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Ideology and Politics of Dimitrije Ljotić and the ZBOR Movement

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Ideology and Politics of Dimitrije Ljotić and the ZBOR Movement Ideology and Politics of Dimitrije Ljotić and the ZBOR movement Christian Kurzydlowski Thesis submitted to Goldsmiths College, University of London, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 1 Declaration of Originality I, Christian Kurzydlowski of Goldsmiths, University of London, being a candidate for Doctor of Philosophy, hereby declare that this thesis and the research presented in it are my own work. Signed Date 2 Abstract The main focus of this thesis focuses on deconstructing and analysing the evolution of the different aspects of Dimitrije Ljotić’s ideological formation to show its relationship to his ZBOR movement and its development until his death in 1945. Ljotić’s ideological development and expression would show a marked syncretic and contradictory nature. This contradiction and incoherence stymies any definitive classification and categorisation of his politics. This creates difficulties in attempting to place ZBOR as a specific mono-ideological movement. This problem of categorisation will be reinforced through identifying and deconstructing the ideology of Ljotić and his ZBOR movement. It also will look at pre-existing ideological discourses that contributed to Ljotić’s ideas, including those of a wider European context of existing anti-democratic, anti-modernist, monarchist, and nationalist currents. The ideological and intellectual course of Ljotić, personified through the existence of ZBOR will be discussed in order to analyse the evolution of his ideology, and to understand the different influences contributing to his ideology as a basis for evaluating ZBOR as a movement. This analysis raises a number of questions. What contextual trends, if any, does the man, his philosophy, and movement represent, and how did they impact political life in interwar Yugoslavia? Where was ZBOR in relation to similar radical right, and fascist movements throughout interwar Europe, and to what extent are they parallel with each other? What was the nature of ZBOR’s ideology and what were its major influences? A more thorough approach to answer these questions, and indeed to ZBOR, is needed (a) because the subject has not been particularly well-explored among historians (especially in English language historiography) and (b) because of the rise of nationalist ideology and rhetoric in post-socialist Serbia. Through this thesis, the gap in literature regarding the evolution of Ljotić’s ideology, in relation to both the non-fascist radical right and the various definitions of fascism will be explored. This will show that Ljotić’s ideological and intellectual base, while possessing similarities to fascism, also showed differences, allowing for greater ambiguity in interpretation, as evidenced through among others, the terminology of ‘generic fascism’, as defined by Roger Griffin and Stanley Payne. The main contribution of this study to literature is the detailed deconstruction and analysis of the evolution of Ljotić’s ideology and its relevance or relationship to his ZBOR movement. ZBOR will be shown as syncretic, incoherent, and at times contradictory. This thesis provides in-depth discussion of both the political development of Ljotić as a personality, and the development of ZBOR as a movement in relation to Ljotić’s ideology and European trends. Thus, providing an analysis on the ideology of Ljotić and ZBOR with the use of the elements of both political biography and intellectual historical analysis, as represented by Ljotić and ZBOR. The study will show that Ljotić’s ideologies and ZBOR are inevitably interrelated with each other, and linked with a wider pre-fascist ideological and intellectual current. While focusing on Ljotić and ZBOR, this thesis places him and his movement in the wider context of interwar Yugoslavia and interwar Europe with discussions of a wider context of relevant theories. In contrast to other studies that included ZBOR and/or Ljotić, this thesis is different in the sense that the ideological evolution of Ljotić is discussed and analysed, with a focus on the interwar life of ZBOR, rather than relying on ZBOR’s collaborationist stance during the Second World War, as a means of explaining its ideological evolution. 3 4 Table of Contents Declaration of Originality 2 Abstract 3 Introduction 9 Literature Review 17 Marxist ideology and fascism 19 Non-Marxist Approaches to Fascism and a ‘limited consensus’ 21 Generic Fascism and the beginnings of consensus of Fascism 23 Fascism in Yugoslavia, Yugoslav Fascism, or Fascism in the Balkans? 29 The Five Stages of Fascism 37 Summary 40 Chapter 1: Outline of Ljotić’s life and ideological development 44 Introduction 44 Ljotić’s early ideological formation: Christianity and the Army 46 Russian Philosophy, Slavophiles, and Christianity 46 Ljotić and the Slavophiles 50 Ljotić and Tolstoy’s interpretation of Christianity 54 The Second Balkan War 56 France: Ljotić, Pascal 57 Ljotić, Maurras, and the Action Française 61 Ljotić and the First World War 67 Ljotić, Valois, the path of least resistance, and the nature of authority 68 Conclusion 71 Chapter 2: Ljotić’s thought in a wider European context 76 The Action Française: Origins and Thought Development 78 Charles Maurras: Art and Politics as Aesthetics 79 Democracy as an evil 82 Ljotić on democracy 84 Maurras’ Monarchism 87 The ‘Foreigner’ in Maurras’ conception of Monarchy and Social Order. 90 Ljotić’s concept of the Monarchy 93 Societal (Re)- Organisation 95 Ljotić’s concept of corporatism and social organisation 96 Conclusion 99 Chapter 3:Ljotić’s formation of ZBOR and the development of its ideology 105 Ljotić as Minister of Justice 109 5 Towards the foundation of ZBOR 112 ZBOR 117 ZBOR – Beginnings of an organisation 119 The Ideology of ZBOR in the context of Yugoslavist thought 120 ZBOR and democracy 127 ZBOR: Anti-capitalism and corporative social organisation 132 ZBOR’s Corporatism and social organisation 139 Urban industrial workers 144 Youth 146 Women 149 Anti-communism and anti-Semitism? The makings of a Nazi movement? 151 Conclusion 160 Chapter 4: ZBOR: organisation and activity in political life. 1935-1940 162 ZBOR’s organisational structure and membership 163 The General Secretariat 168 ZBOR’s organisational sub-divisions 169 Organisational model 173 Membership 173 ZBOR and the electoral process 179 ZBOR’s electoral results 184 ZBOR: Repression and accusations of Fascism 186 ZBOR and the ‘Technical Affair’ 187 ZBOR: Repression and Violence 191 Stojadinović fights back 193 Repression and accusations of fascism linked? 196 ZBOR and accusations of Fascism 198 ZBOR’s banning and concluding remarks 204 Chapter 5. Ljotić, ZBOR, Collaboration and the Second World War 208 ZBOR and the build-up to war 208 War from a ZBOR perspective 217 Invasion of Yugoslavia: ZBOR and Ljotić 219 Ljotić: The Beginnings and Justification of Collaboration 223 Ljotić and ZBOR: Collaboration and the balancing of relations 230 Ljotić and Nedić 236 Ljotić and ZBOR: Increased fascist mutation and Mihailović 240 ZBOR, the SVC and the Holocaust 245 6 Ljotić and ZBOR: Regional cleavages: Smederevo and Čačak 251 Čačak 256 A Different ZBOR 258 Conclusion 265 Bibliography 286 7 8 Introduction Dimitrije Ljotić has been labelled ‘fascist’ and ‘saviour’, ‘hero’ and ‘villain’. His uncompromising anti-communism, outspoken nationalism, and collaboration with the Nazis has earned him, according to a large portion of Yugoslav historiography and contemporary Serbian historiography, a place in the ‘fascist’ camp.1 Amongst contemporaries in interwar Yugoslavia he was, as will be shown, decried as a fascist from opponents on both the left and the right. However, some of those who held the opinion of Ljotić as a fascist also admired what they perceived to be his honesty and patriotism.2 The legal codification of Ljotić as a fascist and collaborator according to the decrees of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia’s 5th Party Congress in early 1948, defined collaboration as any help rendered to the occupier. This definition was based on the newly constituted Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s official Marxist interpretation of history, and condemned Ljotić as a traitor.3 This view on treason and collaboration was countered in France, where a dichotomy arose between a collaborateur (collaborator), and collaborationniste (collaborationist), voluntary, ideological, and involuntary. A collaborator was one who, whether out of necessity, opportunity, or force, accommodated the Germans. A collaborationist was one who wholeheartedly believed in a Nazi victory, and worked towards that end.4 Based on the evaluation of his life and the evolution of his ideologies, there are some things certain about Ljotić: He was highly nationalistic and devotedly religious. Ljotić was seen as a fervent anti-Semite. He can be said to have promoted the removal of Jewish ‘influence’ from public and social life even before the outbreak of the Second World War. In his speeches, he mentioned that there was a ‘Great Director’ who was behind all the 1 With the exception of Mladen Stefanović’s Zbor Dimitrija Ljotića 1934-1945, published in 1984, which presupposes ZBOR’s National Socialist character by its anti-communism and supposed adherence to capitalism, neither Ljotić nor ZBOR have been the subject of a thorough monograph or study. Dragan Subotić’s Zatomljena misao. O političkim idejama Dimitrija Ljotića, published in 1994, attempts to place Ljotić’s thought in the context of 19th century conservative and nationalist thought, yet offers no analysis or source criticism. 2 See especially
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