Continuum or Antifascism? Nationalist Clearly the perception of a extremistmovements is shaped by the politics of the Such an antifascist posturing is clearly false, yet it has, as mentioned above, allowed Elsewhere,groups have neofascist adoptedthelabel, in presumably an gaineffort to Because antifascism had become something of a European identity war, the identity after of a European becomehad something antifascism Because ü Fascism andNeofascism 41 ü warns of this development “However, since , ed. Angelica Fenner and Eric D. 56 58 57 Similarly, CEU eTD Collection the criticisms offered above byKulji criticisms above the offered Hobsbawm do set the stage for national communism in Yugoslavia, yet remain vulnerable to Ustashaera, as front The nationalisms. of popularthe described antifascisms national by during WWII,wherein emerged partisans the victorious more over the traditional Chetnik and comprehensive social program. It can be seen as the victor of the intra-Balkan civil war criticisms may indicate the limitation of Yugoslav antifascism a to mere myth, rather than a deny equality humanof beings.” that ideologies all fight alsonarrow-minded against but the forces, tooccupation resistance Kulji manipulation of their image own through terminology. This issueis poignantly by stated extremist groups to sneak the through definitionsoutdated of worrisome by politics a communism or 'the state' as the embodiment of authority, and rather against the idea of However,againstideological anti-relationship. of not the practice directing opposition intent an creating the of with acted consciously or component of this wereaware movements Importantly, as a relationship between ideologies, it is unlikely that participants in nationalist equivalentto pro-fascism, asthe former remains anegatively defined, particularideology. not is anti-antifascism that distinguish to important is It implications. in its troublesome perspective, anti-antifascism is more vague even than antifascism, and much more rhetoric in Yugoslavia's founding andlegitimacy ismost strong. From ideologicalan Anti-antifascism 59 Kulji ü “Can a nationalist be an antifascist at all? Hardly, if antifascism implies not only armed only not implies if antifascism Hardly, all? at antifascist be an anationalist “Can This curious platform is most evident in the former antifascist Yugoslavia, former in as the the evident most is platform This curious While Yugoslavia's national becommunism can criticized such grounds, on these ü 59 ü . 42 CEU eTD Collection and ethnic violence are of and areof violence samethe ethnic whichinterwar that kind Europe. as plagued ultranationalism of manifestations current whether the as to Yet,disagreement is some there connotation of a mere interlude between periods of fascism. of between mereperiods of interlude become has a connotation fascism After all, may antifascism the Europe fascism's ininterwaremergence postwar of give circumstances Neofascism of partisan retaliation against surrendered collaborationists. against of partisan retaliation 60Kulji partisans as heroic antifascists. Kulji therein. identity of rebuilding the construct which can be applied to the events surrounding the collapse of antifascist states and in of nationalism.it reemergence necessarily is not Rather, the causal radical isantifascism than a similar platform which identifies itself positively as nationalist orneofascist. Anti- madehypothesis inIV,chapter thisthat more formation would rather readily support, gather caseof (in the Germany). namely war, occupation, then socialism or federalism (in the case of Yugoslavia) ordivision much so ideological systems of effects as the these, those in oppose as neither practice insofar anti-antifascism, and antifascism between similarities the underline does antifascism The historical similarities between the rise of neofascism after 1989 and the and lay defeated quislingsa wreath to in Bleighburg. Ex- communists remembrance. are of those who advocateculture introductionchanged this of a Ravna Gora medal orchestrate of who honor those are - antifascists enlightening as totalitarian. Cynically, ex-communists - today’s new anti- and necessary,historically European hadbeenrational, whatever progressive, of renouncement implies that antifascism of denial exclusivity: conspicuous A decretory historical picture has been all of sudden replaced by an even more State State revisionism in Serbiahassought to elevate Chetniksthe toaposition beside the Furthermore, as anti-antifascism remains negatively defined, it would follow from the ü : Ravna Gora: the'birthplace' : RavnaGora: of Bleiburg: WWIIthe Chetnik movement, location the ü describes the profound shift: 43 60 CEU eTD Collection number appear small, their Croatian counterparts, the HOS, numbered fifteen fifteen thousand. numbered the HOS, counterparts, small, theirCroatian appear number being revived during 1990sin the Yugoslavia. of portrait the bearing Ante Paveli wore high collared black uniforms andblack berets of Ustashathe style, their uniform buttons private militia, “credited with putting up a better fight that Croatia's official combat units,” France, Great Britain, Austria, Spain, Portugal, and the United States.” volunteers as “two hundred neo-Nazis from Germany... joined by right-wing extremists from nationalist revival,neofascism, and the reuse of symbols. Martin Lee describes these the radical Croatian Defense Association (HOS) during the 1990s, ties together the themes of fighting alongside neo-Nazi international volunteers of that example, striking One particularly of in neofascism. hidden nature the identifiable above,are factors two as stated neofascism dichotomy. fascist-antifascist the within well neofascism position factors not dominate national politics or shape public orforeign policy. With this caveat, anumber of newer extreme-right or neofascistmovements are in most cases small,fringe groups which do these that fact in the primarily lies difference This fascism. wartime or prewar than differently muchin andindeed Europe, dichotomy Western Eastern fit fascist-antifascist into the Europe, 63 incarnationsFor ofChetnikimagery, and Ustasha see Cathie Carmichael, E 62 297. Lee, 61 297. Lee, offormal years despite condemnation. this problematic antifascistregime leaves in Europe asituation of nationalism unresolved consequence of Soviet geopolitics and humanitarian revulsion toward fascism. The end of the baseline as a positive ideology, after which the reactionary antifascism had prevailed as a Routledge, 2002) in theBalkans : Nationalismand the Destruction of Tradition The continuity of symbols and individuals, as well as the mask of antifascism, in antifascism, of mask asthe well as individuals, and symbols of continuity The The extreme forms of nationalism which had emerged after the breakup of communist ü . This is just one of many examples past fascist symbols many past . This examples of is justone 63 44 , (London andNew , (London York: 61 Andwhilethis thnic Cleansing 62 This CEU eTD Collection the Fascist states of pre-WWII, as theirs were not militant parties who later entered into with incompatibility their indicates Paxton control. state in nationalism radical of examples Milosevic, and his Croatian counterpart Tudjman, as well as Haider are among the best seemed appropriate recognizewhen it seemed appropriate appears.” to afunctional equivalent Milosevic adds nothing an to explanation of how his rule was established andmaintained,it Speaking of Milosevic, he notes “While pinning the epithet dichotomy. fascist-antifascist the into back movements right-wing extreme and neofascism immigration Paxtonsentiment. raises the issue of 'functional thereby equivalence', bringing feature of radical rightist groups, most notably in the form of an anti-immigrant oranti- chauvinistic militarism have waned as objectives, ethic or racial scapegoating remains a itallexists at adifferentanymore, must take form. While territorial and expansionism measures. protection of 'European cultural identity' and economic prosperity anti-immigrantthrough And while anti-Semitism in remains somegroups, neofascist new policies include the manifestations, notes: current fascism interwarand between of continuity the Martin Lee, convinced fascist regimes. 65 Paxton, 190.65 Paxton, 64 389. Lee, For fascist symbols in football hooliganism, see Ivan (New York:Palgrave, 2004), 19-42 in Ex-Yugoslavia.” In Given the different shape of neofascism and radical rightism, antifascist opposition,if conceived. justify Hitler and the fascist dictatorships of the past were futile and ill- the more astute theoreticians of the European New Rightunderstood that efforts to fascism.swastika,the on image of fixated nostalgics While neo-Nazi historical success agreat hinged extent to on their ability distanceto from themselves the movements have emerged under aunique set of circumstances. Ironically, their neofascist today's years, interwar the to definite parallels are there Although Less perceptible neofascist arethose groups whodoinvoke not symbolismthe past of 64 Fascism andNeofascism 45 , ed. Angelica Fenner and Eric D. Weitz, û olovi fascism ü , “Football, Hooligans, and War upon upon odious the 65 The rule of CEU eTD Collection disenchanted by the theme of antifascism due to its conflation with a despised political entity. dangerous existence ofxenophobia and mayracism, insucceed mobilizing a population Yugoslavia. Even a rephrasing of the need to oppose radical rightist politics and the anti-communismcognates andanti-Yugoslavism, hascondemnedantifascism the past of itsstated besides antifascism. As anti-antifascism, in ithas section, beendescribed above the of oppressive antifascist states such as East Germany, would create a negative perception of situation contains a hidden benefit,in that the past manifestations of antifascism,in the form theoretical definitions. Where 'fascism' does notexist, antifascism wouldtoo be absent. This from the totalitarianism associated with the fascism of Mussolini and Hitler. elections after their ascendancy. Functionally equivalent fascism simply requires a divorce coalition with majority parties in order to gain control, nor did their parties prevent free new form of supranational antifascism is needed. limiter of radical politics, the few examples of right-wing electoral success may suggest that a Reluctance to identify extreme right groups as fascist is justified, based on ispast basedon asfascist justified, groups identify right to extreme Reluctance While a vibrant democratic culture has presumably shown itself to be a satisfactory 46 CEU eTD Collection defined ideology,defined andmore accurately,myth, a asdescribed above. as ita negatively was atbest predecessors, its prewartheoretical with largely incomparable is formation this concept that has shown in identity aframework postwar as antifascism Using ignored. were definitions narrow these escaped which movements rightist Therefore fascism hadnot beenundertaken. of reappraisals extent that tothe becomehad entrenched capitalism, imperialist to opposition defined anegatively or myth founding a simple as either racism, and xenophobia. Most importantly, the long legacy narrowlyof defined antifascism, nationalism, as such issues on policy state issues, other among in understanding, important address of address of humanitarian issues by stifling democracy, as explained by Jarausch: public understanding and scholarship, EastGermanthe version of antifascism hindered the of war.the consequences in Both humanitarian the of awareness European as well as broader haspolarized politics, evidently obstaclescreated intheforging identity, of a unified German essentially humanitarian issues, genocide, treatment of POWs, and state control, in the era of war resulted in a politicized set of victims and heroes. Such politicization of what are politicized past is especially evident between East and West Germany, whose appraisals of the they were unable toadapt to new forms of rightism, whether explicitly fascist or not. The wherein inaposition them left fascism, wartime of event historical the to but chauvinism, and nationalism roots in of to the extreme not response coalesced antifascism state That has by fascistpast beenobfuscated maneuvering of each sideagainstthe political other.the relationship, namely that within this binary system, the center ground of even appraisal of the VII –Conclusion One element emerges from the retrospective analysis of fascist-antifascist of the analysis retrospective from the emerges One element prejudice can the anti-Nazi imperative once again become an ethical basis of basis become again once of anethical a freeimperative anti-Nazi can the prejudice incisive scholarship. Only if againstevery generalized kind of repression and itsinstrumentalization SED kept it from fostering ademocratic morality and an Although antifascism was an admirable reaction to the disasters of the Third Reich, Within the cold war dichotomy, antifascism is evident as a meta-narrative which is which a meta-narrative as is evident antifascism dichotomy, war cold the Within 47 CEU eTD Collection found itself on both sides of the moral coin. No longer can even plain language usage convey stating: Hamas, on statements Benn's 2009 published article an entitled“The anti-anti-fascist” on British Labour politician Tony instead usetheloaded-terms as judgments, as had journalist Melanie Phillips,in who March in discussions of Israel. While East German relations with Israel could be noted, journalists invoked been even has theater, eastern middle in the exists it as dichotomy fascist-antifascist The benefits of 'antifascism'. moral toreapthe attempted such fascists, against administration instance, fascism asit in occurs 'islamo-fascism',is usedpejoratively. Bush, by hispositioning its ideological underpinnings. previous chapter, even plain language use of the term has become problematic, not to mention Especially considering the mask of antifascism worn by nationalists, as described in the forms, demonstrates the need for continued sensitivity and decoding of these terms. ideological meaningaswell their state- as or from both their conceptual been have divorced the extreme right, but the longevity of fascism and antifascism as value statements which in movements equivalent' 'functionally of only not continuation the of recognition a However, by outspoken antifascists, acquirednegative those reputation YugoslaviaGermany. andEast 67 “The Anti-Anti-Fascist,”Melanie Phillips, 66 96. Jarausch, http://www.spectator.co.uk/melaniephillips/3421586/theantiantifascist.thtml reflection honest about requires the Germany contribution in East bearings of scholarship intellectual of loss to its The deformation. culture. civic However, as it has been shown in the case of Yugoslavia's breakup, 'antifascism' has He is man.a wicked means... So much for the supposed anti-fascist. Benn is nota national treasure. seeking todefenditself such against an organisation by legal and proportionate Israel and the killing of every Jew, and wants Israel boycotted altogether for an destruction of committed So Bennendorses to the explicitly organisation For judgments. of as value termsthese function language occurrences Such plain The lasting value of antifascism as a program of action has been damaged by the 67 48 66 CEU eTD Collection of the future.” one whomonopolizes interpretation of pastthe controls the presentand [imposes]the image authorities, as a rule, filter the past that is useful from the angle of hegemonic ideologies. The 68 Kulji of a state monopoly on historical representation. Kulji WWII historiography. post to iscentral dichotomy fascist-antifascist the sentiment, public and ideology between understanding relationship, this indicatedits and problems andfailures. As an intersection for haspathways The the created present meaning. work all lost to have intelligible relationship, and the evolution of this dichotomy, especially after the Cold War, and it seems an single meaning. Add to theideologicalthis complexities of fascist-antifascist the The manipulation of meaning of valuethese laden terms is only one dangerous result ü 68 49 ü offers a final warning, “Incumbent CEU eTD Collection Heilbrunn, Jacob. “Germany's New Right.” “Hungary,Johana.Granville, 1956: The Yugoslav Connection.” Gellner, Ernest. Jarausch, Konrad H. Cambridge: University Cambridge Press, 1990. Hobsbawm, Eric. 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