CEU eTD Collection Trencsényi Balázs Professor Reader: Second Iordachi Constantin Professor Supervisor:

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the the for requirements the of fulfillment partial In and Romania Romania and Portugal Central European University University European Central the Backwaters of of Backwaters the History Department Department History Budapest, Hungary Hungary Budapest, Bruno Mesquita Mesquita Bruno Master of Arts Arts of Master Submitted to to Submitted 2007 2007 By By

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CEU eTD Collection on merely based . Christian non- of classification the question I prevailed. element fascist the that argue I 1945, to 1933 of period between situated fascism, generic inside ofcountry. each circumstances p from derived specificities national of face in model the and model, fascist generic a of use making interpreted be how fascism, of dimension European the understand to Romania, not should one leadno mereto hand,of knowledge. collectionsfacts other hand one prove to order the in facts organize and On theory a prove primacy. to historiography take two the of none context, and theory both by framed European interwar of possibilities the on reflects It them. of synthesis Abstract phenomenon. thestudy theoretical the for and fascisms of dimension wide European bears That changes. also context its inside element each of configurati different a has one each but elements, fascist Fourth, the comparison between the countries show that th that show countries the between comparison the Fourth, as regime Salazar’s of re-interpretation a offers it Third, fascism, European of cases peripheral two at looks it Secondly, fascis generic of models several surveys thesis MA This

promn rsac on research performing a on and the relative value relative the and on assess the limitations of of limitations the assess n fsim Fr the For fascism. and olitical tradition and and tradition olitical osqecs o the for consequences ad rpss a proposes and m breln case borderline a oe eggd to engaged model ey share a core of core a share ey As for Romania, for As both cases can cases both t non-secular its without letting letting without Portugal and Portugal Page Page t o the on it; 3 of write write 112

CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Bibliography ...... Conclusion ...... Romania ...... Portugal Portugal ...... Fascism...... Generic approach Methodological ...... Introduction ...... ofContents Table

Comparative History Comparative ...... Source Analysis Source ...... content analysis Discourse and ...... Outlook Epistemological ...... Overview ...... Conclusions Conclusions ...... Revolution ...... ...... Leadership ...... Overview ...... 38 ...... 85 ...... 12 ...... 103 ...... 27 ...... 5 ...... 109...... 71 ...... 71 ...... Page Page ...... 72 ...... 77 ...... 75 ...... 82 ...... 22 4 ...... 12 of ...... 14 ...... 19 112

CEU eTD Collection otx hs icsin n oprts ad ial aolsus contr Manoilescu’s Mihail and corporatism on discussion his context fram at universities).aimed It thorough. be to and mean not was however, schools, comparison, secondary (primary, education formal of e of rate higher times three approximately an presented Romania signific diverged countries the where area only The 1930. circa in were Romania and Portugal that concludes Schmitter a economy, infrastructure to demography from ranging indicators statistical vi a towards pit the down regime.centeredpersonal and authoritarian, sliding was Romania Union, European the join de representative liberal towards progressing was Portugal while of democ people’s styledout political the one wasconfiguration inner o influence the under was came Romania whereas it regime, democratic and alliance western the joined Portugal dissimilar. ha not could II War World after countries two the by taken course The each at its ownat Europe. ofits end each actors secondary politically, and geographically were, countries compar a in studies case as period, interwar the in Romania, and peripher the in anti- political of cases researched Introduction 1 oai, 8014: Dbt o Dvlpet n Eu a in Development on Debate 117–173 1978), Studies, International A 1860-1940: Romania, E Western of Periphery the on Development Dependent Schmitter, Philippe C. “Reflections on Mihail Mano Mihail on “Reflections C. Philippe Schmitter, hlip Schmitter Phillippe Nowadays it seems improbable, if not unwise, to compare Portugal compare to unwise, not if improbable, seems it Nowadays h mi ojcie f hs A hss s o ics te periphe the discuss to is thesis MA this of objective main The 1 a pooe a oi-cnmc prah Uig fourteen Using approach. socio-economic a proposed has

ilescu and the National Consequences of Delayed Delayed of Consequences National the and ilescu urope,” in: Kenneth Jowitt, ed., Social Change in in Change Social ed., Jowitt, Kenneth in: urope,” oen ain Bree: nttt of Institute (Berkeley: ropean y of Europe, takingPortugal Europe, of y antly was in education: in was antly nrolment in institutions in nrolment on the European stage, European the on mocracy, and about to about and mocracy, oend y non- a by governed ative approach. Both approach. ative te SR n its and USSR the f racy. 1970s,racy. the In iia situations similar d dcto to education nd ing in a broader a in ing a ad under and ral ve been more been ve and Romania. Romania. and Schmitter’s Page Page ibution. ibution. 5 of olent, 112

CEU eTD Collection Anglo-Saxon, the German, the Scandinavian and Slavic worlds of Eur of worlds Slavic and Scandinavian the German, the Anglo-Saxon, s a is Latinity that say can one Therefore, states. national age the of universe mental the when time a of monuments as stand multinational encompassing each borders, civilizational has ca Europe one view, macroscopic a taking fact, In East. and West or E of south and north between encounter not does one that understanding mutual a presents world Latin the spirit, and peoples of similarities sense. of devoid entirely not is Latinity around unity cultural a Nevertheles Europe. of minded similarly the among nee desperately and scene geostrategic European the in footing its was 1942 by which Romania, for possible sympathy and support political much P in propagandist cultural foreign a as writing was He context. a into taking evaluated be should words Eliade’s solidarity. and mut of age golden its re-establish to world Latin the to appealed of capacity assimilation “unlimited the praised He question. America, South to Ocean the across and Sea Mediterranean the w Latin the of unity cultural the defending voices important most the Rom the of part a Mi cite was can one Nevertheless, period. interwar the it of for way, this in careful subject be the should approaching one Although heritage. Latin common the countries: the viableatocomparison. allow terms, suffic were countries both that hint the leaves it Nevertheless, 2 capacidade de assimilação do génio latino (…) é il é géniolatino(…) do deassimilação capacidade 3 .

Mircea Eliade. “Latina Giuta e Regina.” Regina.” e Giuta “Latina Eliade. Mircea Also well known for being an anachronistic and anti and anachronistic an being for known well Also On an anthropological approach one could cite the cultural link existing bet existing link cultural the cite could one approach anthropological an On

Acção imitada.” , 5 Feb. 1942. P. 7. The original text reads: “(…) reads: text original The 7. P. 1942. Feb. 5 , -modern thinker with strong hints of fascism and and fascism of hints strong with thinker -modern

remarkable coherence and coherence remarkable eparate universe from the the from universe eparate the Latin character”Latin the iently alike, in structural in alike, iently s, his interpretation of interpretation his s, rcea Eliadercea n easily identify that that identify easily n rua, ahrn as gathering ortugal, ual cultural curiosity cultural ual ded allies, especially allies, ded cut i historical his ccount n h tmfae in timeframe the in eod h simple the Beyond was not bound by bound not was cultural units that units cultural ope. In this sense, this In ope. orld, both around both orld, na fascist anian Page Page 2 as one of one as 6 loosing when of urope, 3 ween and 112 a

CEU eTD Collection awa Europe of map the in position Portugal’s explicit. differences Europe. interwar polit the of interpretations historiographic existing already enrich provide framework analytical same the under together Romania and based c “” fascism the by supplemented generic authoritarian-fascist, of definition a to according countries thatinI keeping construction itmind.and use political recognize do I However, universe. doctrinal their penetrate better acknowledg I that useful only is It Romania. and Portugal in politics i the marked work whose intellectuals the for had link cultural the point. departure of background general the constitutes merely it thesis, this itself. by comparison of basis any guarantee nor one strongest the li this that grant however should One . and Spain France, with cul ineffable the Romania, and Portugal between link a is there 4 Nazi to Fascism.” than Austria to and Europe of end other alway the at will counterparts regimes These (…) characteristics. similar State European Eastern the and stat smallBaltic the from Europe, of part this in dictatorships countries Iberian the between forms sim the detected has Pinto Costa António Romania. and Portugal of Science MonographsScience António C. Pinto. Pinto. C. António n sol nt nae hwvr nacmaio eecs wtot mak without exercise comparison a in however, engage, not should One inte the of nature the in found be to is comparison of basis third The stresses comparison of base a as Latinity using Furthermore, 4 In the context of the international debate struggling to define and c and define to struggling debate international the of context the In . Boulder: Colombia University Press, 1995. P. 33. 33. 1995. P. Press, University Colombia Boulder: . aaa’ Dctrhp n Erpa Fsim Problem Fascism: European and Dicatorship Salazar’s

vague similarities serving as as serving similarities vague rmi coe t their to closer remain s es to the Balkans, had very had Balkans, the to es net rnig Portugal bringing oncept, tural link, shared alike shared link, tural o Interpretation of s deological shaping of shaping deological nk is not necessarily not is nk cl oselto of constellation ical s valuable insight to insight valuable s For the purpose of purpose the For the importance that importance the n h dichotomy the on ilarities of political of ilarities that Latinity is a a is Latinity that e this, in order to order in this, e dd t ih a with it rded m n Italian and sm rwar regimes rwar Page Page : “most s: ategorize 7 ing the the ing . of Social 112

CEU eTD Collection countries. respective a in politics of shaping the to contributed defended intellectuals carr still they Nonetheless, history. intellectual of real reach I anyconclusions since type, ideal one to according countries in exercise my to limitation a presents This themselves. of had pe the reflect will undertaken be to comparison the Consequently, m thoroughly more illustrate and complete to regimes and movements re the addressing accessorily only period, interwar the in countries ideol the compare to going am I is, That fascisms. Romanian and overwasbywar1834.PortuguesecivilThe last states. s wit ethnically, compared mild been have it: divisions political Even considers economically. one way whatever in homogeneous highly popul the of majority the Portugal, In Nation-State. delimitated crea the undermined Germans, the and population Roma the Hungarians, namel minorities, where Romania, of that with contrasted Portugal composition ethnic homogeneous The sides. both on neighbours stronger to prey relat and gains the of middle the in itself found it II War World During neighbours. and losses territorial of examples with rich on history, Romania’s independence. its maintained Peninsula Iberian overra army Nazi the while period, interwar the In limited. were threats foreign where position, geo-strategic comfortable types suitable to explain the European wide political vortex of the i the of vortex political wide European the explain to suitable types The research in generic fascism has focused in the creation of of creation the in focused has fascism generic in research The expressions ideological to limited is comparison the of scope The y relevance, for the ideas that the that ideas the for relevance, y te et f uoe the Europe, of rest the n to a las been always has ation ions with aggressive aggressive with ions ogical matrix of both of matrix ogical , throughout times, times, throughout , rig o eie the define to trying y the Transylvanian Transylvanian the y are only valid in the the in valid only are rceptions the actors the rceptions nterwar period. The period. nterwar lcniuain of configuration al turmoil, a potential a turmoil, concepts and ideal and concepts new key in their their in key new h other European other h y argumentation. argumentation. y the opposite, is opposite, the tion of a well- a of tion of Portuguese of Page Page ocially and and ocially 8 of 112 of

CEU eTD Collection seemingly contradictory sources. It should be no surprise, then, t then, surprise, no be should It sources. contradictory seemingly sourc diversified from inspiration took regimes the maintained that, meant also that Romania and Portugal of cases peripheral , to resistance ideolog the of right and left The the from inspiration took individualism slotted. been have Romania and theaccepte question also will I that is this of consequence knew anti-modernism political where history, intellectual century ofpresenceo in importanceits fascism a majority wide and obscured has period interwar the within Italy and Germany of position them.”to solution common a proposed and problems of spr set common it Europe over all but founder, common a lacked “Fascism noted, framewor theoretical solid necessar a and analysis scope broad it a with phenomenon makes fascism of dimension European the However, the of idiosyncrasies the neglected sometimes has phenomenon the e can that model a for quest the and scientists social puzzled matrix, thus re-allocating the debate about generic fascism generic about debate the re-allocating thus matrix, Portugal both if inquiring of features and am values core amalgamated regimes Romania’s I Romania. in 1941, 23, January to 1940 6, St Legionary National the of period short-lived the of exception the tagged been have countries Both period. interwar the in Europe a key new a in politics politics, of style new a to shift 6 andculture politics 5 14. New York: Crowell, c1968. P. 3. P. c1968. Crowell, York: 14.New 7 4. P. c1968. Crowell, York: 14.New Austri an Key: New a in “Politics III, chapter See

George L. Mosse. “The Genesis of Fascism.” In Fascism.” of Genesis “The L.Mosse. George George L. Mosse. “The Genesis of Fascism.” In Fascism.” of “The Mosse.Genesis L.George I am undertaking the task of rethinking the nature of the regimes the of nature the rethinking of task the undertaking am I . New York: Vintage Books, 1981. Books, Vintage York: .New

Fascism: an anthologyan Fascism: Fascism: an anthologyFascism: an Trio”, in: Carl E. Schorske. Schorske. E. Carl in: Trio”, an

s Carl SchorskCarl s d taxonomy in which Portugal which in taxonomyd to a broader overview of 20 of overviewbroader a to f thecontinents f countries. , edited by Nathanael Greene, 3- Greene, by Nathanael ,edited , edited by Nathanael Greene, 3- Greene, by Nathanael edited , a fascist and authoritarian and fascist a ncompass the richness of richness the ncompass the people who built and built who people the as authoritarian, with authoritarian, as hat in the end of this of end the in hat o onais The boundaries. no s smtms even sometimes es, ical spectrum. In the In spectrum. ical ate, from September from ate, 5 6 Fin-de-siecle Vienna: Vienna: Fin-de-siecle called them, has them, called national contexts. national t egg the engage to y The pre-eminent The of Portugal and Portugal of eorc and n ot f a of out ung h European the k. As Mosse As k. Page Page 9 s and ’s of 112 7

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CEU eTD Collection to create a scenario from which is possible to generalize and and generalize to possible is which from scenario a create to corpora be will topics other (although issues: leadership charismatic and revolution thematic discursive main three through countries two co this Therefore, regimes. the inside politics and values of core a to restricted is here do to myself set I that study people and facts events, of survey global a undertake to thesis this of regimeandthepe descriptionclassificationininterwar of th fuel and historiography recent in Romania and Portugal of place characteristics. verifiable, empirically important, most ord in regimes, interwar Romanian and Portuguese the of areas themapwillidealout detail.type in I subchapter the in explicit more thesis my of aspect this make a theory generic a of value the about considerations Payne’s and Mosse’s myth, interpretati palingenetic of concept Griffin’s fascism, and totalitarianism of definitions Gentile’s Emilio in The analysis. intoempirical ideal type an the operating of way check step by step a as work to intended is list The fascism. lis a constituting authors, these all from gathered fasc features generic of type ideal My Payne. G. Stanley and Griffin Georg Nolte, Ernst Gentile, Emilio of help the with constructed ent historiographic innotalley.a blind hopefully a at placed are Romania and Portugal exercise Due to a question of time management and accuracy, it is not in not is it accuracy, and management time of question a to Due To sum up, this MA thesis is going to discuss, in a a comparative in going is this thesis MA discuss, to up, sum To theor a is thesis this for point departure the Nevertheless, hs il lo rtikn the rethinking allow will This riod. mparison groups together the together groups mparison on of fascism as a revolution a as fascism of on most representative areas of areas representative most wt te oe lmns of elements core the with t core of the list isinspiredlist theof core ‘Generic Fascism’, where Fascism’, ‘Generic list, constituting a simple a constituting list, supplemented by Roger Roger by supplemented nd its limitations. I will I limitations. its nd s i a olcin of collection a is ism r o ige u their out single to er L Mse Roger Mosse, L. e e theoretical debate theoretical e discussed) in order in discussed) approach, approach, selected Te comparative The . rn te present the bring tcl framework etical side the scope of scope the side nlmn, but anglement, Page Page im fascist tism, 10 of of 112

CEU eTD Collection taxonomies. fascisms European of discussion wider the to extrapolate to possible re of from comparison, direct line a for this way open finally proceed will conclusion to opportunity the others giving Guard, Iron of testing the overlook will chapter third the Romania, for sources As hypothesis. defined previously my denying or validating case, s the analysis specifically chapter third The literature. ideal my of light in regimes both of interpretation the regarding goi am I stage this At literature. secondary the in present P to relating facts the of survey previous a makes and type ideal t with deals chapter second The history. comparative for framework a analysis source for methods my define then and challenge, modern history, of nature the about remarks brief some make t I of project. basis historiographic the define I where approach methodological twoofinternationalindivi the notdescription fascism then, and under The fascism. generic European of framework the into discussion

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CEU eTD Collection be to going are analysis the of conclusions howeve The sources. secondary is, Romania in movement Guard Iron Romania’s for Portug exercise in regime Salazar the of nature and structure ideological the in discourse written the by out carried functions the identify meani the decode to seek I issues. polity and ideology political intel Portuguese committed Salazar-regime the by written 1945, journal material: source the of nature the by justified is choice discourse and analysis content of usingcombination a information primary decid have I sources. with dealing when methods my of limitations Overview Methodological approach ae rvdd yef ih h ncsay ol ad euiy o advanc ofhypothesis. formulation viable and the analysis source to security and tools necessary the with myself provided have t these establishing After narrative. of nature the and truth historica of concepts operational establish to endeavour to going am fram epistemological an establish to going is chapter this work, necess intellectual imposed this of light In century. twentieth i challenge fields intellectual been all across cut has that tsunami history postmodernist doing of conception simple this guides that ninete the However, work. his of results the down writing part, t maybe and, analysis production, and research data in him engages h ntr o te itra’ wr i peoiaty miia ad pra and empirical predominantly is work historian’s the of nature The Secondly, this chapter also aims at discussing the implicat the discussing at aims also chapter this Secondly, ertcl rmss I will I premises, heoretical te eod at f the of part second the n ity of justifying one’s one’s justifying of ity enth century paradigm century enth ework for my thesis. I thesis. my for ework rils rm 91 to 1941 from articles ions, advantages, and and advantages, ions, my main material to material main my ieti, addressing ligentsia, g f h txs and texts the of ng he most challenging most he ragmn o the of arrangement ed to approach my approach to ed l Te correlated The al. fc, historical fact, l Page Page analysis. My analysis. t primary to e , iie to limited r, d by the the by d 12 tcl It ctical. of of 112

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Gabrielle M. Spiegel. “History, Historicism, and and th Historicism, M.Spiegel. “History, Gabrielle Gabrielle M. Spiegel. “History, Historicism, and and th Historicism, M.Spiegel. “History, Gabrielle Reality is a linguistically constructed artefact with no nece no with artefact constructed linguistically a is Reality Even though the deconstructionists, for instance, do not question the exist the question not do instance, for deconstructionists, the though Even the in language of role the with obsession poststructuralist The The main consequence of this positioning is that the the that is positioning this of consequence main The 65, n.º 1 (Jan 1990): 59-86. P. 68. 59-86.P. 11990): (Jan 65,n.º 60. 59-86.P. 11990): (Jan 65,n.º 9 . The case for history is that the historiographic representa historiographic the that is history for case The .

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London: Routledge, 1997. P. 82. 1997.P. Routledge, London: Reality: A Plea for "Internal Realism".” Realism".” for "Internal Plea A Reality: e nature of historiography.of e nature using the mediumusinglanguage.theof to which he is subjected as a as subjected is he which to cie icvr f rt, or truth, of discovery ective a voice of ideology and and ideology of voice a actually true actually nto the interpretation of interpretation the nto by Lorenz, is is Lorenz, by p bt traditional both up, of research and the the and research of iy cesbe to accessible lity nd the search for for search the nd ms presented by presented ms l eerh The research. al s motn to important is er, has claimed has er, 10 Page Page ethodology, I ethodology, Ti being This . is not what not is st position, position, st it and ainty History History 15 internal and the the and of of 112

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Chris Lorenz. “Historical Knowledge and Historical Historical and Knowledge “Historical Lorenz. Chris His main instrument is the historical narrative, characteri narrative, historical the is instrument main His cautious the work, his in bias involuntary against warned Being explici and clear history of dimension this makes realism Internal . The conceptual umbrella of internal realism departs from the from departs realism internal of umbrella conceptual The . XXXIII, n.º 3 (October 1994): 297-327. P. 312. P. 1994): 297-327. (October n.º 3 XXXIII,

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History and Theory History 5. New York: Routledge, 2004. P. 2 2004.P. Routledge, York: 5.New Theory.” In In Theory.” 6, n.º 1 (1967): 3-13. Pp 3-4. 3-4. 3-13.Pp (1967): 6,n.º 1 s interpretation can vary. The vary. can interpretation s xeiet i rtikn history rethinking in Experiments my thesis. It draws on some on draws It thesis. my st the probing and inquiring and probing the st re committed to writing in awritinginre to committed torian. torian. sim Te eteis is aesthetics The ascism. cience as exemplified by exemplified as cience tive capable of “revivify of capable tive ic model of empirically of model ic s omte to.” committed is bulk of my effort in effort my of bulk ed, even though one though even ed, ations. It establishes It ations. t, hs implicitly thus ity, Due to the limited the to Due s not claim to be a be to claim not s available source available the permanent permanent the g familiar”nge tet century eteenth Page Page

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CEU eTD Collection (1967): 208-218. P. 209. 208-218. P. (1967): framework, national the to sticks analysis his “because warns: conte national in enclosed historiographies of danger the off wards t and phenomena translocal and local between distinction clear pa a as safely used be can and it to unique then is comparison but shared, not is that found be to is Whatever systems. social shar the clear making in history comparative of focus the of societi different of uniqueness the identifying of that is history historic of problem the addressed explanation. Bloch by envisioned method comparative rela the ov spawn and borders through cross that relations them, understood between established fully be only can phenomena nature: relational History Comparative 19 explanations.”ourof validity g systematically of means is method, experimental the like experim of adaptation c The impossible. an is experimentation actual which in investigations is method comparative the sci scientists, a using histori by thus employed “Whether research. formulated, his in method is experimental explanation convincing and accurate an reformula to able is historian the method, comparative the using histori behind relations causal the assess and hypothesis test to William H. Sewell. “March Bloch and the Logic of C Logic the Bloch and “March Sewell. William H. The second function identified by Sewell in Bloch’s proposition of comparat of proposition Bloch’s in Sewell by identified function second The most The functions. main three had method Bloch’s claims Sewell claime He history. comparative of father the was Bloch March 19

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CEU eTD Collection obser under group the of movement single “no notes Panley G. Stanley refining theoretic the from built tool analytical an merely empiri pure in existed never fascism generic purposes, and intents ultimately to intended not is but fascism, of characteristics a enumerate to intended is formulation of type a such regimes; and idiosy own its necessityworkingmute generalizing andofthe creates wit with countries in phenomena different Portugal such of of study comparison comparative the facilitate to is establ definition of advantage main The project. manageable empirical and its coherent and possible is hypothesis a of formulation the which def clear a on based analysis of framework theoretical previous Generic Fascism 4. 4. 29 theandwilltermsimplyreaderstheirassume that define l make (that) movements fascist individual or fascism on works hundreds the of majority great “the by supplemented is which problem in except fascism, of label the under go not did usually themselves f comes problem the of Part period. interwar the of historians Stanley G. Payne. G. Stanley Generic fascism is an abstract construction from empiricall from construction abstract an is fascism Generic Thus, it is necessary for any research on interwar European fasc European interwar on research any for necessary is it Thus, haunt consistently that problem a been has fascism of definition The A history of fascism, 1914-1945. fascism, of history A

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CEU eTD Collection philosophy vitalist primarily a on based is that rebirth national for myth. nationalist palingenetic fascist the distinguish accurately to order in needed more a So movements. nationalist non-fascist in present is myth typi defini Griffin’s of failure is one out points vision also Payne movements. messianic Their exclusively. not but transce secular, seeking way), distorted a in (although materialism beyond human of reinterpretation a represented fundamentally It will. m rejected They dynamism. vitalism, and with replaced but egalitarianism rationalism, courage of values the by orientated definition”termsthisof exact c self-description or program a announced have to found be necessarily Greene, 14-35. New York: Crowell, c1968. P. 34. 34. P. c1968. Crowell, York: 14-35. New Greene, 31 4. 30 ofunyieldingnationalandframeworktheself-assertion within met typicallyyetand modified almost identical ofuse the by and yet and opposed radically a of evolvement the by enemy the destroy anti-ma is “Fascism fascism: of definition Nolte’s reads one is argument His it. of portion good a neglecting thus fascism, of the convey not does typology this Payne, to According totalitarianism. le (4) anticonservatism, (3) antiliberalism, (2) antimarxism, mi fascist point six the opposes He fascism. of model generic . “Fascism as characteristic of an era. of an as characteristic “Fascism ErnstNolte. Stanley G. Payne. G. Stanley Payne’s own proposal defines fascim as a “form of revolutionary ult revolutionary of “form a as fascim defines proposal own Payne’s attem most famous the of critique comprehensive a presents Payne Fascism was not nihilistic; it was about the creation of a ne a of creation the about was it nihilistic; not was Fascism A history of fascism, 1914-1945. fascism, of history A 30

. ”In Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, c1995. P. P. c1995. Press, Wisconsin of Madison:University Fascism: an anthologyan Fascism: idealism, and the preeminence of preeminence the and idealism, adership, (5) party-army, (6) party-army, (5) adership, autonomy.” hods, always, however, always, hods, , edited by Nathanael Nathanael by , edited unchallengeable when unchallengeable xs wih ek to seeks which rxism aue paig man placing nature, w man, a new culture new a man, w cal of revolutionary revolutionary of cal complex typology is is typology complex iu o Nle (1) Nolte: of nimum myth from a simply simply a from myth palingenetic the tion: i srcue on structured is , related ideology related dne usually ndence, positive content positive pts at creating a pts creating at ouched in the in ouched Page Page 31 ranationalism

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London: Allen Lane, 2004. P. 142. 142. 2004.Lane, P. Allen London: Fascism: an anthologyan Fascism: Führerprinzip Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, c1995. P. P. c1995. Press, Wisconsin of Madison:University ancient regime ancient , positively values violence as violence values positively , o existing institutions and not and institutions existing o focused on the aesthetization aesthetization the on focused 34 , edited by Nathanael Greene, 3- Greene, byNathanael , edited The conservatives, on the on conservatives, The for inspiration. As Paxton As inspiration. for ain f h od elite’s old the of vation ilitaryvirtues.” d iloe, u they but willpower, nd ” on action, activism and activism action, on tional institutions in institutions thetionalin wanted to maintain the maintain to wanted 33 ad expressionism and m Being conservative Being n r a te same the as art in os mks the makes Mosse u sml a a a as as simply but , towards instinct towards , d leae by alienated nd h ‘ai’ a ‘magic’; the Page Page acs a a as fascism tural aspect tural 32 29

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George L. Mosse. “The Genesis of Fascism.” In of Fascism.” Genesis “The Mosse. L. George Robert Paxton. Paxton. Robert Paxton. Robert In of Fascism.” Genesis “The Mosse. L. George en cnrne wt cmeig oes f eei fsim t fascism generic of models competing with confronted Being h vso o a lsls scey aife te ide cla middle the satisfied society classless a of vision The th etr. h rvltoay hrce o fsit oenet l fascist of character revolutionary The century. 35 38 The economic ideology of fascism is seen as non-revolutionary or non-revolutionary as seen is fascism of ideology economic The

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CEU eTD Collection 375. P. 352. P. 375. Interpretation.” an of Criticism on 43 42 ta my in successful am I if that believe I However, dubious. too isthat my concl free-floating biggestapproach this risk The of that reality of comprehension the and it, define I as fascism, fine to attempting am I analysis), particular to general (a o cases the to it applying then and literature) previous on based parti (a thesis this for type ideal specific a creating By precis e the involving process dialectical a in engage to is objectives it Nevertheless, limitations. its of aware well moredefinitionoffascism complex.type a generic ideal events, and circumstances national to according changed and adapted funct importantly, more but fluid, philosophically only not was ideology consequence main The forms. theoretical pure most its in existing experim an always was It general. in fascism about said be and experience an was totalitarianism that claims Gentile hav regimes fascist that means also makeup “Composite trend: fascist.” fully and typically was that structure defi generically be can fascism that radical doubtful is typically “it Therefore, more the of parts cleansing thus compromise, dissimilarinideology.arenatureand even They moveme fascist between distinction important the also is There 469-70. 41 Paxton. Robert

Emilio Gentile. “Fascism, Totalitarianism and Polit and Totalitarianism “Fascism, Gentile. Emilio Stanley G. Payne. G. Stanley The intellectual exercise of building and using an ideal type in thi in type ideal an using and building of exercise intellectual The ha movements fascist power conquer to order in that claims Payne

The anatomy of fascism.anatomy The A history of fascism, 1914-1945. fascism, of history A Totalitarian Movements and Political ReligionsandPolitical Movements Totalitarian

London: Allen Lane, 2004. P. 120. 120. 2004. Lane, P. Allen London: Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, c1995. P. P. c1995. Press, Wisconsin of Madison:University ical Religion: Definitions and Critical Reflections Critical and Definitions Religion: ical 41 te atos ae oie te same the noticed have authors Other tune both the theory of generic of theory the both tune ua t gnrl construction general to cular not a regime. a not mpirical and the theoretical. the and mpirical l oe y oe research core my one ely ent and it never succeed in succeed never it and ent can be provided by them. them. by provided be can usions may, in the end, inend, usions the bemay, sk, then I will be able to able be will I then sk, f Romania and Portugal and Romania f e truh regime a through ned t n fsit regime. fascist and nt of this, is that fascist that is this, of nt en static.” been not e V, nr. 3 (2004): 326– 3 (2004): nr. V, thus making the the making thus ideology. fascist 43 ionally fluid; it fluid; ionally s thesis is then then is thesis s d to adjust and adjust to d The same can same The Page Page 32 of of 112

42

CEU eTD Collection eradicated.” pri between distinction “the regimes fascist in that claimed party. single and state the not control, social were Those notables. local family, church, associations, economic priv the eliminate to attempt not did regimes authoritarian that real only The fascism. of features imitated authoritarianism regim authoritarian from fascist distinguishing of difficulty the evident made is totalitarianism of importance The fascism. totalitarianis of concept master the with start to necessary ofMA athesis. time l the within argumentation meaningful a provide to order in features t going am I Instead, Romania. and Portugal of study comparative points the all cover to possible be to going not is It accurate. easily is model, which general not but a comprehensive, myself of advantage main The type. ideal composite a building Gri thus Payne, from derived notions with it complement to going am I minimum, of style the in definition, list-type a in presented features, dow it breaking By exclusively. not although definition, Gentile’s 5. P. c1999. 45 pan-Europe a withPortugalRomaperiod,usingnuances,and its many interwar as fascism generic of image clearer a create 44 George L. Mosse. L. George Robert Paxton. Paxton. Robert suig ht acs cnttts n fr o totalitarianis of form one constitutes fascism that Assuming interwar European of model my base to chosen therefore have I 45 mlo etl’ pooa, lnty n, ie a comprehensive a gives one, lengthy a proposal, Gentile’s Emilio The anatomy of fascism.anatomy The The fascist revolution: toward a general theory of theory general a toward revolution: fascist The

London: Allen Lane, 2004. P. 217. 217. 2004. Lane, P. Allen London: 44 vso spotd y os, who Mosse, by supported vision A fascism. perceivable difference was difference perceivable by Paxton. He referred to referred He Paxton. by ot’ 6 ons fascist points 6 Nolte’s ae n pbi lf was life public and vate m before moving on to to on moving before m ate sphere, constituted by constituted sphere, ate es, because in the 1930’s the in because es, n hnmnn n the in phenomenon an applicable to reality and reality to applicable niacaseasstudies. New York: H. Fertig, Fertig, H. York: New n y oe fr the for model my in t iprat core important to n o focus on its core its on focus o the main agents of agents main the , t s logically is it m, this is that I offer I that is this fascism in Emilio Emilio in fascism imited space and space imited Page Page fn Mosse, ffin, 33 of of and 112

CEU eTD Collection added): Totalitarianis totalitarianism. of core the of enunciation thorough 46 doctrine? totalitarian is What fascism. of characteristics circumstantial the None totalitarianism. of avatar historical a is that sense identified now have (7) a create and communities political human of nature the change wil that – revolution anthropological – man new (6) a produce to claims religion. political through manifested ideology palingenetic a (5) existence politicizing by society conquer (4) to is aim chief whose si a (3) on based state new (2) a of creation the to leading power, 375. Pp 327-8. 327-8. Pp 375. Interpretation.” an of Criticism on Emilio Gentile. “Fascism, Totalitarianism and Poli and Totalitarianism “Fascism, Gentile. Emilio h mi pit o Gnies eiiin r: h cnus o a of conquest the are: definition Gentile’s of points main The beyondtheNation-State. ultimatewhose party,totalitarian the of policies th of realisation the to soul and body through in dedicated masses the and individual revolution the shape to aims integral the of basis the governedon society State previous the transforms or destroys means, illegal politic power of of monopoly conception integralist an with movement, aigntc ideology categor palingenetic the to according interpreted individual, or ae o a a on based n xeiet n oiia dmnto udrae by undertaken domination political in experiment an ; that is, it seeks the subordination, integration subordination, the seeks it is, that ; in order to regenerate the human being and create and being human regenerate the to order in seven structural characteristics structural seven igepry regimesingle-party n ta, fe hvn scrd oe, hte b l by whether power, secured having after that, and isiuinlsd n h fr of form the in institutionalised , 46 Totalitarian Movements and Political ReligionsandPolitical Movements Totalitarian

politicisation of existenceof politicisation wt te he ojcie of objective chief the with , tical Religion: Definitions and Critical Reflection Critical and Definitions Religion: tical goal is to createa to is goal that identify a fascist regime, in the in regime, fascist a identify that e revolutionary and imperialistic and revolutionary e eie n cntut a constructs and regime that makes fascism unique as a a as unique fascism makes that e, yh ad aus f a of values and myths ies, theless, it is important to stress to important is it theless, and homogenisation of the of homogenisation and , ht sie twr a toward aspires that s, pltcl religion political a an the new man, who is is who man, new the , whethercollective , revolutionary a anthropological new civilisation new new civilization. We civilization. new i (l emphases (all is m , strategically using using strategically , V, nr. 3 (2004): 326– 3 (2004): nr. V, ge at regime, party ngle h nw regime new The (1) monopoly of of monopoly (1) conquering Page Page gl or egal ultimately l that , new new 34 of of

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CEU eTD Collection 329. P 375. Interpretation.” an of Criticism on 47 ofbeitredundantrestatewouldtotalitarianismto f and nature is It civilisation”. new a and order new a creating of aim discar am I Finally, religion. political through manifested t ideology than more nothing is this as myth, on based ideology the ignoring a totalitarianism in process palingenetic the that considering revolut the neglecting am I Therefore, fascism. of features interested only am I purposes my for However, totalitarianism. mission, therefore meaningthereforeimperialism. mission, (hierarchy), society of organization vertical (9) corporatism, (7) , (6) community, homogenous a of basis the as ethnicity primac the or anti-materialistic anti-hedonistic, (4) , anti- (2) , (1) is: phenomenon historical a as fascism

Emilio Gentile. “Fascism, Totalitarianism and Polit and Totalitarianism “Fascism, Gentile. Emilio ultimateaim creatingof anew orderand a new civi State ooeeu ognc community organic homogeneous hr a ubr f hrceitc i ti dfnto ta over that definition this in characteristics of number a There unders nation the of primacy absolute the affirming myth; on based party revolutionary, inway(alldefines the emphasesfollowingGentile fascism After identifying the expendable elements what is left to spe to left is what elements expendable the identifying After , with a bellicose mission to achieve grandeur, pow grandeur, achieve to mission bellicose a with , wt a oaiain ocpin f oiis n th and politics of conception totalitarian a with , is which phenomenon, political modern a is Fascism anti-liberal iie n anti-hedonistic and virile Totalitarian Movements and Political ReligionsandPolitical Movements Totalitarian

and anti-Marxist , , hierarchicall ical Religion: Definitions and Critical Reflections Critical and Definitions Religion: ical i i scaie i a oiia religion political a in sacralised is it , ognsd n h fr o a of form the in organised , lisation. ognsd no a into organised y understood that that is the very the is that that understood Sae wt a ideology an with State, e er and conquest with the with conquest and er od s an as tood 47 lready encompasses it. I am I it. encompasses lready

or fascism. oay aue f fascism, of nature ionary added): added): nationalistic o siiul ie (5) life, spiritual of y n (0 a bellicose a (10) and n h circumstantial the in cifically characterize cifically ieaim () anti- (3) liberalism, V, nr. 3 (2004): 326– 3 (2004): nr. V, ig te ultimate “the ding corporative a te concept the lap e palingenetic he ethnically organicism, (8) organicism, Page Page militia and 35 of of 112

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authors like Nolte, Mosse and Payne, thus buildingNolte,Payne, like thus and Mossea comprehensive authors

and totalitarianism, includes:totalitarianism, and thisofthe scopein thesis. applied that fascism of type ideal an forward in setting schematically found be to characteristics of list a it elaborate definitions to both possible on Based do. to about am I what shocking considered be not onlyfascism element of not is essential totalitarianism an To this list, we can add further characteristics, not alrea not characteristics, further add can we list, this To y rpsd da tp o fsim udryn Gnies definitions Gentile’s underlying fascism, of type ideal proposed My of definition the in far so followed perspective the to According 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. 17. 16. 15. 14. 13. 12. 11. 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1.

aesthetization of politics aesthetization positive connotation of violenceofmilitarizationof connotation andlife positive party-army party-army anticonservatism, anticonservatism, syncretism (aesthetic and ideological),(aesthetic and syncretism leader’s cult, leader’s mass support, mass repression of freedom of press and propaganda,offreedomandof press repression vitalism and activism vitalism . imperialism. politicalhierarchy,and social corporatism, organicism, xenophobia, basisacommunity,ofhomogenousthe as ethnicity life,spiritualof primacy anti-communism, anti-liberalism, nationalism, nationalism, new civilization, new anthropological revolution, anthropological palingenetic ideology manifested through politicalreligion, ideology through manifested palingenetic attempt to conquer societytopoliticizingconquer existence, fully attempt by single partyregime, single creation ofnewa state, creation monopoly of power bypowerof an elite,monopoly but also its root. should It then its also but dy mentioned, from other from mentioned, dy a b esl wre an worked easily be can fsit eie thus regime, fascist a idealtype: Page Page f fascism of 36 fascism, of of 112 is

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myth, while the the tomainrest aaddressing assupport argummyth, li some, of detail lea hierarchy, religion, more political state, new the in revolution, speak to intend I There studies. case to seek not do I although attention, special pay will I that those id fascist distinguishes that elements of set i the minimum, above, points 17 in up broken definition, Gentile’s Emilio indicator, reg a characterize can opinon, my in that, them of majority the is It fascist. exclusively not are elements many fact, In fulfilli it on depends movement or regime sam a of the classification of are elements all not However, time. any at added This an extensive list of features. Yet, it is not complet not is it Yet, features. of list extensive an This their mixture, or the mixture of mixture the or mixture, their dership, and the palingenetic the and dership, ooy rm tes I i to is It others. from eology ng every single condition. single every ng ent or in referenceinorit. to ent e; more elements can be can elements more e; ime as fascist. But as an as But fascist. as ime analyze them all in my in all them analyze iprac nr the nor importance e e corporatism, ke Page Page te fascist the s 37 of of 112

CEU eTD Collection difficul “the explained Collotti Enzo As consensus. historiographic v it making crisscross phenomena stripes different where case, authoritarian as classification simple a allow not do fascist, that,whi elements, important fascist some demonstrated also I but authoritarian, as classified been traditionally has Portugal beperiod.theinterwarEuropeanin can found f of number a explanation single a in unites which type, ideal an the through verifiable empirically it making and fascism generic have I the case, my In model. theoretical fascist a to according interpret to recommendable, even and possible, is it that show cor The rule. Salazar’s about facts and events of interpretation th with question.the period from in material deal I where chapter the frame to going is interpretation. established own my to according politics radical interwar in chapter this using am I Furthermore, State. New Salazar’s interpre have authors, Portuguese some and scholars, international w the at looking be will I i.e., taxonomy, fascism generic of problem the approach to going am I . the joined Salazar es Portugal; interwar about written contributions relevant most I classification. its and regime Salazar the of analysis Portugal nelig hs rcs i te ihtm atoiain s fasci vs. authoritarian dichotomy the is process this Underlying di a propose and contributions all on criticism present to going am I lite secondary of contribution the discuss to aims sub-chapter This

t is intended to be a review of the of review a be to intended is t to clarify Portugal’s position Portugal’s clarify to chosen to use the concept of concept the use to chosen le not necessarily making it necessarilyit making not le Prua i a borderline a is Portugal . am going to argue that it that argue to going am ery difficult to achieve a achieve to difficult ery e of my discussion is to is discussion my of e pecially the period after period the pecially y h ms important most the ay eatures of fascism that fascism of eatures of definition previous Pruus source Portuguese e from the viewpoint the from ties in making an an making in ties classified and ted h cnet thus context The aaa regime Salazar Page Page aue o the to rature m regime. sm 38 fferent of of 112

CEU eTD Collection 145. 51 143. 50 Per 49 and Problems – 1991, 36. Institute, University European Fascism European and State” “New may It shortcomings. its stress but topic, the into research disprove to endeavour not does chapter this assumption, general this compl a not was State New the indeed that indicator secure toregimestiedtraditional elites. conservative periphery” European the of countries underdeveloped and backward characteristi phenomenon new “a as characterized Europe, eastern regim authoritarian the of context broader the in Portugal inserts sociinstitutionalmoreover,its and,componentsand ideological from arise regime Portuguese the of classification unequivocal 48 “authoritaria an as regime Salazar the summarizes case, landowners.” church, the of hands the in remained power social where state a preferred he but Portugal, of dictator the effect, in was, Franco’s than profoundly more even fascism from differed Portugal of ins For scene. the enter support government no Portugalwithelite public an as characterizes researchers new and broadens research period, interwar its during type, fascist the outside Novo Estado defi with classify, to empiric willing authors conducted of number The that research. historiographers the and fascist generic of

Ez olti Fsim, acsi Frne 1989, Firenze: Fascismi. Fascismo, Collotti. Enzo Stanley G. Payne. G. Stanley Payne. G. Stanley Paxton. Robert

International consensus on the authoritarian-conservative vector vector authoritarian-conservative the on consensus International for fascist as qualified not has State New the Traditionally, 49 The anatomy of fascism.anatomy The Payne, one scholar that as devoted unusual attention to the Portuguese the to attention unusual devoted as that scholar one Payne, A history of fascism, 1914-1945. fascism, of history A 1914-1945. fascism, of history A

London: Allen Lane, 2004.p. 217.2004.p. Lane, Allen London: Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, c1995. P. P. c1995. Press, Wisconsin of Madison:University P. c1995. Press, Wisconsin of Madison:University 118. Quoted in António Costa Pinto. The Salazar The Pinto. Costa António in Quoted 118. spectives of Interpretation. San Domenico: Domenico: San Interpretation. of spectives croait republic” corporatist n passive public and a limited a and public passive be, that in the end, the New the end, the in that be, ete fascist state. Accepting state. fascist ete al al characteristics.”

ie etit, Salazar’s certainty, nite h cmlxt o the of complexity the both the theoreticians the both h am, n te big the and army, the grows as the field of field the as grows : “The Estado “The : s f oten and southern of es priual of particularly c ally orientated orientated ally 51 can only be a a be only can ac, Paxton tance, Spain. Salazar Spain. ot yas of years forty Page Page Te were They . 39 of of 48 50

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CEU eTD Collection N the of structure elitist the objectives these pursuing While their ponder to useful is it so fascism, generic of type ideal leadership. charismatic issue, party single the support, mass att commonly are that hinders main the here address to going now fascist. as Therefore, party. mass a to support that of channelling political m without regime fascist a of speak to impossible is it authors, directway.inand a simple categorised dif from elements of mixture intricate too a just was State 52 will.” autonomous or origin independent no have they transformation; means the merely are still and were corporatism and Nacional part state the Both it. transformed and strengthened c simultaneously outstanding an find to enough lucky was which , military t bottom at For structure. artificial an day this to remained Portugal the in lacking also was party) single the and movement words: Nolte’s using Or elitism. its c and regime the of the nature mention 1926), in coup the of time the at exist even not did it and sing (the mobilization of lack the with agree all they Nolte, m differ not do interpretations instance, for Payne’s, and Paxton’s f tone the set would opinion his Quintessentially, Nolte. Ernst Th case. Portuguese the to refer even not did simply very 1960’s, Greene, 14-35. New York: Crowell, c1968. P. 27. 27. P. c1968. Crowell, York: 14-35. New Greene,

Ernst Nolte. “Fascism as characteristic of an era.” of an characteristic as “Fascism ErnstNolte. Given that I have identified the current opinions about Portuguese aboutopinions current the identified have I that Given totalitaria and fascism of topic the on research initial The

In Fascism: an anthologyan Fascism: ferent sources to allow it to beto it allow to sources ferent le mass party was a mockery a was party mass le he Estado Novo is simply a a simply is Novo Estado he ew State will become clear, become will State ew “Originally this (a popular (a this “Originally These items fall inside my inside fall items These of this strengthening and and strengthening this of Salazar does not qualify not does Salazar xrsin n Portugal. in expression r ae shlr. Both scholars. later or , edited by Nathanael by Nathanael ,edited of Salazar, and it has it and Salazar, of ributed to the regime: the to ributed e only exception was exception only e nism, started on the the on started nism, s spot n the and support ass c fo ta of that from uch o te União the of y New State I am am I State New Page Page 52 vla who ivilian onservative o most For 40 of of 112

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ll its kings. kings. its ll a to refer to Salazar, in the Portuguese monarchica Portuguese the in Salazar, to refer to a

of my ideal type through the the through type ideal my of uted. During the 16 years of years 16 the During uted. te finances and stabilised the stabilised and finances te d meetings of support to the to support of meetings d regime. arce popular resonance of resonance popular arce sis of historiography on historiography of sis ism on the right, where right, the on ism founded in his austere, austere, his in founded rgument. However, the However, rgument. ão Preto.ão hough the government the hough igentsia coming from from coming igentsia contested by the small the by contested are the main reasons main the are ly prove that all these all that prove ly the Nation the pltca, n by and politician, a ense political strife, political ense lazar instigated instigated lazar t the New State State New the t Page Page dns eight idents, , hc, in which, s, 53 41 and the and of of econd econd 112 l

CEU eTD Collection i was access had he which to information of amount The systems. dictatoria other in common were that control for requirements the beyond into minister, his attention practically everyextended prime a Once portfolios. technical more the of control retained initially minut the for concern obsessive almost his was style governmental ma The power. exercised Salazar which in manner the describe o use the justifies clearly regime Salazar’s within making extensiv “The clear: makes Pinto Costa As detail. smallest af control in was he that is first him the drawn: be can consequences around elites the consolidated personally he relevant, more Salazar.under state org the consideration into takes one in if only like sense flamboyant makes assumption be to not was it but existed It Salazar. under t muc as paradigm, negative a in support sofunctioned mass the Secondly, he regime the on consequently, bestowed, also was received regim of head the as Salazar of figure the in concentrated consideration a to leading is argument My mobilization. political oppositionwhats extent the have could movements to gathered mass declaredly become censorship and the policepolitical the of action the However, they until media own their print to allowed even the movement, National-Syndicalist The movement. oppositionist any He had a very personal role in the direction of the state after after state the of direction the in role personal very a had He support mass as same the not is prestige personal Nevertheless, e. What respect and support hesupport and respect What e. f the term ‘strong dictator’ to dictator’ ‘strong term the f e centralisation of decision- of centralisation e rea of legislation, goinglegislation, of far rea makes it difficultassessto it makes of the regime down to its to down regime the of elevated to the office of office the to elevated ndeed impressive, and impressive, ndeed iae. (…) Salazar also Salazar (…) iae. n ri o Salazar’s of trait in f oua support popular of upport. 1928, and, what is what and, 1928, h as anything else anything else h as gty controlled. ightly to the regime or regime the to Blue Shirts, were Shirts, Blue emn. This Germany. nzto o the of anization e 13. Two 1932. ter anti-Salazar. anti-Salazar. Page Page political l 42 of of 112

CEU eTD Collection efficiently paralised society and replaced the influence of C of influence the replaced and society paralised efficiently ‘so thatarguments is endlessconferenceslost timeandin ‘so differe a proposing each agencies, competing by disputed was arose bureaucracy: Portuguese of portrait vivid a present to able was of analysis his In w world second the during Lisbon, in Irish power. delegation the of correspondence his to challenge possible or initiative eff being by obs an as working and paradigm) negative the not again (once inefficient so did It life. of manifestation single every appa bureaucratic strong a created he stance, his undermine could di military the of and republic old the of caciquism and influences of traffic the oppose To and power. more church proportionally achieving of government, influence the eliminated progressively Salazar him, Portugal.” reached.” t until gap administrative large a was there Salazar below and general, secretary no ministers, junior no Affairs, Foreign on observation Meneses’ were there the war of end “bythe ministries: the of organization by supported argument An Salazar. of supervision the under kept but rank, ministerial the given not were regime level.” ministerial the to appropriate that below far extended 401. 1942–1945.” Lisbon, in Legation 56 397. 1942–1945.” Lisbon, in Legation 55 54 Preto, and‘Order’: “‘Chaos’ Pinto. António Costa Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses. “Investigating Portugal, Meneses.“Investigating de Ribeiro Filipe Portugal, Meneses.“Investigating de Ribeiro Filipe

Stating it briefly, Salazar was in total control of the St the of control total in was Salazar briefly, it Stating The second consequence is that by supplying the New State with eli with State New the supplying by that is consequence second The Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions Political and Movements Totalitarian 55

Contemporary European History European Contemporary History European Contemporary

Salazar and Charismatic Appeal in Inter-war Inter-war in Appeal Charismatic and Salazar Salazar, and the New State: the Work of the Irish of the Work the State: andNew the Salazar, Irish of the Work the State: andNew the Salazar, VII, nr. 2 (June 2006): 203–214. P. 211. P. 203–214. 2006): nr.2 (June VII, XI, nr. 3 (August 2002): 391-408. P. P. 2002): 391-408. 3 (August nr. XI, P. 2002): 391-408. 3 (August nr. XI, and nothing is done’.”isnothing and hurch and Army as political as Army and hurch ate apparatus, which in turn in which apparatus, ate 54 e ed o srie were service of heads he The political areas of the of areas political The , within the Ministry for Ministry the within , no directors general: general: directors no icient, but by being being by but icient, iet n personal and direct Eey usin that question “Every ratus that dominated that ratus tacle to any privateany to tacle nt course of action of course nt ttrhp which ctatorship, h diplomatic the Page Page army in the the in army tes forged by forged tes ar, Meneses ar, political 43 56

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CEU eTD Collection no fascist movement. He successfully used the void in the right the in void the used successfully He movement. fascist no positiondictatorofand encounterlegitimation.”models as his enabl would that image an construct to possible methods the all used pe his despite and himself despite image, ‘charismatic’ a “Duringpolitical Salazar’s of legitimization: that function, charismatic the However refused. was never it but moderated, Franciscan a in almost Spartan, educat and His catholic Germany. profoundly of that like cult leader’s a Salazar death. incentived of because post dictatorial his leave only would stateme curious remarkably a fatherland, his for duty of sense acce only he that declared He known. well are finances state the taking when words His itself. society to and him by organized dow poured Salazar by professed modesty Christian the fact, In al and levels discrete to it disciplined which representation, regime.masstosupportthe the simultaneously fulfilled and existed Salazar of cult personality s to now going am I statement this prove To support. mass to amounts Sal of place prestigious highly the Therefore, before. stated the on bestowed also was Salazar of figur the to channeled was tha consideration into take to has regime Salazar’s to support public State, the of manipulation the beyond consequence, a As institutions. Portugal.” 58 57 of vowpoverty its for known order Religious António Costa Pinto. “‘Chaos’ and ‘Order’: Preto, S Preto, and‘Order’: “‘Chaos’ Pinto. António Costa Salazar strove to build a charismatic alternative to libera to alternative charismatic a build to strove Salazar sta doctrine catholic using ritualized was cult leadership The Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions Political and Movements Totalitarian

alazar and Charismatic Appeal in Inter-war Inter-war in Appeal Charismatic and alazar VII, nr. 2 (June 2006): 203–214. P. 203. P. 203–214. 2006): nr.2 (June VII, rsonality. During the 1930s he 1930s the During rsonality. lengthy regime, he cultivated he lengthy regime, most to the denial of itself. of denial the to most 57 pted the position out of the of out position the pted 58 l democracy, as there was there as democracy, l a. rie a t be to had Praise way. regime and its action, asaction, its and regime zr n 90s Portugal 1930’s in azar

the leadership cult and cult leadership the cult existed and had a had and existed cult n to the State apparatus State the to n wing to add a new tool new a add to wing nt from someone who who someone from nt o ad eif were beliefs and ion t any public support public any t could have never never have could ministerial seat of seat ministerial e him to strengthen to him e drs f public of ndards the argument of argument the Page Page o hw the how how 44 of of 112

CEU eTD Collection ofside the cult. moral in more felt he professor, a As Italy. and Germany of forms not did he though even politics, mass of needs the to leadership care the took Salazar more, is What arsenal. political his to 358. P. inState Portugal.” New 60 59 hisneveronehelduntildeath,that atte sway that he and image and puritanical reserved, a of that was cultivated Salazar conti resurging but itself, of denial constant the in living cult, working its and a almost an of shape cult the taking doctrine, catholic the by influenced clear-cut a not was It War. Civil Spanish the of dissolution forceful the to reaction a as 1935-36 years the in progressive fa with widespread the more become to tended on and early matters.” other stole just it so; havingdone of embarrassed not am I preamble. hav for apologize “I with: himself about book a to introduction the ends Salazar which and dictator the of laudatory highly Salazar, with Ferro. António António Costa Pinto, e Maria Inácia Rezola. “Politi Rezola. Inácia Maria e Pinto, António Costa action, intimately connected to the rebirth of a fa a of rebirth the to connected intimately action, f devotion admiration, faithful respect, gratitude, machine, itsaircogwheels cleanandto and pulleys unempl curb to seas, the crowd to seaports, with it ordertofatherland, makein itstreasurypublic gr heroical himself, isolates that man The apotheosis. ral organizing narcissism, in indulging time entire int of collection a 1933, in published, Ferro António this, of light In

It It is obviousthata serious dictatorship, sober,h Salazar 59 One can safely conclude that the leader’s cult was present was cult leader’s the that conclude safely can One Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions Political and Movements Totalitarian . 1933 ed. Lisbon: Edições do Tempo, 1978, 60. 1978, Tempo, do Lisbon:Edições ed. .1933

cal Catholicism, Crisis of Democracy and Salazar’s andSalazar’s of Democracy Crisis Catholicism, cal ow, to cut it with roads, providetowith cuttoow, it rom his compatriots. To stop his stop To compatriots. his rom therland, attempt to diminish his diminish to attempt therland, , is in propersituation receivetoin is , yet t rnvt te state the renovate to oyment, is prds crmne of ceremonies parades, lies, ardworking, cannot spend its ly, in his office, facing his his facing office, his in ly, provincial dictator; it was an was it dictator; provincial to formulate his charismatic his formulate to clined to the intellectual and intellectual the to clined VIII, nr. 2 (June 2007): 353–368. 353–368. 2007): nr.2 (June VIII, mptedto change.” me the time I needed for needed I time the me himself prefaced. He prefaced. himself chose the extravagant the chose uul. Te image “The nuously. ctively pursued non- pursued ctively Blue Shirts and the and Shirts Blue wr decisively were s sciszationbegun ing written this written ing erviews made erviews Page Page in Salazar in 45 60 of of

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CEU eTD Collection authoritarianlegitimationaofsource alternative for became antic republican from suffering Republic, early the throughout was, societ political of sector mobilised especially but small a a becoming exile Kingin the withmonarchy, the restore to made w there years early Republic’s the “During monarchists. the and alternati political the eliminate permanently to attempting ebr o te ainl no’ rln bde. Quot bodies. ruling Union’s National the of members 61 Deputie of House the in placed were Nacional União the of members off power. to ward Through competing finally, fra claims and, consens outward an maintaining thus competition, group inter any suppress the limit to was function main Its Salazar. by specifically by controlled completely praxis, political day-to-day the in and, party, governmental a was Union) (National Nacional União The st the baptize would that Constitution the of requirements formal cre was party mass single The interplay. they since State, mas to relating one the specially arguments, previous the to add single the analysing By unclear. however is categories three themat The party. single the of question the on focus to time now Portugal.” Portugal.” 62 243.1978, Tempo, do Edições Speech pronounced by Salazar on 23 November 1932 d 1932 November 23 on Salazar by pronounced Speech

António Costa Pinto. “‘Chaos’ and ‘Order’: Preto, S Preto, and‘Order’: “‘Chaos’ Pinto. António Costa the the anddictator the dictator feelshe is thepeopl such in blend people the and dictator the irrem Let him. mistake, peo the grave to speak dictator most the Let (…) a consequences. as me strikes prestige, aigadesdte rbe o hrsai edrhpadms s mass and leadership charismatic of problem the addressed Having 1930’s vital the more in the was cult the of charismatic role The Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions Political and Movements Totalitarian

alazar and Charismatic Appeal in Inter-war Inter-war in Appeal Charismatic andalazar d n Atno Ferro. António in: ed VII, nr. 2 (June 2006): 203–214. P. 204.P. 203–214. 2006): nr.2 (June VII, uring the ceremony of taking office of the first the of office taking of ceremony the uring e… a way, that the people feels it is it feels people the that way, a 61

ple and the people speak to to speak people the and ple y. The Catholic Church, which Church, Catholic The y. formation of political blocs, political of formation ves to liberalism: the church the liberalism: to ves s.” dal, f calamitous of ediable, party issue, I am going to going am I issue, party td n 93 o ufl the fulfil to 1933 in ated udulent direct suffrage thedirect suffrage udulent 62

n important symbol for for symbol important n Salazar s support in the New the in support s h gvrmn and government the r svrl attempts several ere t a “e State”. “New as ate rae fo above from created ic division of these of division ic when Salazar was when Salazar s of the National the of s 13 e. Lisbon: ed. 1933 . eiaim also lericalism, Page Page pot t is it upport, a image ual 46 of of

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CEU eTD Collection 65 Interpretation 64 Interpretation regime’stendencies the oth on ban the justifying by mission its fulfil did party single int different radically a with but Pinto Costa like much out, points unnecessa was movement a of projection a as party, The power. on S on highly focused regime The Union. National the for redundant became Consequently, Salazar. of figure the on concentrated was support popular th seen, have we As society. the of organisation overall the i at looking without party single the of characteristics static State, New the on approach quasi-formal and positive a constitutes ofhisSecretariesMinistersSalazar State. andand of c the however council; corporatist the by controlled was act formal cor of non-existence the given Government, the by nominated members orga an of elements the represent to designed Chamber, Corporatist Nationa the of house second The elected. been had Deputies of House masses m of representeffort any not did but State, the of form organic new at specifically aimed held elections first The Assembly. 63 stat t and party between tension typical of the from it separated characteristic This apparatus. administrative the with Sala and state, and party between divided state’, ‘dual a never Assembly National the headquarters, constitutional its and party Ibid. 22 Ibid. 22 Pinto. Costa António António Costa Pinto. Pinto. Costa António h stain hs rsne spot te lis n h rl o te sing the of role the on claims the supports presented thus situation The 63 Te unu ws reeat a ln a i cud ipy e cl be simply could it as long as irrelevant, was turnout The . . San Domenico: European University Institute, 1991 Institute, European University San Domenico: . 1991 Institute, European University San Domenico: . The Salazar “New State” and European Fascism – Prob – Fascism European and State” “New Salazar The The Salazar “New State” and European Fascism – Prob – Fascism European and State” “New Salazar The 65 .

, 70. , 69. , oqeig eiiay o the to legitimacy conquering ts meaning and function in function and meaning ts e in Fascism.”in e er parties and reinforcing and parties er mblzn faue or feature mobilizing e e otgee regime Portuguese he . “The ‘New State’ was State’ ‘New “The . a gvre oe and over governed zar obilizing directly the obilizingthe directly lems and Perspectives of Perspectives and lems which considers the considers which lems and Perspectives of Perspectives and lems ouncil was made up made was ouncil erpretation, that the that erpretation, ry. Manuel Lucena Manuel ry. nic society, had its had society, nic l Assembly, the Assembly, l ie ta the that aimed porations. The porations. Page Page 64 alazar’s grip alazar’s This view This hs role this 47 e mass le of of 112

CEU eTD Collection sue ta n ohr oiia fre ol hv te oml clai formal the have would force political other no that assured s theby fullycontrolled system representative the establishing 1978.Studies, ofInternational Institute Nationa European in on Development A Debate 1940: E Western of Periphery on the Development Dependent is: system t According analysis. Schmitter’s extrapolate to base solid a Asse (National Nacional Assembleia single the in united were repre and corporations of houses the Furthermore, organization. economic sim be to had organization political of principles the underlying logic claime regime the case, any In Portugal. Salazar’s in party r the understand to framework appropriate very a provides it Portugal corpor of system economic the describing at aimed was enunciation 66 corporat a of characteristics main the of conceptualization

Schmitter, Philippe. “Reflections on Mihail Manoile onMihail “Reflections Philippe. Schmitter, 4. 3. 2. 1.

h snl pry ntttd peetv sse o interest of system preventive a instituted party single The theor Schmitter’s Philippe by reinforced be can that argument An the corporatist orders. All conflict is bureaucratized while while bureaucratized is wiortopossibilitysectorappealsof any alliances preventing conflict All orders. corporatist the Compartmental with theparadigm.officiallysanctioned with tha interests new articulating and projects new opening of instead Defensive it eliminates positiveeliminatesaction. it uses alternative preventing structures, its within participation Preventive Preemptive representation to preventtoefforts representation spontaneous , considering that associations act to defend rights granted from granted rights defend to act associations that considering , maig ht t nae te ebr o te ytm n passive in system the of members the engages it that meaning , i te es ta etbihs rvos tutrs f inter of structures previous establishes that sense the in , , as far as conflicts are encapsulated struc non-interacting inas conflicts asare far ,

scu and the National Consequences of Delayed of Consequences the National and scu , edited by Kenneth Jowitt, 117–173. Berkeley: Berkeley: 117–173. Jowitt, Kenneth byedited , urope.” In urope.” Social Change in Romania, 1860- Romania, in Change Social d itself as corporatist, so the so corporatist, as itself d s system ist o Schmitter the corporatist the Schmitter o ingle party, the New StateNew the party, ingle mbly), affording me with me affording mbly), atism, in the case of case the in atism, der clienteles. of time. Therefore, time. of riuain By articulation. ilar to the ones of ones the to ilar t legitimacy, to m 66 ole of the single the of ole Atog, his Although, . simultaneously Page Page t might clash might t sentatives 48 of of above above tures, etical 112 est

CEU eTD Collection 150. P. 1978. Studies, ofInternational Institute Nationa European in on Development A Debate 1940: E Western of Periphery on the Development Dependent streetpower.violenceof assault to instead mi the from blossomed State, New the of elites, birth the accomplished with perfectly but bourgeoisie, petty the not was membership peri same the of parties single other to relation in Union National That Salazar. to bowed which elites, local of circle closed wa It input. outside any disregarded Union National the State, New re national of case the In constituency. its of opinions the to open pr c a that expected the is It system. representative a eliminate to for inherent Union National As the that society. say can over one control characteristic, and project larger power the of of expression bureaucratization an as Union National the at look Nac União the of role functional the in presence its perceive feat compartmental the Regarding Salazar. of power and will the paradigm sanctioned officially the underscored merely interests, not did It Salazar. of plans and actions the of defense and repetition goal main Its Nacional. União in traced be also can feature happening.” from prevented negatively and surreptitiously it “what inter my for party (single corporatism of relevance the explained, other on ban the for justification a is it out, pointed Lucena As ge in mechanism representation the and party, single the sense, center the within from force opposing any out driving effectively 67

Schmitter, Philippe. “Reflections on Mihail Manoile onMihail “Reflections Philippe. Schmitter,

scu and the National Consequences of Delayed of Consequences the National and scu , edited by Kenneth Jowitt, 117–173. Berkeley: Berkeley: 117–173. Jowitt, Kenneth byedited , urope.” In urope.” Social Change in Romania, 1860- Romania, in Change Social is the main difference of the the of difference main the is hamber of representatives is representatives of hamber was to develop a rhetoric of rhetoric a develop to was ional. However, one can one However, ional. parties. Or, as Schmitter as Or, parties. neral, were preemptive. were neral, , providing an echo to echo an providing , al oiie action positive all d r, t s adr to harder is it ure, rsnain n the in presentation iay dictatorship, litary s constituted by a by constituted s d n uoe its Europe: in od rtto) a in was pretation) f oe. n this In power. of 67 h defensive The riuae new articulate Page Page hc suits which f increased of 49 eventive of of 112

CEU eTD Collection York: Press, 1995. P. 77.P. 1995. Press, University Columbia York: 69 wit followed religiously and maintained was principle electoral ha we “As sacred: was principle representative the that say One problems. had revolution corporatist the that Caetano, Marcello t even obvious, was it 1940’s the By stage. early an in stagnated its and place secondary a occupied institutions corporatist the though, New the of organization formal the established thus constitution f the Nonetheless, impossible. seems them match to liberalism; wa Corporatism fascisms. European in case borderline a as Portugal accentua feature This it. weakening of instead it stabilize le maintain to perhaps liberalism, political of apparatus the nev Salazar representation. of principles corporatist and liberal ofthethegenerallywhichmasses fascists mobilization a of monopoly and control of functions fulfilled created, once nor, all theon “unlike National that Union fascist the states he when newspaper the tha intellectuals of elite the and Salazar in elsewhere, That ideology. corresponding a without but fascist, functionally it fr legal a with it stabilized and elections through regime the 68 admini the of ranks lower the controlled factions, all neutralized

António Costa Pinto. António Costa The central administration was controlled exclusive controlled was administration The central The National Union and the Constitution of 1933 also represented a synt a represented also 1933 of Constitution the and Union National The political-representational monopolized party single the up, sum To Acção Salazar's Dictatorship and European Fascism: proble Fascism: and European Dictatorship Salazar's s go eape Teeoe I ant ge wt Csa Pinto Costa with agree cannot I Therefore, example. good a is

ly by Salazar. Salazar. lyby t he fostered around him, of which of him, around fostered he t did.”

gal order inside the state, to state, the inside order gal es, neither reached power power reachedat neither es, 69 amework. Its features made features Its amework. e cery h psto of position the clearly tes

ve already indicated, the the indicated, already ve er dismantled completely dismantled er hin the established time established the hin ms of interpretation.ms o the regime-men, like regime-men, the o stration c rmis ht the that remains act can go as far as to as far as go can tt. n practice, In State. s an alternative to alternative an s ccess to power or power to ccess a t b found be to was implementation 68 Page Page , legitimized , 50 power, hesis of hesis of of New New 112

CEU eTD Collection and its chief goals were to develop the leader’s cu leader’s the develop goalsto were chief andits 72 man. regenerated of a project regime’s tothe them him between frictions real any Salaznever were “there Cerejeira: between friendship the by symbolized was that relationship to submission and discipline order, on based values defending corporatist, anti-communi were both State: New the and Church the between core w There excellence. of tool State’s New the was state’stimeownappropriationinterests for its people’s the of leade the of consolidation the at hint also They consent. mass clea constitute ground,rally its and organizations the elements, created in 1935 to provide workers with pastimes an pastimes with workers provide to 1935 in created for stage a sport, (FNAT perform to and organizations education for plans regime’s the out play prov to was function main Its architecture. Nazi Stadium Olympic B in modelled 1944, and 1939 between built was Jamor of Stadium National differ with it sought just It convey. authors most as aspect support it in sieged state, paralytic a was State New the period, that, mean not did this But support. non-enthusiastic mild, albeit 71 79.P. 1995. Press, University Columbia York: Unionopposition thewon withdrawalcandidates,Nationalthee of the limits.” 70 (Portuguese Youth), modelled o modelled Youth), (Portuguese Portuguesa Mocidade udço ainl aa lgi n Taah (Nation Trabalho no Alegria para Nacional Fundação

António Costa Pinto. António Costa Nevertheless, the most important instrument of mass support was support mass of instrument important most the Nevertheless, h sae ne Slzr a stsid n ulig t foundat its building in satisfied was Salazar under state The 70 Of course, the outcome of elections was a mockery. Through e Through mockery. a was elections of outcome the course, Of Salazar's Dictatorship and European Fascism: proble Fascism: and European Dictatorship Salazar's

71 , MP ,

72 lt and the military spirit to serve the New State. New serve the to spiritmilitary and the lt ) and a dignified space for mass rallies. These rallies. mass for space dignified a and )

d affordable vacations, simultaneously indoctrinati simultaneously vacations, affordable d ut of its Italian counterpart, was created in 1936 in created was counterpart, Italian its of ut l onain o Hpies n ok, was Work), in Happiness for Foundation al s palaces, disregarding the mass mass the disregarding palaces, s (Salazar) and the Cardinal. the and (Salazar) . . r’s cult referred above and above referred cult r’s r steps on the build up of up build the on steps r ms of interpretation.ms as a shared ideological shared a as ide a grand theatre to theatre grand a ide during its fascization its during os n general, a on ions n mtos The methods. ent very election. r n Cardinal and ar the church. God church. the t channelling its t anti-liberal, st, Page Page ither fraud or fraud ither authority. A authority. 51

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CEU eTD Collection 75 364. P. 353–368. Portugal.” in State New Salazar’s 74 363. P. 353–368. Portugal.” in State New Salazar’s “Cereje purposes. state’s the serve to predisposed was consensus, bothortheleader:heregimeto defended its either proximity Salaza to cause’ ‘church’s the entrusted apparently Cerejeira 73 know,totheliferoutebestpolitical fol therefore, Nation’s through collaborate, to wish that Catholics The may. it wherever fac the destroy to precisely, created, was Union National The led that process the in all from removedcompletely been have influence they as just Government, no had Catholics “The power: in himself i Centre Academic the of role the about asked when implicitly Salazar people. the over power spiritual state’s the religi the than more crucifix, the and leadership) charismatic m (one State the was Salazar blackboard. the above hanging were maintaine was r class Salazar’sIn Church. the to granted were privileges Church and State of separation republican strict, toorderinregainthe church’s influence and 1933 prestige. organi an Action, Catholic Portuguese the about Pinto Costa writes spaces new win and autonomy its secure to attempted church the that control state resist to trying was church the that evidence 1933political the benefit would action its where manoeuvre to António Ferro. António

António Costa Pinto, and Maria Inácia Rezola. “Poli Rezola. Inácia Maria and Pinto, António Costa António Costa Pinto, and Maria Inácia Rezola. “Poli Rezola. Inácia Maria and Pinto, António Costa The Concordat signed with the Vatican in 1940 was a mirror of the sit the of mirror a was 1940 in Vatican the with signed Concordat The was and State the by control strict under was Church the However, Therefore, it follows that the Church, due to the circumstance the to due Church, the that follows it Therefore,

Salazar . 1933 ed. Lisbon: Edições do Tempo, 1978, 85. 1978, Tempo, do Lisbon:Edições ed. .1933 Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions andPolitical Movements Totalitarian Religions andPolitical Movements Totalitarian

tical Catholicism, Crisis of Democracy and and Democracy of Crisis Catholicism, tical and Democracy of Crisis Catholicism, tical oom, his picture and acrucifix and hispicture oom, low… 74 : “It was within these limits these within was “It : ous value itself,represented value ous

tenaciously.” r; he never renounced his renounced never he r; n his rise and permanence and rise his n status quostatus ” made this distinction distinction this made

their patriotism, in the in patriotism, their 75 my political acts. (…) acts. political my ins sii, e that be spirit, tionist ira thus conjured an conjured thus ira

VIII, nr. 2 (June 2007): 22007): (June nr. VIII, 22007): (June nr. VIII,

r sml sg of sign simple ore of an ideological an of ain one in founded zation ad o major no and d . There is is even There . f influence”, of 73 Page Page only allowed only

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CEU eTD Collection sheppards and revealed them three secrets. secrets. three them revealed and sheppards 78 66. P. 1995. Press, University Columbia York: 77 364. P. 353–368. Portugal.” in State New Salazar’s funding, mental and public ideology the of vehicle propaganda the as acted church with 1928 M Finance as in office took begun Salazar year same Fátima the coincidentally of Basilica the on wi Construction associated always but purposes, religious for Fátima, in happening s for realized not did it rallies profane The obvious. was regime regime.–theof outward form the superficial es was what of again track lose to is done, have authors many as so, Portuguese the of brand the was Catholicism that definitely say I apparatus. religious the over control of elements included even C the in visible is state and church of separation The Salazar. of instrument an and it) to limited not (but ideology State’s New Portuga in Church Catholic Roman Holy the that is facts, the of possible The drive. state’scentralizing power and enhance the could whos Portugal, of institutions prestigious and important most the of advantage.” full take to was Church Catholic the of protector as Portugal Salazar of image 76 example.” ful it functions ‘parapolitical’ the and Fátima of cult religious sometimes is which element an savior, of role power’s political ‘piéti popular of and practice’ religious of ‘renewal the synchronizing model a provided also church “The institution. para-political a into codn t te hrh i 11, h Vri Mary Virgin the 1917, in Church, the to According António Costa Pinto. António Costa

António Costa Pinto, and Maria Inácia Rezola. “Poli Rezola. Inácia Maria and Pinto, António Costa The New State used the Church specifically as a tool for mobili for tool a as specifically Church the used State New The 77 h epotto o te aia miracle Fatima the of exploitation The

Salazar's Dictatorship and European Fascism: proble Fascism: European and Dictatorship Salazar's 76 Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions andPolitical Movements Totalitarian On the other hand, the state recognized in the church one church the in recognized state the hand, other the On

tical Catholicism, Crisis of Democracy and and Democracy of Crisis Catholicism, tical perd oe a unn te, o he little three to tree, burning a over appeared, 78 s ms peoeo b the by phenomenon mass a as filled are the most obvious obvious most the are filled and one of which Salazar which of one and trict political aims, were aims, political trict it and 1940 of oncordat interwar regime? To do To regime? interwar l was an element of the of element an was l ms ofinterpretation. ms n light of this, can one can this, of light n power in the hands of hands the in power nse. niety the Indirectly, inister. neetmtd The underestimated. ity of the New State New the of ity VIII, nr. 2 (June 2007): 22007): (June nr. VIII, conclusion, in viewconclusion, sential and merely and sential sm’ with the new the with sm’ o mobilization, for zation, turning it it turning zation, manipulation e Page Page h h State. the th 53 of of New New 112

CEU eTD Collection 365. P. 353–368. Portugal.” in State New Salazar’s Portugal.” of enjoyment the hisrule.to support and country the on grip powerful a with Salazar provided organisations.” paramilitary regime’s U the both of weakness the explains influencealso “Catholicism’s negat a in functions same the performed itself party single perform was party mass a of role typical the that say can one elements” introduced and completed both ‘providence’ and Nationalism institut autonomous ideologic of of instrument complementary and powerful a into transformed nucleus powerful its by and inf institutions its official through both Church, “The country. to the apparatus over all latter’s socialization the allowed church the and state between The policy. its and society of view organic its for support gaining 80 79 concl generic only The one. mild a albeit connection, a fact in Romania and Germany Italy, of examples historical to proceeds regimes or movements fascist between process synchretic a to cleric that is text the from take can one hint only The definition. conc the but fascism, clerical on article an published Eatwell attempts those liter even Nevertheless, made. been have attempts historiographic in present fascism clerical of definition f clerical of expression an as Portugal on reflect to mandatory António Costa Pinto, and Maria Inácia Rezola. “Po InáciaRezola. Maria Pinto, and António Costa Preto, and‘Order’: “‘Chaos’ Costa. António Pinto, salsig uh pwru ln bten h cuc ad tt make state and church the between link powerful a such Establishing Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions Political and Movements Totalitarian Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions andPolitical Movements Totalitarian

80 h ato o te w isiuin combined institutions two the of action The Salazar and Charismatic Appeal in Inter-war Inter-war in Appeal andCharismatic Salazar litical Catholicism, Crisis of Democracy and Democracy and of Crisis Catholicism, litical VII, nr. 2 (June 2006): 203–214. P. 212. P. 203–214. 2006): nr.2 (June VII, are at best vague. In 2003, 2003, In vague. best at are ed by the church, while the while church, the by ed ascism. There is no secureno is There ascism. v wy a se above. seen as way, ive and the church. He then He church. the and usion that Eatwell draws Eatwell that usion p i dpoe wt no with deployed is ept to show that there was there that show to al fascism corresponds fascism al tr, lhuh some although ature, nião Nacional and the the and Nacional nião core ideology shared ideology core VIII, nr. 2 (June 2007): 22007): (June nr. VIII, rvd political provide al socialisation. al une within luence Page Page 79 Therefore, os was ions, 54 of of mass it s 112

CEU eTD Collection Religions Political 84 Religions and Political Movements Totalitarian 83 Religions and Political Movements Totalitarian 82 partiesw leftwaswhichscopethere little for radical s based peasant “highly in emerged fascism clerical that is (December 2003): 145 - 166. P. 153. P. 166. 145 - 2003): (December 81 .” National German like movements fascist to argue to commentators some led has Christianity, with relationship religi ‘political of consideration “Academic interpretation. Fascism’ in Interwar EuropetoInterwaroutin examine.” sets Fascism’ revolutionary and secular other the system monotheistic, faith and established antagonistic ostensibly two these of ‘hybridisation’, t of edition latest Religions Political the and Movements to introduction the in stated was idea same cl take to crisis the solveto order in church, and is statebetween syncretism assumption safe only The Europe. fascist interwar widespre was that phenomenon a but societies, backward of typical not of ideology: “If, as Griffin argues, fascism, as it emer it as fascism, argues, Griffin as “If, ideology: of palingenetic myth, the second that both were anti-communist and ant and anti-communist were both first that second the myth, The palingenetic Europe. in phenomenon widespread a as fascisms clerical society.” European moral a seeking were reasons, same the of some for and period, th clear is it ultra-nationalism’, populist, ‘palingenetic, of

Roger Eatwell. “Reflections on Fascism and and Religion Fascism on “Reflections Eatwell. Roger John Pollard. “‘’: Context, Context, Overvie Fascism’: “‘Clerical John Pollard. Fasci “‘Clerical Turda. Marius and Feldman, Matthew Fasci “‘Clerical Turda. Marius and Feldman, Matthew oee, oe eet tde o ceia fsim ae undermine have fascism clerical on studies recent more However, Pollard elaborated on the concept more explicitly by identifying a c a identifying by explicitly more concept the on elaborated Pollard VIII, nr. 2 (June 2007): 433–446. P. 435. P. 433–446. 2007): (June nr.2 VIII, 84 In addition, he puts forward some key elements that character that elements key some forward puts he addition, In

journal: “It is precisely the degree of cross-over, or or cross-over, of degree the precisely is “It journal: VIII, nr. 2 (June 2007): 205–212. P.206. 205–212. 2007): nr.2 (June VIII, P.206. 205–212. 2007): nr.2 (June VIII, w and Conclusion.” Conclusion.” and w .” .” sm’ in Interwar Europe: An Introduction.” Introduction.” An Europe: Interwar sm’ in Introduction.” An Europe: Interwar sm’ in Totalitarian Movements andPolitical Movements Totalitarian 83

ere not overtlyerenotreligious” ged in the early 1920s, was a form a was 1920s, early the in ged 82 Therefore, clerical fascism is fascism clerical Therefore, n’ ad atclry their particularly and ons’, ceis wee usd the outside where ocieties, t hitas n h same the in Christians at Totalitarian Movements and Movements Totalitarian of modernity. The very The modernity. of and spiritual rebirth of rebirth spiritual and for a Christian basis Christian a for i-liberalism, third, i-liberalism, rcl acs as fascism erical ta ‘Clerical that – – n long- one – s he s h shared the is

d throughout ad Page Page ommon core ommon Totalitarian Eatwell’s d 81 . . IV, nr. nr. 3 IV, 55 of of 112 ize

CEU eTD Collection Religions and Political Movements Totalitarian 86 Religions Political t excluding am I Therefore, article. definitionhisstillworkable framework provides a Nonetheless, the in does he than period for evidence historical with them cross-examine and churchs orthodox and c of faith the of doctrine the into go to have would He idea. an such not is that However, Europe. interwar of examples historical s a Christianity, of nature anti-semitic naturally the are not is argumentation his However, anti-semitism. and racism Europe.” of parts many in movement Soci revolutionary a of rise the and industrialisation to both response doctrine, social Catholic on encyclical 1891 XIII’s a Corporatism, corporatism. finally, and, peasantry idealized clearly by world rural collapsing the and industrialization between fasci clerical that sense the in ruralist, also were they 85 businesswith?”doto enough the at or race; or nation the of redeemers ‘holy’ as but goals, revolut than more as movements fascism national see clerics, f h 1 the of of result a as anti-liberalist, also was Portugal in church Center. Catholic the by ideologically inspired was Salazar as from comes State New Salazar’s of inspiration corporatist ca a make clearly above brought evidence The fascist. clerical

Matthew Feldman, and Marius Turda. “‘Clerical Fasci “‘Clerical Turda. Marius and Feldman, Matthew John Pollard. “‘Clerical Fascism’: Context, Context, Overvie Fascism’: “‘Clerical John Pollard. One question must be asked: “to what extent did interwar Christians interwar did extent what “to asked: be must question One In the case at hand, Salazar’s Portugal, it seems clear clear seems it Portugal, Salazar’s hand, at case the In st eulc n, utemr, nicmuit A t rrls, t i it ruralism, to As anti-communist. furthermore, and, republic VIII, nr. 2 (June 2007): 433–446. P. 437. P. 433–446. 2007): (June nr.2 VIII, 86

85 VIII, nr. 2 (June 2007): 205–212. P. 206. P. 205–212. 2007): nr.2 (June VIII, olr de ad nte dmnin ta of that dimension, another add does Pollard w and Conclusion.” Conclusion.” and w sm’ in Interwar Europe: An Introduction.” Introduction.” An Europe: Interwar sm’ in

sm sought to balance the relations the balance to sought sm eu Novarum Rerum tatement for which he provides he which for tatement the strong anti-secular cleavage anti-secular strong the the catholic social doctrine, social catholic the that the regime qualifies as qualifies regime the that ionary parties with secular with parties ionary Totalitarian Movements and Movements Totalitarian convincing. Its essentials Its convincing. nearly enough to sustain to enough nearly It is understood that the that understood is It dfnd y oe Leo Pope by defined s very least, as Christian as least, very for clericalfascism. for e o Prua. The Portugal. for se alist class working alist atholic, protestant atholic, iig ih an with siding wih a a was “which a dimension. hat

Page Page commonly s , especially , 56 larger a of of 112

CEU eTD Collection Religions Political later work to going am I which with type ideal my in identifiable ha I and concept range broad a is totalitarianism since however, devot to going not am I state. the of nature totalitarian the of re issue one only Portugal, on discussion the of light In catalogue. a characteristics existing verifiable of statement simple appr functionalist a was It formulation. classical the outside e the and mobilization mass cult, leadership a of existence the classif to used usually pla a made have reasons I problems. many have fascist not and authoritarian main three the that pointed have sour primary some and undertaken have I that literature of review group the within qualify also it can However, regime. fascist practices.” wit consonant were ideas those that sense a and objectives, and promotion and protection the for vehicle political best the offered “fasci that stating by concludes Pollard years). 59 for power elite and plutocracy liberal stable its m constitutional a was It materialis regime. (regeneration) Regeneração and liberalism established of advent the with died spiri the of rebirth of one was it Portugal, in church catholic Finally, regarding life. urban degeneration the the of from apart ag the in life idyllic the was propaganda of themes favorite a industrialization country’s the delayed Salazar that accepted 87 John Pollard. “‘Clerical Fascism’: Context, Overvi Context, “‘Clerical Fascism’: Pollard. John In light of the preceding considerations Portugal can be considered a a considered be can Portugal considerations preceding the of light In 87 A conclusion that isperfectlyAP of conclusionsuited the case that for VIII, nr. 2 (June 2007): 433–446. P. 443. P. 443. 2007): 433–446. (June 2 nr. VIII,

rotativismo ew and Conclusion.” Conclusion.” and ew te ae w gop atrae in alternated groups two same (the ccording to a predetermined predetermined a to ccording Totalitarian Movements and Movementsand Totalitarian e much attention to it here, here, it to attention much e oach that went beyond the the beyond went that oach iutrl omnt, far community, ricultural tual man, that which had which that man, tual onarchy distinguished by distinguished onarchy of generic fascism? The fascism? generic of xistence of a single party single a of xistence palingenetic myth of theof myth palingenetic t oeet ad ideas and movements st d n o te regime’s the of one nd ve broke it into smaller into it broke ve ortugal. ortugal. h Christian ideals and ideals Christian h m in 1851 with the the with 1851 in m mains to address, that address, to mains of religious interests religious of usible case to show to case usible e i ti chapter this in ces I i nonetheless is It . Prua as Portugal y Page Page 57 clerical of of 112

CEU eTD Collection classifica the questioning totalitarian, extension,opposed fa by and, to asauthoritarian am I since address, to necessary saw fit. saw reac arm’s at again, were, unions, national the like exist, w addition, In exist. not did corporatism of associations economic The centrali upper, the in guidance imposedstrict that State, the or lev regional simultaneously the commanded who singleparty, the both of influence were they autonomy; no had notables Local church. the state, the of guidance strict the under was Salazar, of topic ev family, The control. social of instruments as used were a party single the state, the how shown have I perspective. this di the considering when through shines Portugal of case borderline The t not regime, authoritarian an in control social of agents main a These notables. local family, church, associations, economic by pri the on attack the of scope the was regimes authoritarian and otgee e Sae Or as r ls srce, u ways our stricter, less are laws Our princi State. New fundamental Portuguese the by established are work to intend Government, said: himself he as state totalitarian a create to intended was politics discuss and house coffee a to going of act the Even p enforced state the by controlled was which indoors, life family in sphere private fact, In action. of scope broad a allowed never i but exist, did It Portugal. in feeble was state, authoritarian As I have mentioned before the only real perceivable differenc perceivable real only the before mentioned have I As rm hs esetv, h eitne f piae pee th sphere, private a of existence the perspective, this From h of Salazar to dispose of as he as of dispose to Salazar of h through the manipulation of manipulation the through t was under attack and it was it and attack under was t en though it was a favorite a was it though en scist. Te iis ihn e the we, within limits “The r ls plcd ad the and policed, less are zed levels of civil service.civil of levels zed he state and single party. single and state he nd the controlled church controlled the nd a danger. Salazar never Salazar danger. a Portugal was reduced to reduced Portugalwas vate sphere, constituted constituted sphere, vate in f otgl as Portugal of tion aradigm in any case. any in aradigm els of administrationof els e ecie a the as perceived re at distinguishes an an distinguishes at e between fascist between e chotomy from chotomy Page Page hen they did did they hen ls f the of ples ne the under 58 of of 112

CEU eTD Collection Salazar’s regime outlived any of its ideological counterparts counterparts ideological its of any outlived regime Salazar’s tightly was which dissent, internal its of any than State New S in war civil the of events The physically. or symbolically pol or military administrative, – elites own his by threatened while war, the of course the during life Hitler’s at attempt effi After more Germany. Nazi even much and totalitarianism in experiments was leader political a as How ability ideology. Salazar’s of aura the missing is it since totalitarianism, call also could one such, As monopoly. power and control total for tool i of engagement the for tool a not was totalitarianism man, t myth, palingenetic a was there though Even states. European other was it behind teleology The difference. one with totalitarianism fulfi It options. other eliminating actions, people’s restricting present totalitarianism practical a such, as regime the totali a mean I concept this By totalitarianism. orientated the church – to make that vision a reality.”churchvision–amake that to the th as well as – control propagandistic and educational corporative, instrument social and ideological the all deployed and society, of official “Salazarism consequences. full its to never albeit r the of development political and ideological the Nevertheless, 366. P. 353–368. Portugal.” in State New Salazar’s 89 proclaim not have we and absolute less the is one, this state, 88

António Ferro. António António Costa Pinto, and Maria Inácia Rezola. “Poli Rezola. Inácia Maria and Pinto, António Costa cl ti sse o efcety eetv ideological selective efficiently of system this call I

Salazar . 1933 ed. Lisbon: Edições do Tempo, 1978, 114-115. 1978, Tempo, do Lisbon:Edições ed. .1933 Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions andPolitical Movements Totalitarian

89

tical Catholicism, Crisis of Democracy and and Democracy of Crisis Catholicism, tical in the control of everyday life, life, everyday of control the in ly instituted an ‘organic’ vision‘organic’ an instituted ly tarianism never recognized by recognized never tarianism Salazar was never seriously never was Salazar pain did more to frighten the the frighten to more did pain deology with reality, but a but reality, with deology n siiul oto: a control: spiritual and all, there was a military a was there all, otold I te end, the In controlled. tcl wehr ht be that whether - itical n uoe bcue the because Europe, in in ta te Italian the than cient

gm to ta way, that took egime ld h msin of missions the lled never as strong as in as strong as never vr i hd results. had it ever, d t omnipotent.” it ed e elite, the state and state the elite, e VIII, nr. 2 (June 2007): 22007): (June nr. VIII, o administrative, of s he arrival of a new a of arrival he Page Page it incomplete it 59 of of 112 88

CEU eTD Collection 387. 385-402. P. 1979): 3 (July nr. 91 385. 385-402. P. 1979): 3 (July nr. main reasons the the was efficient.One of Portugal was in way. totalitarian political and social of section every controlled and mingled state 90 hospi offices, factories, office, post railways, houses, coffee ev in operated informers and spies of network national Its life. f the wasleast.”popular,elitenotthesay to governing after where, country a in inactive and diffuse continually forc opposition However, 500. than less to amounted Portugal metropolitan politic decades, four over repression: total to resorting without apparatus police undercover efficient extremely an years, many area the in rationality of degree high a displayed “consistently a This Preto. Rolão of those as movements, radical right-wing c the elites, republican former the from came opposition only The de the within population conscious e civically not extremely low-educated, a were keeping together propaganda state and church The control. of premiership in 1968.”in premiership of close the until up right person, in reports his and 1945) in – Defence Internationa – PIDE to name changed (PVDE PIDE the of director of habit a made “Salazar himself. Salazar by approved and Torture procedure discontentment. any with dealing in summary were Defence)

Tom Gallagher. “Controlled Repression in Salazar's Salazar's in Repression “Controlled Tom Gallagher. Tom Gallagher. “Controlled Repression in Salazar's Salazar's in Repression “Controlled Tom Gallagher. It is useful to enter here with the problem of mass repression. mass of problem the with here enter to useful is It h mtos f h pltcl oie VE Plc fr Vigilance for (Police PVDE police political the of methods The 91 By the end of the 1930’s it had infiltrated most areas of nationa of mostareas infiltrated had it 1930’s the of end the By

Portugal.” Portugal.” Portugal.” Portugal.” 90

Journal of Contemporary History ofContemporary Journal History ofContemporary Journal a prioria ery public place, namely place, public ery of internal security. For security. internal of al murders commited in commited murders al as uieste, etc. universities, tals, life, i.e., it acted in a in acted it i.e., life, kept down opposition opposition down kept ideological ideological apparatus lwd ht Portugal that llowed Political repression Political rt e yas the years, few irst muit ad the and ommunists Plc fr State for Police l receiving the the receiving Page Page a routine was ie limits. fined es remained es i 3 year 36 his and State State and fcet in fficient 60 of of XIV, XIV, 112 l

CEU eTD Collection State. State. absor was movement the half when inside the from apart broke Preto Nationa the while rules, regime the by playing in easily more uhrt ad autonomy. and authority militaryinst the to left was repression its but resistance, individual.” per years fourteen salazari in years 308 of total a served had committee central Communi (Portuguese PCP twenty-two-strong then the 1974, April 25 of coup in hyper-efficient was (PVDE) it that shows record The (…) ground otherwise have done.” th have otherwise more apparatus coercive its expand and develop to it compelled and greater created sustained, more was resistance “Communist enemy ideological political vigilance.” political socia of agents as doubling clergy provincial with network security acted also it countryside, the of parts large “In mechanism. 394. 385-402. P. 1979): 3 (July nr. 96 393. 385-402. P. 1979): 3 (July nr. 95 391. 385-402. P. 1979): 3 (July nr. 94 397. 385-402. P. 1979): 3 (July nr. 93 387. 385-402. P. 1979): 3 (July nr. Portuguese. 400 every in one spies, li the constituted people 20.000 as much as estimates Gallagher 92

Tom Gallagher. “Controlled Repression in Salazar's Salazar's in Repression “Controlled Tom Gallagher. Salazar's in Repression “Controlled Tom Gallagher. Salazar's in Repression “Controlled Tom Gallagher. Salazar's in Repression “Controlled Tom Gallagher. Tom Gallagher. “Controlled Repression in Salazar's Salazar's in Repression “Controlled Tom Gallagher. Sections of the army not affiliated with Salazar also had had also Salazar with affiliated not army the of Sections The main target of PVDE was the communist resistance, as i as resistance, communist the was PVDE of target main The 93 a excellence par

94 “Most of the important (communist) party cadres were run to run were cadres party (communist) important the of “Most 96 h Pruus Lgo hd en eind s praetorian a as designed been had Legion Portuguese The

95 In comparison, the former republican elites conformed elites republican former the comparison, In u as te oe nrnhd poiin force. opposition entrenched more the also but 92 vn h cuc ws novd n h security the in involved was church the Even Portugal.” Portugal.” Portugal.” Portugal.” Portugal.” Portugal.” Portugal.” Journal of Contemporary History ofContemporary Journal History ofContemporary Journal History ofContemporary Journal History ofContemporary Journal History ofContemporary Journal itution, keeping a high degree of high degree a keeping itution, headaches for the regime, the for headaches s pr o h regime’s the of part a as t al, n vrg of average an gaols, st Sniait o Rolão of Syndicalists l prdc ubrt of outbursts sporadic t f nomr and informers of st t was not only the the only not was t this regard. By the the By regard. this cnomt and conformity l bed by the New New the by bed Page Page n t might it an 61 st Party) st of of XIV, XIV, XIV, XIV, XIV, 112

CEU eTD Collection institutional politics and revert the modernization program star program modernization the revert and politics institutional i wing colligation right conservative supporting their military and th after rearrangement state basic of ye period the constituted late The conditionings. external and internal survive to order evide become cycles different lifetime regime’s the During re what clearly define to now necessary become has It nature. comprehensi the in other each complementing both totalitarianism, theanythreatstoregime. eliminating m its to opposition elite paralyzed and minimum a to levels dissent accurate.” was Repression (…). level maximum crude a than rather terror 399-400. 385-402. Pp. 1979): 3 (July nr. 98 395. 385-402. P. 1979): 3 (July nr. failed.” senior a even against measures draconian more use to preparedness assassina later “His employed. was assassination political presiden 1958’s in regime the challenged openly who Delgado, Humberto Howev dismissed. afterwards and detention of period short a serve I circumstances. to according varied dissenters military to cont under his forces armed the of bulk the keep to managed always self-conta army’s the given role significant any played never s loyalists proactive most the or officers army retired like recruiti militia, armed of form the in regime, the of guard 97

Tom Gallagher. “Controlled Repression in Salazar's Salazar's in Repression “Controlled Tom Gallagher. Tom Gallagher. “Controlled Repression in Salazar's Salazar's in Repression “Controlled Tom Gallagher. h rpesv maue o te e Sae r i ln wt it with line in are State New the of measures repressive The What characterized terror under Salazar was its preference preference its was Salazar under terror characterized What 97

98 Without terrorizing the general population, the well established P established well the population, general the terrorizing Without

Portugal.” Portugal.” Portugal.” Portugal.” Journal of Contemporary History ofContemporary Journal History ofContemporary Journal tion demonstrates the regime’s the demonstrates tion ng only proven loyal personal, personal, loyal proven only ng e coup. The main aim of the of aim main The coup. e till in active duty. But they But duty. active in till nt. In each one it adjusted in adjusted it one each In nt. ws omn o te to them for common was t gime I am talking about. talking am I gime ted by the first republic first the by ted selective, discreet, and discreet, selective, n 1926 was stabilize to 1926 n was nn aiiy Salazar ability. ining o a “piu of “optimum an for rol. The punishmentThe rol. opponent if all else all if opponent n f h regime’s the of on r o te 1920’s the of ars inimal expression, inimal r i te ae of case the in er, Page Page tial elections, tial s orientated orientated s VDE kept kept VDE 62 of of XIV, XIV, 112

CEU eTD Collection domi the is which and regime, the of ‘plan’ initial beyond the perhaps going development political corpora Christian of authoritarian, conventionally stage traditionalistic, “a 1936: by fascistization re also Pinto Costa war. civil Spanish the of beginning the with regim the of fascization increasing an saw ensuing years The princ the under (partially) created was State New the and approved n the year the is 1933 Saviour. Nation’s the of that was propaganda epi preferred the although ), (Il Chefe uncontested of category simultaneousl conquered and police, political the by violence of amount a without not groups, opposition major the all conquered Salazar when t of end the and 1933 between phase the Particularly essential. is unwillingnesstheresisttheandreg toinabilitypeople’s to t War SecondWorld the After drastically. regime the of face haste of imperative the and allies the period victory of The fascization. a was onwards 1945 War. World Second the with ended that if fascism, to close came it indeed where one is here question in it divide to essential absolutely makingit it, portionof small society. the of sectors main the all controlling apparatus powerful a with ce a namely economy), or society modern with confused be to (not forms m for desire his in forward step a was however, constitution, 1933 the reviv monarchic a towards tendencies strong some with catholic, predominant society, Portuguese of portions large such antagonized that This all amounts to my argument that the temporal divide of the of divide temporal the that argument my to amounts all This Furthermore, this thesis does not cover the entire span life doesentire of cover the not this thesis Furthermore, of survival changed the core and core survivalthe changed of ime. ime. into periods. The time span time The periods.into he political basis shifted on shifted basis political he e, especially after 1936, after especially e, cognize a new level of level new a cognize tist policy which was was which policy tist he Second World War, World Second he not downright fascist, fascist, downright not the butthe regime only a of draft Salazar’s al. iples of corporatism. of iples ew constitution was constitution ew at international nant organic perceived thet in media and media in thet regime in phases phases in regime ly agrarian and agrarian ly dr political odern y the informal the y ntralized state ntralized Page Page considerable 63 of of de- n 112 the the

CEU eTD Collection line ofstressesthat research,differentwhich a line elements i he Portugal; about opinions of survey previous the in Griffin included Thi nature. in conservative and values, traditional m its was it that extent the to study, case para-fascist a its presents Portugal of case The proto-fascism. or fascism w fascisms, abortive of category the in Griffin by grouped are national regenerated a which for to regimes and movements All place community. nationalistic) open to order in society necess decaying the as them by interpreted was movements fascist all rebirth” “ a as palingenetic the understands Griffin process. palingenetic fascism, in the sense that it seeks to the total transform total the to seeks it that sense the in fascism, the to refers him, for element, revolutionary The revolution. com the with Associated nation. the of rebirth of paling the on centred is conception His fascism. generic of model 100 47.P. 1995. Press, University Columbia York: sourcedealingverificationwith the m chapterin empirical specific more a prepare to also but hypothesis borderline the about order in elements, fascist as conform that State New the of structure. actively it where regime, the of age golden the as 1945 to stereotype.” 99

António Costa Pinto. António Costa . Griffin. Roger oe Gifn a bcm oe f h ms kon ocs n h definit the in voices known most the of one become has Griffin Roger som on survey short a perform to going now am I chapter this finish To 100 of the national community. He implies that the violence feature violence the that implies He community. national the of 99 Therefore, for the purposes of my thesis I am taking the time the taking am I thesis my of purposes the for Therefore, The Nature of Fascism Nature of The Salazar's Dictatorship and European Fascism: proble Fascism: and European Dictatorship Salazar's

. London: Pinter Publishers, 1991, 141. 1991, Publishers, Pinter London: .

ation of the the of ation fascist statehave.fascist should ain purpose to maintain a set of set a maintain to purpose ain aterial. aterial. elf quite simply to Griffin as Griffin to simply quite elf anti-conservative nature of nature anti-conservative es the idea of fascism as a as fascism of idea the es use a acs organic fascist a pursued o ute m arguments my further to ms of interpretation.ms r slto t kl a kill to solution ary this feature is missing is feature this i wy hv not have I why is s enetic myth, the myth the myth, enetic

ehr hy e para- be they hether status quostatus yh f et and death of myth nlss rn to prone analysis nitiated a new a nitiated Page Page exhibited by exhibited frame 1933 frame ad ultra- (and through a a through e aspects aspects e 64 o o a of ion of of New New 112

CEU eTD Collection aaa’ croait oiy n te salsmn o te Nat the of establishment asstyledNazipolitical entity.a Movement the and policy corporatist Salazar’s That constitution. 1933 the with arena political the of exclusion was State New with was dispute main Its Church. Catholic the influences major its of one and forces, wing right other many c reactionary the in role a played movement The Soul). (Portuguese rt ws h sceay f h ofca junl f Integralis of journal official the of secretary the was Preto I by influenced was Shirts, Blue the of leader the Preto, the before Portugal in monarchy the restore to attempts two behind m nationalist highly and autonomies) local of tradition monarchic the inspir not did it ca monarchic, a as republic and first the under born was Integralismo State New the opposed Integralismo suggested, Portu in Lusitano Integralismo of role the confuses Griffin that terminology own his using refuted completely, not if partially, be strength,heroicwillnational solidarity.economic and militarytradition, and colonial of revitalization(3) divisions, organic and hierarchic (2) society, of basis the as life (1) myth: palingenetic concrete a of example an as Griffin w Shirts, Blue the fascists, true the crushed Salazarismo deduction his proceeds then He Integralism). (Portuguese Lusitano its in Catholicism political as State New the of ideology the pr legitimization and manipulation mass of instruments as serve 101 Ibid. 137. 137. Ibid. Regarding the specific case of Portugal, Griffin’s view point view Griffin’s Portugal, of case specific the Regarding trappings” “mimetic features, fascist of integration The

state to heal the class the heal to syndicalism state hose main features are given by given are features main hose tgaim ad o Salazar. not and ntegralismo regeneration of the family the of regeneration mo, the the mo, (4) Risorgimento based on based Risorgimento (4) was the social doctrine of doctrine social the was 101 guese New State. Unlike State. New guese ain o Integralismo of variant led to a contestation of contestation a to led of a practical order: its order: practical a of . It is important to note to important is It . as Griffin calls them, calls Griffin as ocurement. He defines He ocurement. tholic, municipalist (in municipalist tholic, s, just as before, can before, as just s, oa Syndicalism ional 1926 coup. Rolão coup. 1926 la Portuguesa Alma by showing that that showing by u o 12, as 1926, of oup ovement. It was It ovement. Page Page Salazar. e 65 of of 112

CEU eTD Collection

Salazar’s New State in Portugal.” Portugal.” in State New Salazar’s 102 consideration any submerging built, were relations social other and family the of basis the on was It body. State’s New the of unit structure hierarchical indispensable the with crossed society, of unita the In it. of demonstration graphic a is Family – Fatherland repeat motto, Its ideology. State’s New of struts important expresse soc the of basis alreadya as family the of regeneration The concerns. 1933 in Salazarismo that see can we intentions Portugueseofpolitical traditions. liberal face bor least, at revolutionary, not were if that Ideas done. be should si Portugal’s of interpretation comprehensive and global more much a reaction.” anti-democratic the in space political key intelle and academic of ‘fascistisation’ the to obstacle powerful Católico Centro the and Church “The Europe. in rising was Germany of out blocked was he when fascization hardcore his begun only Preto Rolão partici its by reinforced is which Centre, Academic the than cathol more was it that say Lus can one but Integralismo generalise, to advisable of nature fluid the Given Lusitano. Integralismo opposed that intellectuals notable most the of some producing for known Ce Academic The anti-liberalism. anti-communism, corporatism, t he them From XIII. Leo Pope the of encyclicals the by inspired Christ of Centre (Academic Cristã Democracia da Académico 353–368. P. 357. P. 353–368.

António Costa Pinto, and Maria Inácia Rezola. “Poli Rezola. Inácia Maria and Pinto, Costa António aaa’ pltcl naeet tre i Ciba hn e joi he when Coimbra in started engagement political Salazar’s Taking the listing Griffin provided us of the Blue Shirts and Rolão Rolão and Shirts Blue the of us provided Griffin listing the Taking

Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions andPolitical Movements Totalitarian

tical Catholicism, Crisis of Democracy and and of Democracy Crisis Catholicism, tical 102 The Academic Centre envisioned Centre Academic The ed during many years, God - God years, many during ed pation in the coup of 1926. of coup the in pation ial life was one of the most the of one was life ial ian Democracy) and was and Democracy) ian ctual elites, occupying a occupying elites, ctual that an individual an that aiyws h basic the was family , the in revolution dered ic conservative-radical ic ry organic conception organic ry VIII, nr. 2 (June 2007): 22007): (June nr. VIII, o isiain for inspiration ook te eae well became ntre sm o those of some d thus constituted a constituted thus tuation and what and tuation f individuality. of ned the Centro Centro the ned tn i i not is it itano Page Page power and power n fought and 66 Preto’s Preto’s of of Ego 112

CEU eTD Collection it wastheunderthpreservationoftheofof instrumentcontrol it Fa the Nation, the to subdued was family the parts, its of sum whole the as but, society, of unit elementary the was family pa constituent its of some of cost the at be need if costs, that being living a was It nation. organic an of idea superior societ in everything that meant Fatherland fatherland. of value wastheEverythingwithinunit. barred else family life t means that m its to reduced Salazarismo was it as sphere private human the of of annihilation context the In life. public to opposed as meant also It reproduction. values political and social State’s first the was family The guidance. and discipline proper the home childr and figure male the on dependent strictly beha was role his Women’s conform should and family of idea organic of idea higher the growmaterialtonationorderin make it work a in and organic virt the reflect should man new The mentioned. already FNAT, and the Spain), in deployed militia (anti-communist Legion Portuguese institutions fascist the and system educational the propaganda, Church be to was re-education The race. Portuguese the of degeneration what to opposed as active, productive, brave, mentality, new new a of spoke Salazar decay. modern Portuguese the invert would revoluti the of beginning the as 1933 of constitution ensuing the and coup 1926 off The regime. the of character revolutionary the is fascism the Even The way the State penetrated families was through the values values the through was families penetrated State the way The h fnl etr I ih o nls i dph f rfi’ def Griffin’s of depth in analyse to wish I feature final The pater familias pater , the chief that commanded the household, was subservient of subservient was household, the commanded that chief the , . . is more than just the simple the just than more is t. ucinly te, the then, Functionally, rts. icial discourse declared the declared discourse icial the praise of “private life” “private of praise the need to be preserved at all all at preserved be to need therland. More practically, More therland. e nation: theState.nation: e New ndrichness.spiritual e et a te typical the was felt he y was enslaved to the the to enslaved was y realized through the the through realized instance of the New the of instance ost basic feature, the feature, basic ost man, the man with awith man the man, uous qualities of the the of qualities uous en were to find in find to were en otgee Youth Portuguese nto o generic of inition f h sacralised the of created, like the like created, Page Page iu b it. by viour e absolute he 67 on that on of of 112

CEU eTD Collection responsible for the ‘spirit policy’ of the New State until the e the until State New the of policy’ ‘spirit the for responsible called article an write to as far as Ferro was the director, a declared admirer of Italianfas of admirer declared director, a the was Ferro of Secretariat (National Nacional Propaganda de Secretariado modernist a given was – occupation) roman resisted had (who Lusitanos Port of people founding mythical the in inspired man, organic-nationalist means).theproductive of dire economy the controlled State the reality, in worked never it or the applied former the while organic-syndicalism, an preferred Salazar difference towards of Rolã only The substantial years. 13 t suicidal a in embarked Portugal when period, thoughthesis this outside even threatened, was empire colonial the when only visible milit its Moreover, action. in seen be could man new the where posses already it because precisely to impulse the Port way. similar a in colonies the viewed Salazar so rebirth militia.” young the toward directed being appeal mobilisational more a with t to Otherwife components be and added his of could children. care took mediev the by represented as past, country’s his of proud nation; the in pl his with happy was He God-fearing. and obedient, respectful, was l new man This ‘new Salazarism’sman’. picture of a provided 1930s

Portugal.” Portugal.” 103

António Costa Pinto. “‘Chaos’ and ‘Order’: Preto, S Preto, and ‘Order’: “‘Chaos’ Pinto. Costa António The revolutionary spirit of changing the weakened liberal man man liberal weakened the changing of spirit revolutionary The context the in colonies the for project his and Preto Rolão like Just Regarding education “the ‘Lesson of Salazar’ included in schoolbooks of of schoolbooks in included Salazar’ of ‘Lesson “the education Regarding 103 Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions Political and Movements Totalitarian

arel DAnni ad Me and D’Annunzio Gabrielle alazar and Charismatic Appeal in Inter-war Inter-war in Appeal andCharismatic alazar VII, nr. 2 (June 2006): 203–214. P. 212.P. 203–214. 2006): nr.2 (June VII, cism and futurism that even went that even futurism cismand uguese fascism never had never fascism uguese nd of Second World War. World Second of nd colonial war that lasted that war colonial ctly without ownership without ctly o Preto is that the latterthat o the is Preto sed enough dominions dominions enough sed rpgna. António Propaganda). ganic-corporatist (but ganic-corporatist r iciain was inclination ary H ws h main the was He . ived in the country, ivedthe in ace in society and society in ace n toe n the in those and al castle; and he and castle; al hisman, ‘ideal’ of the national the of a happened hat Page Page face with the with face to a strong, strong, a to ugal - the the - ugal 68 of of

112 the

CEU eTD Collection thei aesthetic.” to appeal would which and participate, could masses the which d large organised SPN organisation.(…) governmental official any th of construction the and tradition’ of ‘reinvention the at effort the represented perhaps 1930s, the of institution ‘nationalistic’ great whic SPN, “The republic. the of years first the the during movement of figureheads the been had re that by artists modernity, and of intellectuals mask a through myths past of pool the reinvented He Portugal.” Portugal.” 104 to Portuguese politics. intonation gave 1930’s, the of transformations undergoing the with together which, eouin n h atrplg o mn n o te ain tef Te least The itself. nation the of and man of anthropology the in revolution future. nation the into leadingofthe capable one only the and order politica his around cult a fed also Salazar view. functionalist a from expected be could that everything performed form, positive parapolitical t even party, single The the socialization. political and mobilization performing as well as control, social for tool ideologi provided later The church. and state fascist between syncretism the of example an As totalitarianism. approaching one was t in fascism of traces clear had 1945 to case 1930 from fascisms, European borderline a as regime, Salazar the it: stating of nature the about hypothesis my defend and define that arguments simulta while regime, conservative authoritarian an considered

António Costa Pinto. “‘Chaos’ and ‘Order’: Preto, S Preto, and ‘Order’: “‘Chaos’ Pinto. Costa António In conclusion, I have questioned the reasons why Portugal has been t been has Portugal why reasons the questioned have I conclusion, In Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions Political and Movements Totalitarian 104 Ferro and his Secretariat modernized the political discourse of of discourse political the modernized Secretariat his and Ferro

alazar and Charismatic Appeal in Inter-war Inter-war in Appeal andCharismatic alazar VII, nr. 2 (June 2006): 203–214. P. 212. P. 203–214. 2006): nr.2 (June VII, e icsin f interwar of discussion he l persona, as the source of source the as persona, l hough inoperative in its in inoperative hough e cult of the dictator by dictator the of cult e iul rs modernist arts visual h was paraded as the as paraded was h cal inspiration and a and inspiration cal and its internal logic internal its and eul introducing neously ucin o mass of functions A future involving Aa future the regime. Clearly regime. the mntain in emonstrations ige at i a in party single ot consistent most etrs s the is features sne f the of sense r a clear fascist clear a Page Page raditionally the regime, the n can one 69 cruiting of of

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CEU eTD Collection my own in reference to the borderline cases of Portugal and Romania Romania and pan-Europea interwarunderstandingafascism of ashistoriographic Portugal of cases borderline the to reference in own my fasc generic others’ deconstructing of exercise dialectical my theor simplified, usually single, a into realities multiple not and context with more working of need the to historians recalls and can it Ultimately, fascism. generic of definition a with presentonfurtherthearguments historical evidence will and subcha following the this, of light In life. political and social of coope a wholesale but regime, the clergyto the of members some ideology to limited not connection a was It fascism. clerical a state between relationship intimate the of examples best qualif Portugal presented definitions the to According Europe. interwar Portugal classification is of the Unquestionable, authoritarian. f either as it qualify can that elements with case complicated in case borderline a as Portugal, that is this from conclude

In addition, the current chapter has also brought to light the limi the light brought to also has chapter current the addition, In

be a vague and fruitless exercise fruitless and vague a be etical construction. I expect that expect I construction. etical interwar fascisms, presents a presents fascisms, interwar nature of nature the regime. or the outspoken support of support outspoken the or d hrh n h suy of study the in church nd as a clerical fascist unit in unit fascist a clerical as ism theories and building and theories ism sit r conservative- or ascist pter of source analysis source of pter ration in several layers several in ration nphenomenon. tations of working tationsof ies as one of the of one as ies trying to force to trying Page Page etr the betters 70 of of

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CEU eTD Collection dev man of anthropology new associated its and civilization) new t palingeneti the chosen have I verified be As to areas ideological kind. other of considerations aside leaving alone, features idea my of application empirical the limiting am I Therefore, of perceptions ideological the by justified properly be can regime n the on generalization any that unlikely is It for. source this quo thestatus of countr the accurately ideological represented pro-reg a Acção, in present intelligentsia the of extraction My 1945. until State New the of up build gradual the in him assisted elites new the of part also are men These hive. the in tireles of image promoted his with line in words, few and action wri Sa open. left Salazar of pose distance the that void Their ideological Novo. Estado of doctrine the for responsible man the are opinions. exemplary and acceptable the extent great a to reflect opi the However, ideology. regime as idea specific a promote r the to th was he committed end, the in that, intellectuals means power of centralization of group a of discourse the at l internal its and fascism Acção, newspaper weekly of the using By totalitarianism. approaching traces clear has 1945, to 1930 from of discussion the in case borderline a as regime, Salazar Overview Analysis Source Being an exercise of discourse analysis there is a limit a is there analysis discourse of exercise an Being Por about hypothesis my support to evidence bringing aims chapter This created by Salazar after 1933, that 1933, after Salazar by created e only one with the ability to ability the with one only e interwar European fascisms, European interwar ime and fascist newspaper, newspaper, fascist and ime ature or development of the of development or ature c myth (revolution towards (revolution myth c to what purposes I can use can I purposes what to nions of these intellectuals these of nions y. lazar wanted to be man of man be to wanted lazar tp t is ideological its to type l To some extents, these extents, some To s worker, of bee-queen of worker, s it present in the texts. the in present it oted to spirit instead spirit to oted e ot important most he look to going am I gm. Salazar’s egime. point is that this that is point ig fle the filled tings gc a one was ogic Page Page tugal: the tugal: 71 of of 112

CEU eTD Collection c organization no that defended resolutely posit fascists but the tradition, Michels, the in Much Portugal? interwar in leadership horses,withvillage,prayersmystwhite small and every so given that as spectacle, no show, no is There intellectual. as talent his leader, political as artisanship his Salazar: exclusively is it praise is there when Furthermore, praise. charis to appeal to said be can that sentences of number limited ar the of all In nature. abstract its is ideology fascists’ providenuanceagenericovertheoreticallocal the thus model. of specificities the into look a provide can they but arguments, my testing the advance not do themes These heading. single one under vital and anti-communism nationalism, group will I Portugal. in church parapolitic the to insight colorful provide also will it and themes articl or church the of contribution ideological the in seen be will previ the in argument the for evidence supplying cult, leader’s wil I man. revitalized a of creation the and fatherland the concerned were fascists Portuguese the that evidence discourse pa the Startingwith Portugal. Salazar’s in fascism generic c (leadership the(withchurch). syncretism hierarchy political and social material, the of Leadership f o wt ntrly lwn caim, ht a te legitima the was what charisma, flowing naturally with not If in formation charisma and leadership of feature striking most The importan of presence the prove will I areas these on focusing By ticles surveyed, there was only a only was there surveyed, ticles ical procedures. ical lingenetic myth, myth, I lingenetic provide will l show the existence of the the of existence the show l iitr hs rgtes as brightness his minister, generously by Codreanu in Codreanu by generously ae i te blte of abilities the in based ous chapter. Syncretism chapter. ous with the regeneration of regeneration the with ma and straightforward and ma l) croaim and corporatism, ult), ud ie ihu a without live ould the New State and State New the of my ideal type or type ideal my of l ucin o the of functions al s bu religious about es vl, f Robert of ively, t core features of features core t ig ore of source ting the portuguese the Page Page ism-activism 72 of of 112

CEU eTD Collection hiera uma de o chefe.” “Nós, Costa. da Freitas deveres, e responsabilidades de escala 106 chefes.” dos problema leaders.”presupposes Organization and responsibilities of chain a of discipline, of existence the and “Organizati restated: continuously is idea same The man. single means turn, in leadership, and, leadership reduced is organization disor Only leaders. without organization no is “There leadership. 105 structuralofasaggregate conditionssocialthe interpreted Lead the man, single one by represented will, collective one uni complete have should state the works, army an way the in Much for basis sound only the hierarchy, political strict a to according las n h bcgon o tee eiiin) a se a a a capa intelligence,guidedbywill, balance,bravery sacrifice, man a as seen was definitions) these of background the on always addition, In Europe. in regime para-fascist or fascist other any certa conception A action. only not and thought of man a be to leader i It knowledge. and reflection to appeal an is There enough. not H people. among friendship and ethic work solidarity, introduced that the eng theory action, of a as is praised Fascism fascism. and August 1942, he claims that the Mocidade Portuguesa is the future the is Portuguesa Mocidade the that claims he 1942, August by article an In elite. new the educate to expected organization w Youth) (Portuguese Portuguesa Mocidade The regime. the of elite “Organização – seja ela qual for – pressupõe ordem pressupõe – for qual ela seja – “Organização “Não há organização sem chefes. Desorganização sim Desorganização chefes. sem organização “Não há The extrapolation is immediately made to the State. The state The State. the to made immediately is extrapolation The Unexpectedly, even a parallel is drawn between individualism, individualism, between drawn is parallel a even Unexpectedly, Not only the leader should blend action with mind. That was to be the be to was That mind. with action blend should leader the only Not Acção , 20 de August de 1942: 3. 3. de1942: 20 de August , Acção

, 15 de January de 1942: 1. 1. de1942: January 15 de , 106

e, ora pois, a existência de uma disciplina, de um de disciplina, uma de existência a pois, ora e, qi. raiaã pespe hfs” Eduardo chefes.” pressupõe Organização rquia. .” Luiz Avillez. “Considerações sôbre o sôbre “Considerações Avillez. Luiz .” and good sense.good and s. ine of social transformationsocial of ine h lae (aaa is (Salazar leader the r Tee em o be to seem These er. ganization.” duties, of a hierarchy. a of duties, n rspoe order presupposes on vle, ae from dated Avillez, epce fo the from expected s nto t prosper. to nation a ty of objectives and objectives of ty must be organized be must , laicism capitalism, inly different from different inly of the Portuguese the of nt aon one around unity as the channeling the as owever, action is action owever, Page Page l o self- of ble path for the for path 105 73 A good A of of 112 a

CEU eTD Collection ihn n otie h bres ht h Pruus pol, ntd rud it around united people, Portuguese the that borders the outside and within him, around rallying by Salazar acclaimed again, once and, spoke leade charismatic of exercise an is article The policy. ple a in alone, running was party single the which to Assembly, topositions.prepareleadershipthem takeup would receiv and example an set to ones the were They general. in youth 107 aoe d qe s e as igé. otgl encontr destino.” oseu encontrou Múrias. “Portugal Manuel Portugal ninguém. mais de as que do maiores 108 política.” lógicos aos limites até prolongue seque ela quere volta em unido português, opovo que fronteiras das which he means thehe opposition. which long a state, the against plot who malcontents the over man working limits.” final exte to it wants and revolution the in hope lost not has Führer), (Duce, again.” - destiny: its found has Portugal (…) else’s. anybody than greater sacrifi outstanding his mind in bearing him, follow and Salazar perspective: initial my confirm sources primary The continuously. pursued lea The actively refused. was never it but moderated, be to had Praise al and levels discrete to it disciplined which representation,

Cnims m aaa e iaol, ebao d se do lembrados sigamo-lo, e Salazar em “Confiemos “A Nação pronunciou-se e, uma vez mais, aclamou Sal aclamou mais, vezuma e, pronunciou-se Nação “A aul úis rnfre te ainl lcin o 14 t te Na the to 1942 of elections national the transformed Múrias Manual standar doctrine catholic by cult charismatic the of shaping The 108 Acção

107 , 5 de November de 1942: 1. 1. de1942: deNovember 5 , e e rces o riete lbsiea tetimh f the of triumph the as plebiscite the praise to proceeds tem He non-cult lvn i te osat eil f tef bt resurging but itself, of denial constant the in living ,

e derradeiros.” Manuel Múrias. “O Plebiscito de de uma Plebiscito Múrias. “O Manuel derradeiros.” e do seu Chefe, não perdeu a esperança na Revolução naRevolução esperança a nãoperdeu Chefe, seudo Acção ou o seu destino: - não voltaremos a perdê-lo.” perdê-lo.” a voltaremos não - destino: seu o ou azar cercando-o, para que se saiba dentro e fora efora dentro saiba quese para cercando-o, azar , 12 de November de 1942: 1. 1. de 1942: deNovember 12 , u espantoso sacrifício, e das suas angústias angústias suas das e sacrifício, espantoso u si cntuto: Te Nation “The construction: rship most to the denial of itself. of denial the to most ing an education that that education an ing esi cl ws an was cult dership so that it be known known be it that so e n hs anguish his and ce ict o Salazar’s of biscite we shall not lose it lose not shall we nd to its logic andlogic toits nd Lt s rs in trust us “Let xrsin by expression, Page Page ds of public public of ds 74 s s honest of of Chefe tional 112

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CEU eTD Collection u no rjdqe, ne fvrçm o e cmm . comum bem o estatismo.” favoreçam, antes prejudiquem, não que 111 nãoestatismo.” é “Corporativismo Caetano. Marcelo 110 Corporatism 109 thecreatingspheremoresocial with justice. bestinsense that the whole.system, the on was It the depending ea where organicism, social of conception a place its in putting social the healing at aimed corporatism of project the fact, refused ec reaction that the general with anti-modernist conforms on Nevertheless, anti-communism. project: thesis my frame to of type ideal the of features fundamental the of one to accord exercised solely in the private interest of its holders” its of interest private the in solely exercised th However, organization. socio-economic of forms legitimate initiative individual that stated death, Salazar’s after hy hud e eie ad nocd y h croain, aig a fr a for way paving activity.economicof management corporations, the by enforced and defined be should they Salazar’s to were controls opposition These economy. the clear over control of in tool a corporatism: state, the by handed be not should syste the that stated He politik. real of considerations by undaunted it” benef should they contrary, the on good; common the harm not do they as insofar that idea the is there system the of basis the “in that “Há, pois, na base do sistema a ideia de que os in os que de ideia a sistema do base na pois, “Há, “Mas os poderes que daí resultam não serão exercid serão não resultam daí que poderes os “Mas

111 Padre Manuel Rocha. “Corporativismo Antigo.” Antigo.” “Corporativismo Manuel Rocha. Padre . . h croait eie niind y h Pruus intelligentsia Portuguese the by envisioned regime corporatist The It is so that Marcelo Caetano, Salazar’s dauphin that would take take would that dauphin Salazar’s Caetano, Marcelo that so is It h tu ntr o oprts a t b tse i is applicat its in tested be to was corporatism of nature true The Acção , 27 de Novembro de 1941: 1&4. 1&4. 1941: de deNovembro 27 ,

Acção 109 Acção teresses particulares são respeitáveis na medida em medida na respeitáveis são particulares teresses

os apenas no interesse particular do seu titular.” seu do particular interesse no apenas os , 10 de December de 1942: 1 & 4.1& 1942: de deDecember , 10 , 27 de Novembro de 1941: 1&4.1941: de deNovembro , 27 ” Marcelo Caetano. “Corporativismo não é é não “Corporativismo Caetano. Marcelo ” private interests are to be respected be to are interests private 110 and private property are perfectly are property private and . He further elaborates by stating by elaborates further He . generic fascism I have set have I fascism generic ch part of society closely societyof part ch a wider analysis it also it analysis wider a iie ewe classes, between divide s rgt “hl nt be not “shall rights ese it adjusted the politicalit adjusted the onomicalliberalism.In m inbuilt controls inbuilt m ion. Caetano was Caetano ion. the dictator seat dictator the legal rules, but rules, legal a bid in build was Page Page

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CEU eTD Collection corporations, while itwhiletois not autonomously. function able corporations, corporat the run may state the when period acti transition a free accepted of scope allowing while agents, its using corporations, as went and corporatism medieval of example the defended Rocha structures. the with corporatism fit to done be to has adjustment historical be to not is Tradition corporatism. of nature the matches economy or natural the that claims point, organicist very a in Caetano, onl were anti-capitalism and anti-communism is, That time. the mechanism. aspect every controlling Salazar with happened, what precisely do sistema.” Marcelo Caetano. “Corporativismo não é não “Corporativismo Caetano. Marcelo sistema.” do 112 syst the to threat important most the is corporations the to belong of control state’s “The importance. self high of delusion a with of habits Portuguese old the foster as well as people, the in mental and idleness to lead would that corporatism of broker the become that knew Caetano experience, Portuguese the at looking Moreover, administ of decrease the and bureaucracy role of growth state the to active Caetano, over An state. the by played role the reduce soc organized that groupings social larger fundamental the as stand broa was scope their but activityindependently, economic disciplining “A absorção pelo Estado das atribuições que devem devem que atribuições das Estado pelo absorção “A The justification of corporatism was made beyond the contemporary beyondthe made was corporatism of justification The The idea of looking back to the past for inspiration was not unique to unique not was inspiration for past the to back looking of idea The wi roles coordination and supervision to refrained be should state The th had They organisms. social as corporations the at looked Caetano

estatismo.” estatismo.” caber às corporações é o maior perigo de desvio de perigo maior o é corporações às caber Acção , 27 de Novembro de 1941: 1&4. 1&4. 1941: de deNovembro , 27 ganization of Portuguese of ganization arbitrary administration, administration, arbitrary y a part of the reasons. the of part a y em.” rdtoa economic traditional h atiuin that attributions the ed, codn to according leads, f h corporatist the of v sse ad the and system ive if the state was to was state the if far as to cite Saint cite to as far n Ceao only Caetano on. der. They were to were They der. ogt A mere A fought. rative efficiency. efficiency. rative ey n re to order in iety 112 conditions of conditions Page Page But that was that But subservience subservience e function of function e Caetano. 76 thin the the thin of of 112

CEU eTD Collection 115 Caetano. “Corporativismo não é estatismo.” estatismo.” é não “Corporativismo Caetano. in present 114 de1942. December Padr áureos.” séculos dos corporativa organização a organizationthetheofcorporatistgolden centuries.” inspired th of doctrine corporatist the with revolution our illuminate should corporatism. ancient of experience the on draw must corporatism “Our a I man. honorable any of opposes duty the is work for indigent, the to strongly subsidies he However, workers. salary, the the of of exploitation fairness bourgeoisie of principle the derive to Aquinus Thomas Sobretudo: iluminar a nossa revolução com a doutrin a com revolução nossa a iluminar Sobretudo: 113 Revolution andtowardssocialproblems. mental atitude and economic justice.”of dispenser great a powerful, the subdue to Salazar, a stepawayinof the totalitarianism. Salazar, cont total the for tool more one mask, a as corporatism Portuguese Portugues place would real more a interpretation phase; transition the passing never as indulgentcorporatism most The means. production the without economy the controlling thus system, whole the controlled th and created never were corporations The optimism. their in show

“Estado forte, protector dos fracos e domador dos domador e fracos dos protector forte, “Estado “Tem que ser norma do nosso corporativismo contar contar corporativismo nosso do norma ser que “Tem Pereira, Marques. “"Problemas da revolução corporat darevolução Marques.“"Problemas Pereira, The rhetoric of the fascist revolution in Portugal is not cohere not is Portugal in revolution fascist the of rhetoric The of protector state, “strong a was corporatism of goal final The The final balance of corporatism was not as positive as the do the as positive as not was corporatism of balance final The

Acção , are proportionally different to the number of authors writing about i about writing authors of number the to different proportionally are ,

Acção , 27 de Novembro de 1941: 1&4. 1&4. de 1941: deNovembro 27 , a corporativa dos grandes pensadores queinspiraram pensadores grandes dos corporativa a e Manuel Rocha. “Corporativismo.” “Corporativismo.” Rocha. Manuel e poderosos, grande dispensador de justiça.” Marcelo justiça.” de dispensador grande poderosos, iva".” iva".” o a xeini d croaiim antigo. corporativismo do experiência a com Acção 114 Corporatism was a new moral new a was Corporatism , 9 de April de 1942: 6. 1942: de9 de April , 115

113 istic one, would point to point would one, istic

rol of the country by by country the of rol e great thinkers that thinkers great e the week and able and week the nt at all. The ideas The all. at nt e state effectively state e ctrinaires seem to seem ctrinaires n his own words: words: own his n need to own the own to need Page Page takn the attacking Mostly, one one Mostly,

Acção 77 y state ny of of 2 de 24 , 112 t. e e

CEU eTD Collection undefined way. undefined pre however, is, It dualism. redemption-rebirth the and revolution colle the man, of dimension spiritual the on focus the namely legitimiz to him allowed that way a in ideology interested as been revolution have well could nec he not realist, a did as Salazar but truth. revolution, to claim i fascist This the . other by all accentuated off fight to ideology an build to simply producing actually about much so been have not might then revolution a for Salaz of order economical and political the of injustices social i an played literature of type This attacked. is literature revolution spiritual the of view of point the als from is it It but motives. conviction, theoretical a been have may Spiritualism s life modern the and materiality of denial resolute its on found ofonethatmission,sacrifice.requiresandspirit a purpose the invades spirit messianic a that necessary is it real re the for However, man. of Risorgimento a for redemption, for s is revolution The love. needs man heights, spiritual new needs materiali with e overrun is spirit man’s individual modern the Furthermore, and collective the and decay in is organism national 18 asstatePortugal aspoweroftheandasince a failure regene of necessity the on agreement the is point common only The 116

Eduardo Freitas da Costa. “Viver a revolução.” arevolução.” “Viver Costa. da Freitas Eduardo The essence of the Portuguese palingenetic myth, as with oth with as myth, palingenetic Portuguese the of essence The a of elements the identify easily can one description this From Costa, using the prevailing biological metaphor, says that the count the saysthat metaphor, prevailing usingthe biological Costa,

Acção , 21 de Maio de 1942. 1942. de Maio 21 de , mportant role in denouncing the the denouncing in role mportant th century. century. ol f a ad ie hm a him gives and man of soul 116

ctive anthropology of the the of anthropology ctive volution ever to become to ever volution stic, low concerns. Man concerns. low stic, ar’s Portugal. Claiming Portugal. ar’s tyle associated with it. with associated tyle atcs n political on attacks e een as an opportunity an as een sented in a vague and vague a in sented n h dcrn of doctrine the in ration, based on the on based ration, ht h neo-realist the that er fascisms, can be can fascisms, er sre practical served o essarily wished a a wished essarily palingenetic myth, palingenetic ege ae dull. are nergies ry was ill. The ill. was ry particularly s Page Page 78 one, but one, of of 112

CEU eTD Collection vida.” Henriques Gonçalves. “Para teoria política d teoriapolítica “Para Gonçalves. vida.”Henriques 118 o pão vive de“Nem só daCruz,. Martins marxismo.” 119 da revolução.” teoriapolítica “Para ao todos altos para nacional consciência própria a quebrado e tudo arrastando, hierárquica, subversão q humanidade e intelectualismo pretenso degrãos os thatpureremainsisMarxism, all ”humanity that of grains the destroying after all, in All spectacle. “That ideologies. utopian wing left the specially competition, 117 Mor concern. main the was individual, the over good, common the where t where one was regime Salazar’s visible. already course, material the over truths spiritual of fatherland, and family that prefer gives point: state the fundamental in a agrees he life.” of his of praise and cult the towards headed thus revolution the of theory nation. the of forms organic traditional the of out shaped in government revolution the organize to than needed is more nothing mystique: 19 the at looks Gonçalves eas te eouin s ainl Nt ny ainlsi, u national but nationalistic, only shouldwilddiscarded theories forgotten.andbe paradigms Not national. is revolution the because cult a incentive to was consciousness national the recover to way f the of projects ambitious the for consciousness national the broken impul and passion of tides the in everyone and everything dragging degeneration, social the literature, dissolving the benefit, stat stale “The nation. the destroyed that voracity demagogical O mine on d pltc d cmaro, a li da compadrios, de política da morno ambiente “O “A teoria política da revolução encaminhava-se ass encaminhava-se revolução da política teoria “A “Triste espectáculo o de essa literatura. No fim d fim No literatura. essa de o espectáculo “Triste hr ae lo iin o te eouin n mr cery national clearly more a in revolution the of visions also are There h egt etre o Pruus hsoy ie h ntoa rev national the give history Portuguese of centuries eight The 119 Even though this author is conservative in the inspiration for the for inspiration the in conservative is author this though Even th Acção

etr Pruus hsoy s tm o lbrl and liberal of time a as history Portuguese century , 5 de Agosto de 1943: 5. 5. 1943: de 5 deAgosto , a revolução.” revolução.” a os empreendimentos do futuro.” Henriques Gonçalves. Henriques futuro.” do empreendimentos os e contas, tudo isso bem pensado e remoído, triturad remoído, e pensado bem isso tudo contas, e ue andam à superfície – fica apenas marxismo – puro – marxismo apenas fica – superfície à andam ue homem.” im para o culto e exaltação da história – mestra da mestra – história da exaltação e culto o para im ao ds axe o ds muss prca ter parecia impulsos, dos ou paixões das sabor eaua islet, a eeeaã sca, da social, degeneração da dissolvente, teratura Acção 117 Acção . . , 26 de Novembro de 1942. 1942. de deNovembro 26 , o ald nelculs and intellectualism called so ence to the ofdignity ence the to man, of world. The solution was, of was, solution The world. , 5 de Agosto de 1943: 5. 5. de1943: ,5 de Agosto he ethic state had prevailed, had state ethic he the hierarchic subversion, subversion, hierarchic the e of the politics of mutual of politics the of e ieaue ae a sad a makes literature se, seemed to have to seemed se, uture.” f h fatherland, the of tory – the master the – tory lto is own its olution o sae and state a to Te political “The e particularly, e Page Page 118 revolution package. Foreign . The only The 79 of of 112 os

CEU eTD Collection 123 122 Acção 121 r towordmanGod.”isthe oflistenabout to modern and sufficient with one only the Christianity, of that win, could him For Christian. the and (fascist-nazi) pagan the communist, it of make be would world the that claimed enthusiastically quite and synthesis look was He it. re-shape should Catholicism that but rejected, not could modernity that believed He world. contemporary the of survey articl an in analysis, his started Dias church, Catholic the by inwhichinstitutionalizedthe racismcolonies. act, of constitution fascist the were revolution a implementing indeed indicating Gonçalves by devised signs specific The authority. strong a parties political of elimination the required revolution the 120 is never corporatism though, Even revolution. and corporatism between spirit revolutionary the of representative rulingwithdynastyaforthe people. and i.e., str was that government of type the restore would and party single democ of form extravagant This Christian. and concerned socially features following the by characterized was that and history tested been had that One democracy. Portuguese and latin the palavra a escutar a prestes está moderno homem “O

Anonymus. “Revolução, espírito revolucionário.” revolucionário.” espírito “Revolução, Anonymus. democrata.” um sou também “Eu Ulisses. J. S. da Silva Dias. “Espada de Fogo.” de da“Espada Silva S. Dias. J. , 1 de July de 1943: 1. 1. 1943: 1de deJuly , There was also a royalist trend, that defended a very specif very a defended that trend, royalist a also was There howev forms bizarre more knew revolution national of conception The acl Ceao a qoe i a aoyos ic, 93 a te major the as 1943, piece, anonymous an in quoted was Caetano Marcelo 120 A h sw t te ol ws insig wr f myst of war a witnessing was world the it, saw he As .

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de deus.” J. S. da Silva Dias. “Espada de Fogo.” de “Espada Dias. Silva da S. J. deus.” de , 16 de December de 1943:1&6. de de December 16 , 121

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CEU eTD Collection development.economic and to issues political reduce to politics Portuguese of tradition arti reflects analyzed this opinion, my the In corporatism. in without myth palingenetic Portugal of future the of possibilities the see always is it fascism, generic in myth palingenetic the 124 regimeunderminesofas readingwhichSalazar’s my country, activ political day every in impact real no with ideological, wa It myth. palingenetic its clearly announced or defined never c to me leads turn, in That myth. the of diversity the to points conservativ of type a with blended Catholicism, its historicism, 1 the from politics it modern Portuguese frequently, by produced more characteristics but fascism, generic of type ideal the i Sometimes inspiration. of sources different and variability nation.”the for results beneficial into blossoming t by sterile, spirit, old an replacing in consists revolution true Sal of modesty and poverty of ideology wider the in this frame could a profit of ideas the tame to and interest collective the by política.”uma de Plebiscito centro mais elevados nos impôs-se e sociais, morais revolucionário.” pa benéficos resultados em desentranhar de se capaz soci and moral itselfthemoreinofcenters the importantcultural imposed political, its of vigor the by revolution, national 125 “A verdadeira revolução consiste em substituir um substituir em consiste revolução verdadeira “A “A doutrina da Revolução Nacional, pelo vigor e pe vigor e pelo Nacional, da Revolução doutrina “A According to Marcelo Caetano the revolution was made to replace t replace to made was revolution the Caetano Marcelo to According Wa I ih o tes o te eouinr mt o Pruus f Portuguese of myth revolutionary the for stress to wish I What Acção , 16 de December de 1943: 1&6. de1943: December 16 de , Acção , 5 de November de 1942: 1. 1942: de 5 de November ,

s de cultura do mundo.” Manuel Múrias. “O “O Múrias. Manuel mundo.” do de scultura ra a nação.” Anonymus. “Revolução, espírito “Revolução, Anonymus. anação.” ra espírito velho, já infecundo, pelo espírito novo espírito pelo infecundo, já velho, espírito la seriedade dos seus fundamentos políticos, políticos, fundamentos seus dos seriedade la

124 In any case, “The doctrine of the of doctrine “The case, any In n as the condition to improve to condition the as n world.” nd material satisfaction. One satisfaction. material nd t shows up as very close to close very as up shows t ity and future plans for the for plans future and ity fascist. questions of state finance state of questions he new spirit capable of capable spirit new he xiis ey specific very exhibits s mostly instrumental, mostly s nld ta Portugal that onclude high-intellectualism e 125 ls Tee s no is There cles.

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CEU eTD Collection Portugal.orwhileunique form Italy, for a proposing Germany anal lucid a present even Some self-evident. entirely not was r time same the at while itself, revolution the and revolution rat explain to attempt the common in had texts the All approach. Conclusions that according to the people writing in peoplewritingin the to according that socia arti the most that surprising not then is it and this, Knowing revealing. economy the to budget, state’s the to problem, salary arti of number The nature. social and economic of be to tend usually verifiabl to according addressed usually is fascists Portuguese the capacity, critical individual’s the withstand to formulas s they that simply but correct, logically was authors the of time. time. anycontradict not did present the situation however, that believe, th claims spiritual between thus limb the on lives is fascism Portuguese It world. material the transcend to revolution: the of articles same theseParadoxically, perfection. near to also natura earth; on country greatest the was Portugal redundant: seemed t that extent an such to nationalist were They writers. Acção th in importance low relatively given is but present, is theme corporatism. with man new a of topic the replace constitution, 1933 the organization of the nation. Considering the organic nature of society of nature organic the Considering nation. the of organization As a consequence of this rationalism, which does not mean that the that mean not does which rationalism, this of consequence a As on theory revolutionary its based Romania, unlike State, New The Corporatism was given a social-organic role beyond a mere syste mere a beyond role social-organic a given was Corporatism Acção was started in 1928 and given a boost withboost a given 1928 and in started was always invoke the greater goal greater always invoke the ought to justify their political their justify to ought he problem of the new man new the of problem he ecognizing that its success its that ecognizing ysis of fascism as seen in seen as fascism of ysis cles about the revolution, the about cles and material concerns. I concerns. material and eouinr ter of theory revolutionary cnen cl o the of scale concern e ion to the people of theof the to ion people prmtr. These parameters. e ionally the need of a of need the ionally t h ielg of ideology the at cles devoted to the to devoted cles and corporatism, and lly, its man were man its lly, m of economic of m The new man new The qeto are question l train-thought Page Page rational a 82 of of 112

CEU eTD Collection hasItbeforehand.marginalonly relevance. defined argument weak a this Nonetheless, regime. the of nature the bor the reinforcing fascist, than authoritarian more was Portugal In flow. inputone-way a was It return. in anything receiving subm unconditional displayed crowds the that expected was it contrary, ple to attempt no was There camp. elitist the favored Portugal eliti between negotiation the of outcome The whole. a as people the at aimed regimes The alike. quite are influence, fascist maybe and Portugaland Romania, this Inrespect, aristocracy. wrotethoseintellectuals inwho as conservative society, perfect a of vision the simultaneously, and, present a offers it utopia: a of contour the with up shows corporatism I.e., suns the under place a provide and capitalism of divides the healing corporati fascists these for that see can one of world, economy contemporary liberal of mentality small the beyond going By sense. pr and live to nation the allowed it as far as soul, collective scheme greater the in fitted actually system economic the oe xet Te ny ae ocuin hwvr i ta Port that is however, conclusion, safe only The extent. some conf that ideology and self-image regime’s the of proof empirical S New Salazar’s of interpretations important most the subverted func a taking By fascism. generic over debate the in Portugal dubious the established have I sources, primary with analysis n ocuin atr eiwn te eodr ltrtr ad supplem and literature secondary the reviewing after conclusion, In eli an by conducted be to was revolution the that say to Needless Acção . . mass support, but were hostile to hostile but were support, mass osper. Ultimately, it makes it Ultimately, osper. f hns sapee f the of piece a as things of in light of the methodology the of light in this sense, one can say that say onecan sense, this every under country other tionalist approach, I have I approach, tionalist t es i te iw of view the in least at ase the crowds. On the On crowds. the ase eln ocpin of conception derline irm my hypothesis to hypothesis my irm oiin f interwar of position sm and in populism and sm m a a a of way a was sm ae n provided and tate hine for everyone. for hine ouin o the for solution h globalized the gl gathered ugal ission without ission Page Page enting their their enting e a new a te, 83 of of 112

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CEU eTD Collection balancedmorecomparative a on analysis. my with learn will Others other. each of light in researched t studies cases taking opt of that an fascism: suggest of and study research comparative future for door the open to is merit main not is and short out comes chapter this history, comparative a For done was what of depth the to movement Nonet the of nature Portugal. the discussing about chapter the in undertaken that to exercise identify specificities t and of the ArchangelMichael Legion of Romania 126 fascismRomanian understand to essential is religion m In Michael. Archangel of Legion The of syncretism ideological departur a set to help however, will, it about reflection small a religion political of value heuristic the or religion civil poli between difference the namely concept, the involving polemics pla the not is it chapter this revi While fascism. the generic concerning in especially concept, the of deployment the eluded have politica of problem the to attention some devoting without Michael sacralized by the means of politicizing religious discourse, nam discourse, religious politicizing of means the by sacralized alr the sacralized not did they accurately, More itself. Church but entity, secular a or entity pagan a not sacralize to chose Unlike every myth. other palingenetic its of nature syncretic I am using I am It is not possible to proceed to the historiography of the Legion of t of Legion the of historiography the to proceed to possible not is It politica the of features the map to is chapter this of goal The fascism as it is consensual that the Legion qualifies s as qualifies Legion the that consensual asis it

126 . The Legion stands out by the by out stands Legion The . uch in the eyes of most scholars. scholars. of most eyes uchin the nd its application problems, a problems, application its nd mistakes and surely engage surely and mistakes known Fascism, theLegion Fascism, known he movement, in a similarhe movement, e point to understand the understand to point e hat have not been fully fully been not have hat h Rmna Orthodox Romanian the ely connecting Christian Christian connecting ely e o lbrt o the on elaborate to ce ay ard te re- they sacred, eady l religion. So far I far So religion. l eryeog. Its enough. nearly dsore f the of discourse l ees I m not am I heless, tical religion and and religion tical ve, political view, y w f literature of ew about Portugal. about Page Page he Archangel he o fr the for ion 85 of of 112

CEU eTD Collection olbrtd n hs rcs, s hy a i te ein potenti a Legion the in saw they as process, this in collaborated the that evidence is there Furthermore, universe. own its building image political its build to church Orthodox Romanian the of imagery and society. Theintranscendence of Legionmechanism appropr control main the as church the of place the taking functions, spiritual new re political of aspect important the analysis, Cattaruzza’s in sec a of deification the of restrictiveness the abandon we that spiritualman,life.”overincluding his control exercis to and worlds transcendent the and inner the between mediation Churches the dethrone to order in religions Christian the of functions state the as it summarized Cattaruzza ideas. and idols of set of worship pagan a creating thus church, the replaces movement) political in terms, simplistic In religion. political a as rnfgrd no yh cnieig t h piay n idsual s indisputable ofthehumanultimate earth.” existence and on aim meaning and primary the it considering myth, into transfigured Religions Political Characteristic a as Religions Political Religions': 128 328. P. 375. Interpretation.” an of Criticism on the through regime political a or movement, a ideology, of type “a is religion political wrote, Gentile As religion. o requirements the fulfill not does Legion the of core mythical respect, this In Nation. Romanian of concept the with mythology 127

Emilio Gentile. “Fascism, Totalitarianism and Polit and Totalitarianism “Fascism, Gentile. Emilio Marina Cattaruzza. “Introduction to the special iss special to the “Introduction Cattaruzza. Marina My proposition towards political religion, bearing in mind the Romani the mind in bearing religion, political towards proposition My on which,first the secular, of Legion’snot was myth core The

VI, nr. 1 (June 2005): 1-18. P. 5.P. 2005): 1-18. (June nr. 1 VI, Totalitarian Movements and Political ReligionsandPolitical Movements Totalitarian

of the 20th Century.” of 20th the

ue of 'Totalitarian Movements and Political Political and Movements of'Totalitarian ue ical Religion: Definitions and Critical Reflections Critical and Definitions Religion: ical 128

deification of a secular entitysecular a of deification eiin te tt (rad a (or/and state the religions religion which sacralises an sacralises which religion Totalitarian Movements and Movements Totalitarian 127 ular entity. As it is implied is it As entity. ular ’s takeover of “the typical “the of takeover ’s ligions is the movement’s the is ligions

sections of the church church the of sections the state and of a new a of and state the a eial political veritable a f l ly o eed its defend to ally al one can say that the that say can one iated the sacred ritesthesacred iated V, nr. 3 (2004): 326– 3 (2004): nr. V, sight, disqualifies itdisqualifies sight, spiritual drive and and drive spiritual as authorities of authorities as Page Page uc o the of ource , instead of instead , complete e an case, is case, an 86 of of 112

CEU eTD Collection ogn a om f oa paat eorc ad ainl corporatism, national and democracy peasant local of form a forging Guar the of plans reformist the to attracted were noticed: Church Orthodox sharply Eatwell As crisis. in society a for outcome ruralism of model alternative an proposing anti-liberalism; That myth, shared inv palingenetic modernity. a to relates aspect, ideological of crisis the solve to order in church, and state one considers the Legion as political religion,politicaltheone asr Legionconsiders one also can broader the overlooking is matrix Christian its of base the on solely Disregarding Guard. the of mysticism Christian the accuracy and above described as religion Political sense. much make not does PoliticalReligions and Movements moral new a of attainment the at aimed movement revivalist evangelism,’ ‘political of one essentially “was it wester because of that “unlike was fascism Romanian that claim The studi case usual the from different is inspiration of source the Guard Iron the describe can religion political of model the that of the face the in Nevertheless, change intact. remains all not concept; did I interpretation. functionalist a to scope its of mor nothing is religions political of concept the with leap my Thus, such place,has no how matter s taken amalgamation that an natural fa of nature syncretic the consider we if addition, In functions. pol a is still it myth, palingenetic the of source and mixture the cr in was Church Orthodox Romanian the when time a at interests 130 Romania.war 129 Stephen Fischer-Galati. “Codreanu, Romanian Nation Romanian “Codreanu, Fischer-Galati. Stephen Constantin Iordachi. Iordachi. Constantin s xlie aoe ceia fsim s eie truh sync a through defined is fascism clerical above, explained As Trondheim: Norwegian University of Science and Tecand Science of University Norwegian Trondheim: Charisma, politics and violence: the Legion ofthe Legion the violence: and politics Charisma, VII, nr. 2 (June 2006): 245–250. P. 245. P. 245. 245–250. 2006): (June 2 VII, nr.

al Traditions and Charisma.” and Traditions al historical evidence one can see can one evidence historical hnology, 2004. P. 114.P. 2004. hnology, a religious revival or, rather, a rather, or, revival religious a egard it as clericalfascism.egardas it olving anti-communism and anti-communism olving and corporatism as the best the as corporatism and "Archangel Michael" ininter- Michael" "Archangel scist ideologies, it is only is it ideologies, scist es of Germany and Italy. Italy. and Germany of es Crsin Romania” Christian , accurately even though even accurately can explain with detail with explain can Erpa fascists”, European n eeet wti the within “elements the Guard’s fascism Guard’s the trange trange it seem.might isis. tcl eiin n its in religion itical e than a broadening broadening a than e yceim i its in syncretism, panorama. Just as Just panorama. , hc included which d, meaning of the the of meaning 129 Totalitarian Totalitarian eig hs as these seeing eim between retism Regardless of Regardless Page Page

87 of of 112 130

CEU eTD Collection ne rglr oenet oto. h Otoo Cuc efciey beca effectively Church Orthodox The control. government regular under a he time, same the At salaries. clergy and activities financ state pledged and language, liturgical the Romanian made of standards educational the improved abroad, funds of transfer the stopped 19 the es been had precedent The praxis. political its in church the engage t not was Legion The fact, In groupings. political with cooperation ofbacklater.leadershiptheproblemto charismatic come nat the from politic charisma the with blended and cultivated was that confusion Leader, the Codreanu, distinguish to difficult becomes Jes of likes the in much entity, martyrized and divine a with and nationalism divinized that content building while rites, sacred of shape outward the took legionnaires by performed propaganda The methodology. doctrine.” political its into e Christianity Orthodox strong inserted willingly movement Legionary The (…) shading. doctrine. religious of assimilation goes character innovative its instrument; political a into Ort ideology appropriating and adjusting at attempt sustained a was Legion Left” the of promises the against safeguards 132 154. P. 166. 145 - 2003): (December 131 133 Religions Political Political Religions Political Radu Ioanid. “The sacralised politics of the Roman the of politics sacralised “The Radu Ioanid. Religion Fascismand on “Reflections Eatwell. Roger

Radu Ioanid. “The sacralised politics of the Romani the of politics sacralised “The Ioanid. Radu h rl o te hrh a nt iie t ielg, u etne t act to extended but ideology, to limited not was church the of role The th etr. Cz ntoaie te ad otold y oeg monaster foreign by controlled land the nationalized “Cuza century. V, nr. 3 (2004): 419–453. P. 439. P. 419–453. nr.3 (2004): V, V, nr. 3 (2004): 419–453. P. 435. P. 419–453. nr.3 (2004): V,

132 Lgoay ytcs to o a Orthodox an on took mysticism “Legionary

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Totalitarian Movements and Movements Totalitarian Totalitarian Movements and Movements Totalitarian us. To a certain extent, it extent, certain a To us. ial support for Church for support ial he only movement to movement only he s of the Guard. I willI theGuard. of s tablished by Cuza in Cuza by tablished identified the nation the identified eod h simple the beyond oo Christian hodox eet o the of lements Page Page o isl. A itself. ion the clergy, the e state a me 88 IV, nr. 3 nr. IV, e and ies of of 112 ive

CEU eTD Collection mn Rmnas ra yuh ubn nelcul, n ntoait politi nationalist and intellectuals, urban youth, urban Romania’s among se on focused lieutenants his and Codreanu peasantry, the from support difficul the of “Aware off. show political the in instruments peasa the using intelligentsia, the and bourgeoisie petty urban the nativ mu the so directed Legion the that is interesting exploited is What population. that landowners foreign of class a to down boiled legionnai the of eyes the In Hungarians. and Germans of case the is off better were minorities the of some stood, it As country. di sharp to birth giving problems, administrative the with crossed created diversity ethnic The that. from arising conflicts integr elite local for need s the the meant of expansion implementation Territorial of crisis a into state the brought Romania period. interwar Romanian of structure the with summarized be can problems These wit development of national problems the on found be instead, should, and ra Romania of Poll outside lie explanations its although Legion, The to essential case the in that obvious is it However, fascism. a as it of justification week his on based fascism clerical it presentedpriests33of out103 a totalcandidates as it of institution.” Interwar and Communist Romania.” Romania.” Communist and Interwar 134 Movements and Political Religions Political and Movements 135 136 Religions Political

Stephen Fischer-Galati. “Codreanu, Romanian Nation Romanian “Codreanu, Fischer-Galati. Stephen Umut Korkut. “Nationalism versus Internationalism: Internationalism: versus “Nationalism Korkut. Umut Radu Ioanid. “The sacralised politics of the Romani the of politics sacralised “The Ioanid. Radu h sca srcue f oai ws ihy oaie. h creat The polarized. highly was Romania of structure social The hv dsisd olr’ pooe dmnin f aim n anti-sem and racism of dimension proposed Pollard’s dismissed have I 134 The Legion used the clergy politically as well. For the ele the For well. as politically clergy the used Legion The V, nr. 3 (2004): 419–453. P. 436. P. 419–453. nr.3 (2004): V, VII, nr. 2 (June 2006): 245–250. P. 247. P. 245–250. 2 2006): (June nr. VII,

Nationalities PapersNationalities

an Iron Guard.” Iron an The Roles of Political and Cultural Elitesin Cultural and Political of RolesThe al Traditions and Charisma.” andCharisma.” Traditions al XXXIV, nr. 2 (May 2006): 131-155. P. 137. 131-155. P. 22006): (Maynr. XXXIV, 135 by the enlargement of the state the of enlargement the by . Totalitarian Movements and Movements Totalitarian that ethnical Romanians, as Romanians, ethnical that eea faue f clerical of feature general to ad eoito of negotiation and ation

y f euig political securing of ty ch of its propaganda to propaganda its of ch ard’s generalizing idea generalizing ard’s cist feelings were were feelings cist visions within the the within visions t oain as Romanians nt e, h situation the res, Totalitarian Totalitarian oit i the in society curing converts converts curing tate apparatus. apparatus. tate ctions of 1937 of ctions ion of greater greater of ion Page Page hin Romania. hin Romanian e cians.” 89 ts in itism of of 112

136

CEU eTD Collection the Legion’s political nature and discourse.Legion’s nature politicaland the each other; each complement to use be can models the Therefore, merely not and r the more nationalism stresses also religion with Political it. mimicking blend to Orthodoxy from borrowing legionnaire which doctrine by process fascinating the light to brings approach the and movement the between relations the stresses fascism of approach the While Michael. Archangel of Legion advantages the of present understanding models Both religion? political or fascism implemen to managed Codreanu period, the of students the of claims Instead talent. political his displaying started and Association Chri the founded he 1922, In movement. student’s the in leader a became anti-Semitic and promotion pro-Christian strikes, breaking namely anti- the for himself distinguished he School Law Jassy in student C of activity political the in twenties early the in visible Antonescu, by destruction its until formation its of moment the from foreig country.in the property perceived the by threatened felt that workers collar unsuc lumpenproletariat, déclassés, of collection a were Guard “salar the class'” middle being 'new that Guard of members the and professionals of basis social the identified Weber 126. 137

Eugen Weber. “The Men of the Archangel.” Archangel.” of Menthe “The Weber. Eugen

The main characteristics that would single out the Legion of Archa of Legion the out single would that characteristics main The The problem arises now: what label to apply to the Iron Guard? That o That Guard? Iron the to apply to label what now: arises problem The

Journal of Contemporary HistoryContemporary of Journal itualistic politics of the legion. the of politics itualistic 137 orneliu Zelea Codreanu. As a As Codreanu. Zelea orneliu wie h mmes f the of members the while , church, political religion political church, eie ta dominated that elites n cessful students, white- students, cessful f h ra ad butter and bread the of offering an insight on insight an offering agitation. He quicklyHe agitation. I, nr. 1 (1966): 101- nr.1 (1966): I, t a new discourse, new a t in furthering the the furthering in okr activities, worker e employees, ied stian Student’s stian ee already were ngel Michael, ngel Page Page bit their built s f clerical clerical f 90 clerical of of 112

CEU eTD Collection xenophobia had been visible before. The tradition was set by the Junime the by set was tradition The before. visible anti-de been had xenophobia anti-europeanism, nationalism, by characterized movements ewe ntvs ad uoens, ewe taiinls ad modernis and traditionalism between Europeanism, ol and the nativism bybetween Romania interwar in assumed manifestations the of one was “The politics. Romanian century nineteenth of child a also but thediscourse.withinLegion’sit framing conf to simply but anti-Semitism, of origin the discuss to chapter not is it case, any In then. phenomenon the for explanation clear and Hungari anti-Semit of construction political The instance? for German, the than harder population Jewish the affect it did Why xenophobia. wer conflict social and crisis economic of conditions general the th on relies it for explanation, dated a is it only Not me. to 54. P. 2005. R.Dee, Ivan Chicago: Aldea. Bogdan 140 139 26. P. 2005. R.Dee, Ivan Chicago: Aldea. Bogdan reasonssocial-economic to attributed been have Semitism discourse. political through construction social Romania: interwar question Jewish the with st most that recognized actually Codreanu stage, this At soul. awakening the for and country the of good the for fighting were they ma in interested not were students the that message the conveying tonationalclaims the from students context. delocalized everyone by heard be could that claims general blurred, on based Boulder, Colorado: East European Monographs, 1990. Monographs, European East Colorado: Boulder, 138 Ranu Ioanid.

Marta Petreu. Petreu. Marta Marta Petreu. Petreu. Marta The legion was a product of its time, integrated in the wider Eur wider the in integrated time, its of product a was legion The n hs niin sae i ws led ovos h tnec to tendency the obvious already was it stage, incipient this In The sword of the archangel: fascist ideology in Rom in ideology fascist archangel: ofthe The sword An infamous past: E.M. Cioran and the rise of fasci of rise andthe Cioran E.M. past: Aninfamous fasci of rise andthe Cioran E.M. past: Aninfamous 138 , which makes clear the origin of the strong anti-Semitis strong the of origin the clear makes which ,

sm in in Romania. sm ania. in Romania. sm 139 e Marxist paradigm, but also but paradigm, Marxist e , but that seems secondary seems that but , Traduzido por Peter Heinegg. Heinegg. Peter por Traduzido ism is a much more direct more much a is ism e ripe for any variety of variety any for ripe e dns ee unfamiliar were udents Legionary movement movement Legionary irm that it existed and existed it that irm terial problems; that problems; terial The causes for anti- for causes The n h cuty He country. the in Translated by Translated by Translated opean tendencies tendencies opean the aim of this of aim the f h national the of orc, and mocracy, ytcs, by mysticism, a Association, a Page Page e conflict der m.” 91 140 of of n or an The m inm 112

CEU eTD Collection program was mostly outlined by Codreanu and later developed by Vasile by developed later and Codreanu by outlined mostly was program Mo di revolutionaryvague,political and spiritual albeit consistent, peasants. backward not were they edges, the around crude be to tended R possibility.the second While the support is to enough evidence There of light in one, revolutionary a of instead movement, reactionary etr Rsin lvpie ad pltcly t te srs s Tsarist the Nationality’.” Orthodoxy, to politically, and, Slavophiles Russian western very is ideology Legionary of essence “The societies. feudal neo Orthodox European East predominantly in inspired was movement Codreanu’s Religions Political and Movements traditi long a and organization, collective ma society, were These integrated (…) elders. village of council a through affairs freedo claimeda customary and ancestor (noble)free common a from inhabi whose villages free - Razasi the of survival intereste historical was “Codreanu medivalism: this about insight us gives Popovi C. A. ideologist transylvanian the by and Cuza by up taken institutions.” subst and form the between antinomy’ ‘paralyzing a to led had that organic of principles the from deviation fateful the“a as development criticized association The part. a was Eminescu which of 143 111. P. 126. 141 142 1072. P. Stephen Fischer-Galati. “Codreanu, Romanian Nation Romanian “Codreanu, Fischer-Galati. Stephen Weber, Eugen. “The Men of the Archangel.” Archangel.” Menthe of “The Eugen. Weber, Keith Hitchins. “Romania.” “Romania.” Hitchins. Keith ţ , le Gârnea Ilie a, The Legion of the Archangel Michael was founded in June 1927 by Codreanu, I by 1927 June was in Archangel Codreanu, founded the Michael Legion The of At this point, one can ask to what extent the Romanian Iron Guard was was Guard Iron Romanian the extent what to ask can one point, this At

141 The traditionalism of medieval nostalgia displayed by Eminescu Eminescu by displayed nostalgia medieval of traditionalism The ţă Crei Gogsu n Rd Mrnvc. h ideological The Mironovici. Radu and Georgescu Corneliu , 143 The American Historical Review Historical American The It was a Christian nationalist populism. ChristianwasItnationalist a VII, nr. 2 (June 2006): 245–250. P. 246. P. 245–250. 2 2006): (June nr. VII,

Journal of Contemporary History Contemporary of Journal al Traditions and Charisma.” andCharisma.” Traditions al XCVII, nr. 4 (October 1992): 1064-1083. 1992): nr.4 (October XCVII, scourse. at tae ter descent their traced tants close to that of the anti- the of that to close a palingenesis theory. palingenesis a uoen oe of model European n f struggle.” of on I, nr. 1 (1966): 101- 1 (1966): nr. I, oa, ‘Autocracy, logan, social development social ance of Romania’s of ance m to run their own mtheir run to kd y highly a by rked i te peculiar the in d ci. Eugen Weber Weber Eugen ci. omanianfascists Totalitarian Totalitarian Page Page Marin. I use I Marin. hy a a had They 92 of of o a not were 112 142 on -

CEU eTD Collection prayer. The fact that the Legion was based on such grounds of fait groundsof onsuch based was Legion that the fact The prayer. rea be could nothing, was individual the which without entity, superior specifi a and destiny, a character, perennial a it gives and ethnicity. and language Romanian y or living dead, people, of collective the as nation the of thought which all enemiesdestroyed.allcouldbe which al beyond dogma a possessed it truth, the of possession in was it did Legion The belief. political standard T to opposed faith political corporation. a race, a nation, a of: part are they what themselv in valued longer no t are People individuality. of reduction alienation its and politics of aesthetization the consequences: destroyed” is critical be to and choose to individual the of a by - life social of acts ordinary of consecration mythic the rit Symbols, spectacle.(…) mass a to collective, and individual politi reduces inevitably almost irrationalism on based movement) “A out points rightly Gentile As feeling. and faith by justified a Adhesion spontaneity. and irrationality r on based was implement movement to order in force achieve to intention the only com program, no was There proclamations. value resounding and vagueness by marked of articulation an preferred always and themselves to true kept prog clear-cut a had never Legion the because outlined, word the war Romania.war 144 Bogdan Aldea. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2005. P. 33. P. 2005. R.Dee, Ivan Chicago: Aldea. Bogdan 146 339-40. P. 375. Interpretation.” an of Criticism on 145 Constantin Iordachi. Constantin

Marta Petreu. Petreu. Marta Polit and Totalitarianism “Fascism, Gentile. Emilio ht xcl dd ain en Te le lf b Cden suggest Codreanu by left clues The mean? Nation did exactly What Trondheim: Norwegian University of Science and Tecand Science of University Norwegian Trondheim: An infamous past: E.M. Cioran and the rise of fasci of rise andthe Cioran E.M. past: Aninfamous Charisma, politics and violence: the Legion ofthe Legion the violence: and politics Charisma, Totalitarian Movements and Political ReligionsandPolitical Movements Totalitarian

146 It is a notion that removes the nation from time from nation the removes that notion a is It

ical Religion: Definitions and Critical Reflections Critical and Definitions Religion: ical sm in in Romania. sm hnology, 2004. P. 49. P. 2004. hnology, c national consciousness. This consciousness. national c e ut f rainlt and irrationality of cult he ll these means the capacity the means these ll "Archangel Michael" ininter- Michael" "Archangel 145 es, mass ceremonies and ceremonies mass es, l factionism. In light of light In factionism. l Ti hs w major two has This . h and mysticism leads mysticism and h et unborn, sharing the the sharing unborn, et cal participation, both participation, cal not have an ideology, an have not nd action were only were action nd oiia sse (or system political o a show and the the and show a o V, nr. 3 (2004): 326– 3 (2004): nr. V, a; t ideologists its ram; es but according to according but es neet ad ideas and interests Translated by Translated eform. Page Page hd through ched 93 ht he that 144 of of The plete 112

CEU eTD Collection virtuepureness.of and aristocracy newborn sons the were Legion the of men The Nation. the of resurrection self-sacrifi and prayer through that missionaries as legionnaires Christian the of copied carbon image, self-constructed the to us Political Religions Political Romania.” Communist and Interwar 147 ethnically and speaking, - Romanian natively Christian, Orthodox Romanian a Being constant. was ideas Legion’s the in foreign and bet opposition The flourish. to it for way open and nation the protect to establish to be should goal main The culture. distinct a and race closely entity an is state the him, to According state. ethnic Political Religions Political 149 148 br creativeness, and dedication soul, of purity have to needed legionnaire young the in heroicism and industry discipline, of values inc and Legion the of prestige the spread to helped camps labor voluntary rebirthtoordertheinguaranteetheneededof was revolution characte Romanian the fit not would that France from import an but state. democratic the analyzed he when Romania organic undermining projects. and elements’.”‘foreign all of t of elimination the entailed problems social all of solution the of eyes the “In nation. the of body the eating cancer a image, usi or degeneration, of hole black a to corresponded elements foreign

Radu Ioanid. “The sacralised politics of the Roman the of politics sacralised “The Ioanid. Radu Romani the of politics sacralised “The Ioanid. Radu Umut Korkut. “Nationalism versus Internationalism: Internationalism: versus “Nationalism Korkut. Umut Vasile Martin, influenced by Spengler’s organicism, completed completed organicism, Spengler’s by influenced Martin, Vasile Unlike the old man and the old elites, the new man should be a man of ac of man a be should man new the elites, old the and man old the Unlike V, nr. 3 (2004): 419–453. P. 428. P. 419–453. (2004): 3 nr. V, 427. P. 419–453. (2004): 3 nr. V, 149 148 ai vie hs ocrs bu te oeg substance foreign the about concerns his voiced Marin There were even voices claiming for Jewish extermination Jewish for claiming voices even were There

Nationalities PapersNationalities ian Iron Guard.” ian Iron an Iron Guard.” Guard.” anIron The Roles of Political and Cultural Elitesin Cultural and Political of RolesThe XXXIV, nr. 2 (May 2006): 131-155. P. 131. 131-155. P. 22006): (Maynr. XXXIV, Totalitarian Movements and and Movements Totalitarian Totalitarian Movements and and Movements Totalitarian related to its territory, to a to territory, its to related nation. he Jews and, in general, in and, Jews he Iron Guards ideologists, ideologists, Guards Iron of a spiritual school, a school, spiritual a of a nation-state, in order in nation-state, a ce, contributed to the the to contributed ce, vr ad firsthand and avery was defined as: “a as: defined was Romanian.” yhlg, f the of mythology, r. Consequently, a Consequently, r. ng the organicist the ng the notion of an an of notion the . u te also they But s. It was nothing was It ween national ween Page Page lae the ulcate 94 tion: the the tion: 147 of of The 112

CEU eTD Collection 152 P. 42. Dee, 2005. R. Ivan Chicago: Aldea. Bogdan 151 P. 43. Dee, 2005. R. Ivan Chicago: Aldea. Bogdan squads moral them gave state democratic vi the by being persecution of excuse the where murder, of ideology an than more nothing to paysGod.worshipingtoonetributething.By nation the same to led is one Sometimes starts. God and stops nation the where nati the entity: abstract pagan-sacred one worship to Guard Iron the by theofChris elements soulare all purityof the sacrifice, fig the poverty, of praise the prevalent: again once are mythology leading elements The nation. the of rebirth the on focuses soul his unconcerned is legionnaire a for poor, be and heart his in love God, should he nation, the threatened that life of hardships the of knowledge 150 ris the at enemies political their assassinate to willing mankind” redeem to order in died the for die to willing Christianity, of and nation the of apostles portr suggestively Legionnaires “the explains Petreu As Romania. contr would sacrifice whose nation, the of martyrs were they self-inte and concerns from mundane to were have expected legionnaires Reap Grim the with relationship close this for justification the him purge would self-sacrifice die, to had one If man. new the on of rebirth The die. or kill to ready always was legionnaire The The first dates from 1933 when the Student’s Congr Student’s the when 1933 from dates The first Marta Petreu. Petreu. Marta Marta Petreu. Petreu. Marta The darkest side of the Legion’s palingenetic myth was its conc its was myth palingenetic Legion’s the of side darkest The 152 . . An infamous past: E.M. Cioran and the rise of fasci rise the of and past:Cioran E.M. infamous An An infamous past: E.M. Cioran and the rise of fasci rise the of and past:Cioran E.M. infamous An

150 I a lsr ok hwvr lgonie “were legionnaires however, look, closer a In . ess had a meeting in Târgu-Mure meeting hada in ess k of their own life”own their of k carte blanche carte tian doctrine that were subverted were that doctrine tian sm in Romania.in sm sm in Romania.in sm ir nation just as Jesus had Jesus as just nation ir Romania was dependent was Romania believe that they are the are they that believe r a te detachment the was er bt t te eit of rebirth the to ibute ht agains evil, the self- the evil, agains ht of sin. Theoretically, Theoretically, sin. of yd hmevs as themselves ayed with materiality; all all materiality; with to constitute death constitute to Translated by Translated Translated by Translated back to Christian Christian to back eption of death. of eption on. It is unclear is It on. rest. In the end, the Inrest. ş 151 . . Page Page have faith in faith have , amounting , 95 tm of ctims of of 112

CEU eTD Collection

153 (Mo he leaving Romania, “Before fight. evil against good a atheism against Christianity of fight the as perceived war, Romania.war 155 267. P. 2007): 259–269. (June 2 Marin.” Motaand Vasile Ion Leaders Legionary 154 262. P. 2007): 259–269. (June 2 Marin.” Motaand Vasile Ion Leaders Legionary manda 5 and votes of % 2.37 got legion the 1932 In marches. electoral sit current the with content all at not were authorities state one when significant more the all is support of display clerical Gu Iron the for support of display impressive an in out came church the publ in Marin and Mota of death the by produced emotions the using when, Church. Orthodox Romanian the of clergy the and movement fascist Romania between history the in moment vital a is funeral Marin ever in enthusiasm with greeted Romania, of provinces historical bodi their carried that train The politics. of sacralization the church.” the of defense i belief a reveal and act his both justify that letters other party.” organization, elite alternative an as designed originally was th seconded legion the by educated elite mystical the of up made the of will the represented that one leader, consensual single nation. the for self-sacrifice ideology: Legion’s the of core the symbolized

Valentin Sandulescu. “Sacralised Politics in Action in Politics “Sacralised Sandulescu. Valentin Constantin Iordachi. Iordachi. Constantin Action in Politics “Sacralised Sandulescu. Valentin The death of Moof death The The nation should be constituted into an ethnic state, where there would there where state, ethnic an into constituted be should nation The 155 But in 1929, the goal changed. The legion had to appeal to the m the to appeal to had legionThe goal changed. the 1929,in But Trondheim: Norwegian University of Science and Tecand Science of University Norwegian Trondheim: Charisma, politics and violence: the Legion ofthe Legion the violence: and politics Charisma, ţ a was paradigmatic. He died in the front line of the Spanish the of line front the in died He paradigmatic. was a 153 Mo

ţ a’s and Marin’s funeral was one of the best examples of examples best the of one was funeral Marin’s and a’s Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions and Political Movements Totalitarian Religions and Political Movements Totalitarian : the February 1937 Burial of the Romanian the of Burial February 1937 :the : the February 1937 Burial of the Romanian Romanian the of Burial February 1937 :the hnology, 2004. P. 54P. 2004. hnology, ţ n his impending death for the the for death impending his n a) left a testament and several and testament a left a) and not as a mass political mass a as not and es paraded throughout the the throughout paraded es "Archangel Michael" ininter- Michael" "Archangel d omns. t a a was It communism. nd a spiritual cause and for and cause spiritual a uation.” ain A ige party single A Nation. takes into account that account into takes y stop. “The Mota and Mota “The stop. y e leader. “The Legion “The leader. e s ot important most ’s It is the moment the is It 154 hi deaths Their Page Page

asses through asses ard. (…)This ard. ic opinion, ic e i the in tes 96 VIII, nr. VIII, nr. VIII, be one be of of civil 112

CEU eTD Collection or lcoa promne utl then until performances electoral poor o end the until support mass of terms in failure relative a was thoug surprising not is It claimed. Legion early the as country, the out casts it because hated, was democracy when performance toofthedestiniesunfitthe Nation. control unreliable, party. largest third the became it 1937 December of elections countryside the from center gravity its shifted It parliament. 157 102. P. 156 class conflicts. and o end the meant solidarity organic The corporatism. installing by stat aintonation the of organization the Furthermore, elite. l one of guidance the to subjected community, of spirit a by dominated sy totalitarian a defended openly and culture national true a of democratic a of imposition artificial the that added Martin expl and of conspiracy international and Jewish financial traitor, as Codreanu by seen was elite democratic contemporary outside the Legion in the relationship established between the ne the between established relationship the in Legion the outside same The superiors. the to owed was submission stric Total on hierarchy. based organization internal an and character paramilitary the is, It community. the and state the serving carelessly t due times, gone of chivalry the as itself at looked Guard Iron Eugen Weber. “The Men of the Archangel.” Archangel.” the of Men Weber. “The Eugen Archangel.” the of Men Weber. “The Eugen The command of the state was to be the responsibility of the new new the of responsibility the be to was state the of command The It is thus that we can make another conclusion about the Legion: the about conclusion another make can we that thus is It

Journal of Contemporary History Contemporary of Journal History Contemporary of Journal 157 Cden as fl ta te rw was crowd the that felt also Codreanu . e would eliminate all conflict all eliminate would e model inhibited the creation the inhibited model , o upie ht t a a had it that surprise no n, f the 1930’s, as seen in the in seen as 1930’s, the f stem. Society should be should Society stem. h; after all, the Legion the all, after h; o uhrs. n the In Bucharest. to f all individual, group, individual, all f o their ascetic profile, ascetic their o for it worked with the with worked it for w aristocracy and the and aristocracy w I, nr. 1 (1966): 101-126. 1 (1966): nr. I, 101-126. 1 (1966): nr. I, re lt o the of elite true 156 rnil applied principle dsiln and discipline t aristocracy. The aristocracy. its elitism. The elitism. its iain Vasile oitation. paradoxal A ae ad his and eader Page Page 97 of of 112

CEU eTD Collection them. appointing of instead names confirming to himself limited lea natural the that believed was It leadership. charismatic pr to only submitted was organization the of inside people of promotion t 3 between range could nest each and man charismatic strong local mobilizermainLegion.politicalof forthe the thus faith attraction.” of power and appearance physical gifts, personal exceptional Codreanu’s emphasized propaganda Legionary historical Romanian of line teleological a of result end the as p local the of view in represented was and leader revolutionary a celebrated was Codreanu Fourth, (…) emotions. on based charisma, cl Codreanu Third, salvation. to leading conduct of code a forward particul a to charisma his propa attached effective (also) He and (…) machine. polished highly a into charisma Codreanu’s developed intellectuals the 1933, in “Starting Legion: the within leader feat main the of account an gives Iordachi Codreanu. of leadership reducetodesiretobetothem tools man legionnaires’ mere wa Marin role’, dynamic ‘any masses the refusing “In masses: h mmesi ws eemnd y g ad e, oe hn y socio by than more sex, and 158 age by determined was membership The w no and in uniteda be nestscould group Aof (actionhonor. andaid mutual education, silence work, discipline, rules: golden six by commanded Rumania. 160 Romania.war 159 1990. Monographs, European East Colorado: Boulder,

Nicholas M. Nagy-Talavera. M.Nagy-Talavera. Nicholas Radu Ioanid. Ioanid. Radu Constantin Iordachi. Iordachi. Constantin nenly te ein a dvdd n et. h ns ws org was nest The nests. in divided was legion the Internally, the by dominated completely was structure Legion’s the Furthermore, Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 19 Press, Institution Hoover California: Stanford, Trondheim: Norwegian University of Science and Tecand Science of University Norwegian Trondheim: The sword of the archangel: fascist ideology in Rom in ideology fascist archangel: ofthe sword The Charisma, politics and violence: the Legion ofthe Legion the violence: and politics Charisma, The Green Shirts and the others: a history of Fasci of history a theothers: and Shirts TheGreen

P. 134. P. 159 The messianic figure of Codreanu was Codreanu of figure messianic The 70. P. 272. P. 70. 272.

ania. hnology, 2004. P. 74-5. 74-5. P. 2004. hnology, ders would emerge. Codreanu emerge. would ders ipulated.” Translated by Peter Heinegg. Heinegg. by Peter Translated "Archangel Michael" ininter- Michael" "Archangel development. (…) Fifth, (…) development. r e o vle, putting values, of set ar s giving free sway to the to sway free giving s nold n h Legion the in enrolled anoply of heroic figures heroic of anoply ures of the cult of the of cult the of ures sm in Hungary and and Hungary in sm 158 o 13 elements. The elements. 13 o nzd rud one around anized 160 legionary family.

ie a natural a aimed h ns was nest The a predestined a s Page Page uh s his as such charismatic nils of inciples -economic 98 of of ganda ords), ords), 112

CEU eTD Collection great deal to the political agitation. The nature of Romanian of nature The agitation. political the to deal great origin the that established already have We anti-Semitism. xenophob its of dimension mass the in implications had also nationalism very The Russia. against war imperial its launched Romania the same logic of the Nazi the of logic same the t of vitality of excess an as born pat is imperialism biological context, and physical a preserves and gains nation the which tra a in belief its ethnicity, on focus its aggressiveness, patriotism interwar Romanian anti-Semitism. and imperialism aofcastle.” ruin middl the in preferably pla oaths, and torches took songs, of accompaniment It possible. as dramatic as was Legion the of ranks the initia the on reflected were irrationality and mysticism This missi divine and mythical already the heighted that self-conception pol beyondmere was It truth. the as but such, as perceived not was true also is This organizations. political ac of members former to refused and Legion the of nature non-party the on insisted Codreanu on impediment an was activism political prior sex, and age from ma their out brings which factor a – thirty under cent per 40 nearly status 162 Rumania. 161 Rumania. 163 109. P. Eugen Weber. “The Men of the Archangel.” of “TheMen Weber. Eugen M.Nagy-Talavera. Nicholas Nicholas M. Nagy-Talavera. M.Nagy-Talavera. Nicholas 161 I finish this survey of the Legion’s main characteristics by maki by characteristics main Legion’s the of survey this finish I Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 19 Press, Institution Hoover California: Stanford, Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 19 Press, Institution Hoover California: Stanford, . In fact, “In 1940, 21.2 per cent of them (legionnaires) were under under were (legionnaires) them of cent per 21.2 1940, “In fact, In . 163

The Green Shirts and the others: a history of Fasci of history a theothers: and Shirts TheGreen The Green Shirts and the others: a history of Fasci of history a theothers: and Shirts TheGreen Lebensraum

Journal of Contemporary History Contemporary of Journal . Incidentally, it was together with Germany that Germany with together was it Incidentally, . 70. 70. 70. P. 273. P. 273. 70. nscendental organicism, through organicism, nscendental he Romanian people, much in much people, Romanian he for the Legions ideology: it ideology: Legions the for tion rituals: “Initiation into “Initiation rituals: tion f niSmts oe a owes anti-Semitism of was characterized by its by characterized was nationalism as described as nationalism I, nr. 1 (1966): 101-126. 101-126. 1 (1966): nr. I, aue f Romania’s of nature itics of left or right, a right, orleft of itics on of the Iron Guard. IronGuard. the of on sm in Hungary and and Hungary in sm sm in Hungary and and Hungary in sm onn te Legion. the joining rginality.” e of a forest or the the or forest a of e ce at night to the the to night at ce ng a brief stop in stop brief a ng ioy I this In rimony. Page Page ia, especially ia, twenty-five, 162 et any cept 99 Apart of of 112

CEU eTD Collection omitte be never can II Carol of role “The threatened. felt he sentences”light got assassins t “to Legion, the tolerated politicians other and king The example. protectors.” its found fascism Romanian that – itself only was power whom for – politicians bourgeois of ranks the among was traits fascist some incentived regimes democratic Liberal sacrificetheofnewman. and doctrine t in him guided religion of in interest whose mysticism Eliade, by Christian incentived The Guard. Iron the as efficiently people’ vent not could and spirituality of dimension a lacked Legion the comparable the because essential, prove would That character. the of spiritualism the praised intellectuals most rule, common i young v of political and image infusion public Legion’s the “The considerably strengthened press. official movement’s the in aspects, ideo some of elaboration the to contributed even and Guard Iron the supported in was Eliade Mircea who among intellectuals, distinguished of group withinforeignthe nation. enemies of up build discourse and ideology of importance the prove to seems above war Romania.war 164 165 Boulder, Colorado: East European Monographs, 1990. Monographs, European East Colorado: Boulder, Boulder, Colorado: East European Monographs, 1990. Monographs, European East Colorado: Boulder, 166

Radu Radu Ioanid.

Constantin Iordachi. Iordachi. Constantin Radu Ioanid. Ioanid. Radu upr fr h Io Gad i nt xlsvl cm fo te intellig the from come exclusively not did Guard Iron the for Support whe 1930’s mid the in support public wider up pick to started Legion The Trondheim: Norwegian University of Science and Tecand Science of University Norwegian Trondheim: The sword of the archangel: fascist ideology in Rom in ideology fascist archangel: ofthe sword The The sword of the archangel: fascist ideology in Rom in ideology fascist archangel: ofthe The sword Charisma, politics and violence: the Legion ofthe Legion the violence: and politics Charisma, 166

. King Carol II played with the Guard until the moment the until Guard the with played II Carol King . P. 42. P. 41. P.

165 ania. ania. hnology, 2004. P. 60. 60. P. 2004. hnology, ig ao I i te best the is II Carol King to fight off communism. “It communism. off fight to Translated by Peter Heinegg. Heinegg. by Peter Translated Translated by Peter Heinegg. Heinegg. by Peter Translated "Archangel Michael" ininter- Michael" "Archangel legion and its didactical its and legion , lhuh e brutally he although d, h lgonie was legionnaires the political competition of competition political e ettmn o the of restatement he he point where even where point he isibility.” ldd openly cluded, Page Page in the creation the in s anguish as as anguish s ntellectuals an end in end an 100 164 logical logical entsia. entsia. of s a As 112 a n

CEU eTD Collection Nonethe ones. enlightened and chosen of elite an by assisted leader, c hierarchy strict a by shaped be to were nation the and state c class of suppression the and corporatism of implementation the woul through this Economically, nation. the embodied which collective, the individual’s the and solidarity national of principle operative the under t State Legionary projected the of base the was ethnicity homogeneous imperia and anti-Semitism xenophobia, to led it that and way radical deniedopposed. and that cohe civilization; new sketched ill and devious a was it that the of men the of action the underlying utopia an was there that shows fascinat Codreanu’s ahead. lying civilization new a saw Guard that obvious is It ethos. new a of bearer honest, pure, man, new t of prophets the by guided be to is revolution The revolution. political ide palingenetic its of core the constitutes o (syncretism), out copied and inspired nation, Romanian the of rebirth of myth Its politics of sacralization the in feature this find also can one politi fully by A society conquer under to attempt fact the Regarding a government. was regime party single The person. last the t replaced have would they successful, fully been Guard Iron the assume to one allow would which elite, new a create to attempted himself.” to m not could he that clear became it as soon as Legion the suppressed 167 Boulder, Colorado: East European Monographs, 1990. Monographs, European East Colorado: Boulder,

Radu Ioanid. Ioanid. Radu I ams ge wtot aig ht oai’ Io Gad a nati was Guard Iron Romania’s that saying without goes almost It They power. political monopolizing at undoubtedly aimed Guard Iron The 167 The sword of the archangel: fascist ideology in Rom in ideology fascist archangel: ofthe sword The The sameGeneralbecanaboutsaid The Antonescu.

P. 43. P.

ology leading to a spiritual and spiritual a to leading ology ania. undertaken by the Legion. Legion. the by undertaken ommanded by the supreme the by ommanded Translated by Peter Heinegg. Heinegg. by Peter Translated rent, at least, in the things the in least, at rent, he old regime down to down regime old he the leaders of the Iron the of leaders the tnsus eid of period ntonescu’s o wt te Razasi the with ion that ultimately, had ultimately, that less, the leader was leader the less, ake it subordinate it ake lism. Shared and Shared lism. iig existence, cizing hat would work would hat he new age, the age, new he legion; granted legion; b achieved be d submission to submission Page Page Christianity f nlc. The onflict. nls i a in onalist 101 of 112

CEU eTD Collection resoluteofandprimacydimensionlifethespiritualto gave The communism. archenemy: liberalism towards feelings hatred it but economically, and politically both liberalism, opposed strongly abolis was it therefore, and, declared was State Legionary w press of freedom for need no was There actions. leader’s the to ti all at and implicitly that people the with connection natural faith. on based is theory legionnaires the as explanation, rational it. expressing spontaneously will, nation’s the with contact in

ly denied materialism.lydenied hed. Finally, the Iron Guard Iron the Finally, hed. mes express their consent their express mes hr i n ne fr a for need no is There Legionnaires doctrine Legionnaires e te National- the hen hs nedr a engenders This lo nourished also Page Page 102 of 112

CEU eTD Collection pos samereachingmerely thatmovement aspiring that wasat a t of control in regime, institutionalized an compare to possible it compar am the of viability of problems insurmountable some poses That movement. I Therefore, features. ideological its to strictly considerat into taken not have I period, brief a for it achieve power. achieve to sought that Mi movement political Archangel a as of configuration Legion the of study to restricted was Romania regime established an of facts known and discourse a political case between Portuguese the pondered thesis this of much While comparison. on necessar is it proceeding, Before fascism. generic of models based fascism of historiography on have they impact the assess the between comparison the undertake to time the now is Romania and Conclusion played in inspiring the ideology and contributing to the political tac political the to contributing ideologyand the inspiring in played period. context of circumstances unique their and country each of traditions case each of features specific the ke identify new to a space allowing in politics of phenomenon wider European a of light in fascism cas two discussing allows It advantage. main one however has approach f generic a using cases, both of discourse the to comparison the In order to make such a comparison viable and fruitful, I restric I fruitful, and viable comparison a such make to order In st case two the into looked and fascism generic surveyed Having trig ih h smlrte o bt cs suis n fns t finds one studies case both of similarities the with Starting

y to reflect on the subject ofsubject the on reflect to y ion, and kept the analysis the kept and ion, iig rm h political the from rising ition? he political arena, with arena, political he n a eie ih a with regime a ing tics of the authors of authors the of tics sim oe. This model. ascism he role the church church the role he he ideological chael udies of Portugal of udies n h interwar the in ted the scope of scope the ted lhuh t did it Although es of peripheral of es Page Page h theoretical the comparison. Is comparison. te td of study the , two cases and cases two lternatively 103 y, while while y, of 112

CEU eTD Collection persona great from benefiting nation, Romanian the of salvation politic sacred a embodied He leader. the of cult the of example to reachpower.aspired Codreanu power; s different the to due is function in difference The quo. status but charm, to not aimed alliance, same the Portugal, of case acte axis religious-political The Legion. the of appeal the more in clergy orthodox the of section by afforded support The bourgeoisie. elit its intelligentsi the between peasantry, Romanian the of gap mass the and the organization bridge to mysticism a using Legion, rit political the in integrated was ethos religious The ideology. ort Christian between syncretism challenging and complex more thoughundertocontrolsubject manipulation. and itself, even tight t with it afforded state new the with symbiosis The church. the deal The state. secular a to submission, of cost the at even th more apparatus church the made anticlericalism regime’s the to itself offered hierarchy church the while group, ruling the bet relationship the structure and principle corporatist the inspire to inspirati took also elite his and Salazar repression. dissent and sociali political of purposes serve to church the instrumentalized of power secular the to subordinated were and functions political remarkably Portugaland come Romaniasimilaacross fascism, of point the From Romania. and Portugal in anti-modernism political h caimtc edrhp lyd ifrnl. orau presents Codreanu differently. played leadership charismatic The wi itself distinguished hand, other the on Guard, Iron Romanian The ser Portugal in ethos catholic the and church the seen, have we As was not entirely negative for for negative entirely not was on from Catholic doctrine Catholic from on r. control and maintain the maintain and control n iln t cooperate, to willing an he possibility to reassert reassert to possibility he ituation. Salazar was in was Salazar ituation. al teleology, that of the of that teleology, al es and ideology of the the of ideology and es d as a charmer; in the in charmer; a as d l gifts like his natural his like gifts l ain sca control social zation, ooy n political and hodoxy

ween the masses and masses the ween tt. h previous The State. s ad messianic and ist Salazar state. the view of clerical of view a and the petty the and a Page Page rae even creased h much a th e para- ved 104 perfect a of 112

CEU eTD Collection conceptions. The Legion saw itself as the training ground for a thea groundtraining for as LegionTheitself saw conceptions. responsibilitymobilizingofto the the people’ church allocated Salazar of control bureaucratic the under was state the that given as not was support mass of gathering The tactics. same the of neede government, his institutionalized having Salazar, power. to v with mixed interests, of articulation broad-formatted a using of organization an by into grew set it paradigm movement small the a From with governments. line in was and letter, the to model g the followed Legion The differently. perform also studies case both ofthat, existence, Salazar contr also nevertheless,aspect Catholi of influence the and secular declaredly was regime s of iconography the namely representation, of norms Catholic by driven othe the on cult, Salazar’s ideology. the of character sacred s essentially and model Nazi the in inspired was Codreanu of cult the class urban the to mostly directed of was case, any in who, propaganda, familias pater as Salazar of image the spreading in ma Sunday and fully him backed Church The profile. moral catholic refrained was cult political his person, his of adulation mass on outsid the to projected he image the controlled he state, the charism self-made a of man a was Salazar However, Portugal. one only the was Chefe eli the insisting praise, him supplied continually an from benefited also Salazar dimension. spiritual his im his refined who intellectual of backbone a and attraction of power oh aaa’ rgm ad h Lgonie oeet ee eliti were movement Legionnaire the and regime Salazar’s Both harvest the with cult leadership the of connection the Regarding olled. cism was restricted the moralthe restricted was cism e of his office. Not indulging Not office. his of e iolent tactics in its assault its in tactics iolent sconsent. new breed of men, a new a men, of breed new a. Just like he controlled controlled he like Just a. e f nelcul, who intellectuals, of te r hand, was essentially essentially was hand, r vital as for the Legion, the for as vital ain hn n other any than nation by his intellectual and intellectual his by d not to have recourse have to not d . Thus, the New State New the Thus, . ss performed better performed ss capable of leading of capable clr dsie the despite ecular, es. The leadership The es. h mjr fascist major the age and deepened and age of mass support, mass of t n hi self- their in st aints, while the the while aints, Page Page mass appeal, appeal, mass nrc fascist eneric 105 of 112

CEU eTD Collection butthereadiscourseiswaspali undeniableit about a that high, deg the course, Of happening. was it reality, a was revolution elit the of eyes the In faced. revolution ongoing the that problems ai was discussion the All it. about formulation utopian no is there I corporatism. introduced that 1933, of constitution the since happening dis was revolution The tense. present the in occurred revolution the di The altogether. communism refused and liberalism transcend would be could it what of formulation single no was There complex. more is solidar by replaced is profit of conception the where villages, society peasant a character: Romanian to inherent forms pure the i project economic and political The Romanians. ethnic of pureness minori foreign and forms political intrusive without order an means case the In influence. foreign of degeneration the of ridden be will bornbe to man newThe elite. the ofself-sacrifice the myth a is It fascism. generic of requirements the fulfils Portuga than clear more be to proves Romania again, Once studies. power.suchofuse governsthe that ideology acc power, control who people of group closed a sense: traditional most el Salazar’s Portuguesa. Mocidade organization youth the in placed el with intersected not did man new the of myth The him. bure to dependence was elite Salazar’s nature. different a of was however, New The extraction. Christian of values related other and concerns selfishne bravery, like characteristics special attributed r of process painful the into Romania lead would that aristocracy The palingenetic myth, the core of fascist ideology, was also also was ideology, fascist of core the myth, palingenetic The in the future regenerated Romaniaregenerated future the in of rebirth of the nation through nation the of rebirth of s ainto fo material from alienation ss, ity. The Portuguese myth Portuguese The ity. ngenetic process.ngenetic ree of self-delusion ran self-delusion of ree urtc n i direct in and aucratic med at questioning thequestioning at med ties undermining the undermining ties itism was one in the in one was itism l. The Legion easily Legion The l. present in both case both in present based in communal communal in based nvolves a return to return a nvolves brh Te were They ebirth. f oai, that Romania, of o Slzr the Salazar, of e usd s being as cussed ess to it and the and it to ess tt’ elitism, State’s , except that it that except , csin about scussion Page Page ti sense, this n ite, but was but ite, 106 of 112

CEU eTD Collection complex. It is not fascist. It is not authoritarian. It is a a is It authoritarian. not is It fascist. not is i It case complex. Portugal’s people. Romanian the of and nation the discourse of mystical renovation a in antimodernism political and faith orthodox the was character distinguishing Its it. at looks one side any under theysignificance.lostthat all extent abandone thoug even system, political liberal a of consent and rationality never State New the sense, this In faith. by adhesion w that all and truth the of guardian the was Legion The ideology. of political of model a adopted however, Legion, The viewpoints. their argumenta rational providing State, New the of content and form the intelligentsi Salazar’s Michael. Archangel of Legion the and CatholicChurch. the the by ethos imposed an of premises the under that even but life, sphere private The control. of purposes practical for created one Salaz in Totalitarianism it. to purpose ideological an without though totalit to amounted worked and institutionalized was state New the as Nevertheless, totalitarianism. at attempts any refused totalita of teleology defined no had Salazar work. useful socially em while participants the of minds the controlling at aimed They a are camps work Codreanu’s project. Nazi the of footsteps the w it successful been movement the had that, indicate country sha the and man of anthropology the in revolution intended the However, All that I have established so far indicates that the Legionthe that indicates far so established have I that All Sala of discourse of nature the about observation general a Finally, totalit nourished Guard Iron the extent what to evaluate to hard is It I have shown above, the way the above, shown have I a tried to rationally justify rationally to tried a odrie iuto, also situation, borderline ould be willing to follow to willing be ould h it perverted them to the the to them perverted it h was a fascist movement movement fascist a was was reduced to family to reduced was safe indicator of that. that. of indicator safe state and endorsed by endorsed and state ploying their time in time their ploying arian practices, even practices, arian te rnils of principles the d faith and the denial the and faith as needed was the was needed as synthesis between synthesis ins ad even and rianism ar’s Portugal was Portugal ar’s in supporting tion Page Page ping of a new a of ping ie a the at aimed zar’s regime zar’s arian goals. goals. arian fr more far s 107 of 112

CEU eTD Collection increasingly better historiographic piecesthebetter subject. historiographicabout increasingly inspir the find should others that flaws their in is It perfect. or arguments my convinced not am I phenomenon. wide European a as key new proble the and Romania and Portugal both into research further inspire challeng a provide may thesis this that hope my is It Europe. both. not hi quality low perform or agendas hidden serve and perceptions reshape a is history without theory And facts. meaningless of without collection history happened; really what of sense make to history. essential of explanation biased minimally and comprehensive a provide fa context, between negotiation constant a entail must fascism phenomen the of possible portrait historiographic holistic most the at failing them, for account to fail differencesand these overlook model strict single, one a Applying fascisms. local of shaping and circumstances context, national the of importance the light chara those of each in identified variations The Europe. interwar wide European the proves fascism generic of characteristics shifting scenario.international quickly st authoritarian an to led fascism deconstructing of process elemen fascist se the the After when traits. authoritarian period the and a conservative dominated is 1945 to 1933 of period The turns. domi and interplaying them of all authoritarian, and conservative of synthesis a Nevertheless, synthesis. a by characterized I wish to conclude with an appeal to the pursuit of comparative hist comparative ofpursuit the to appeal an with conclude to wish I h fc ta Prua ad oai sae h aoe etoe discurs mentioned above the share Romania and Portugal that fact The ate striving to survive in a in survive to striving ate ieso o fsim in fascism of dimension cts and theory, in order to order in theory, and cts e to others; that it might it that others; to e oiia frs Fascist, forms. political political traditions in the in traditions political ation and drive to write write to drive and ation of generic fascism will fascism generic of cteristics also brings to brings also cteristics the attempt of creating creating of attempt the omtv poet to project normative od ol wr the war, world cond a. The use of generic of use The a. nating the regime in regime the nating m of politics in a in politics of m hoy s ut a just is theory storiography. If storiography. ory of interwar ory of Page Page Theory is is Theory 108 clearly t are final are of 112 ive

CEU eTD Collection Eatwell, Roger. “Reflections onReligion.”Fascism Roger. and “Reflections Eatwell, H.RhetoricHistory.”J.of “The Hexter, RepressionTom.Portuga“ControlledSalazar's in Gallagher, Stephen.NationalRomanian “Codreanu,Fischer-Galati, Tradit “‘ClericalMatthew,and Turda. Marius Fascism’ Feldman, RuthWodak. Norman,and“Critical Discourse Fairclough, van.TeunDiscourseA. “The of Study Dijk, dadeSilva.Fogo.”S. J. “Espada Dias, a revolução.” —. “Viver FreitasEduardooda. chefe.” “Nós, Costa, A.Elizabeth Clark, tospecialMarina.the' “Introductionof issue Cattaruzza, Marcelo.nãoéestatismo.”“Corporativismo Caetano, problemasôbreoLuiz.“Considerações doschefes.” Avillez, revolucionário.” espírito “Revolução, Anonymus. Bibliography Gonçalves, Henriques. “Para teoria política da revolução.”teoriadaHenriques. política “Para Gonçalves, TotalitarianismEmilio.Political and“Fascism, Gentile, da.homem.”viveodepãoMartins só “Nem Cruz, Political 1997.London:SAGE, 1-34. aMultidisciplinaryStudies:Introduction Discourse 5. 5. HistoryContemporary Movements PoliticalReligionsand Totalitarian 205–212. 2007): Introduction.” van1997.Dijk,258-284. London: SAGE, A. Teun -MultidisciplinaryDiscourseinteractionIntr Studies: A social Harvard2004. Press, Massachusetts: University Movements PoliticalReligionsand Totalitarian PoliticalReligions': asCharacteris Religions Political a 1&4. 3. 1942: 1&6. and PoliticalReligionsand ofReflectionsonInterpretation.” Criticism an Critical IV, nr. 3 (December 2003): 145nr.166.-3 (DecemberIV,2003): History, theory, text : historians and thelinguisticandHistory,theory,turn.texthistorians : TotalitarianReligionsandMovementsPolitical Acção XIV, nr.31979):(July385-402. XIV, V, nr. 3 (2004):nr.326–375.V,3 , 21 deMaio1942.21 de , Acção HistoryTheoryand Acção ". , 1deJuly1.de, 1943: In: , 15 de January de 1942:151.dedeJanuary , Discourse as structure and process -asand process structureDiscourse Acção Acção VII, nr. 2 (June 2006): 245–250.2006):nr.2VII,(June 1(JuneVI,1-18.2005):nr. Acção Religion: Definitions andReligion: Totalitarian MovementsTotalitarian and , 16de1943:December, de TotalitarianMovements and , edited byvanA. Teun edited, Dijk, , 26 de Novembro26 de de 1942. ,

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CEU eTD Collection Knowledge Historical Reality:Chris. and “Historical Lorenz, ProblemsHistoriography:andChris. Perspec “Comparative Lorenz, politicsofIronRomanian sacralised Radu. the “The Ioanid, Miroslav. Hroch, Keith. “Romania.” Hitchins, Mink, Louis O. “The Autonomy of HistoricalUnderstanding.”O.AutonomyLouis “The of Mink, Salaz RibeiroFilipe“InvestigatingPortugal, Meneses, de. Rol“NationalismThe Internationalism: versusUmut. Korkut, TheJürgen.case“Asymetrical Historical Comparison: Kocka, Constantin. Iordachi, —. —. “Portugal encontrou o seuencontrou destino.” —. “Portugal o Plebiscitode umaManuel. “Opolítica.” Múrias, Alun. Munslow, GeorgeL. Mosse, Munslow, Alun.InandTheoryPractice.” “Introduction, Munslow, GeorgeofL.“TheInFascism.”Genesis Mosse, The sword of the archangel:ofRomania.theswordideologyfascistinThe Realism".” Realism".” Theory 2(May131-155.2006):nr. XXXIV, ElitesandInterwar Communist in Romania.” Cultural ReligionsPoliticaland Movements 1985.UniversityPress, Cambridge nations. European amongsocialofthegroupsofsmaller the patriotic composition analysis 1064-1083. 1992): History 1942–1945.”theLegationofIrishLisbon, in Work Sonderweg.” Technology,2004. and inRomania. inter-war Michael" Routledge, 2004. Routledge, history c1968.3-14.Crowell,York: Greene, Nathanael New 24-47.(1966):1 nr. York: H. Fertig,H. c1999. York: Heinegg. Boulder, Colorado: East1990.EuropeanColorado: Boulder, Monographs, Heinegg. , edited by Alun7-11. edited,York:NewRobertby Munslow Rosenstone, A. and XXXVIII, nr. 1 (February 1999): 25-39.XXXVIII,(February1999):nr.1 XI, nr. 3 (AugustXI,nr.391-408.2002):3 DeconstructingHistory. History and TheoryHistory Social preconditions of national:Socialof comparative revival Europea in preconditions The fascist revolution: toward a general theory of fascism.Theofrevolution:theorygeneral a fascisttoward HistoryTheoryand Charisma, politics and violence: theofpoliticsLegionandtheviolence:"Archangel Charisma, Translated byFowkes.Cambridgeshire:TranslatedCambridge, Ben TheReviewHistoricalAmerican XXXIII, nr. 3297-327.1994):XXXIII, (October nr. Trondheim: Norwegian UniversityofTrondheim:NorwegianScience XXXVIII, nr. 1 (February 1999): 40-50.nr.1 XXXVIII, (February1999): Acção V, nr. 3 (2004): 419–453.V,(2004):nr.3 London: Routledge, 1997.London:Routledge, , 12 de November de 1942: 1.de1942:de November ,12 Fascism: an anthologyan Fascism: Acção , 5 de November de 1942: 1.5 deNovember ,de 1942: Experimentsrethinkingin Contemporary EuropeanContemporary ar, and the New State: thetheNew ar,and State: Guard.” NationalitiesPapers Translatedby Peter APleafor"Internal XCVII,nr.4 (October es ofandPoliticales of the Germanof the Historyand Theory tives.” Totalitarian , edited byedited, Page Page History andHistory New

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CEU eTD Collection Pollard, John. “‘Clerical Fascism’: Context, OverviewContext,John. “‘ClericalandFascism’: Pollard, J.H. Plumb, Costa,InáciaAntónioRezola. eCat Maria “Political Pinto, Rüsen, Jörn. “Rhetoric and Aesthetics ofLeopold“RhetoricRankeHistory:Jörn.Aesthetics von and Rüsen, Manuel.“Corporativismo.” Rocha, D.Jeremy Popkin, —. RobertTheory.”“Introduction,A.InPractice and Rosenstone, Antigo.”Manuel.“CorporativismoPadre Rocha, ‘Order’:andCosta.SalazarandAntónioPreto, “‘Chaos’ Pinto, Marta. Petreu, darevolução“"ProblemasMarques. corporativa".” Pereira, StanleyG. Payne, Robert. Paxton, Elinor. “Narrative” Ochs, ofI asErnst.an era.” “Fascism characteristic Nolte, M.Nicholas Nagy-Talavera, Salazar's Dictatorship and European Fascism: problems ofEuropean problems interpretation.andDictatorship Fascism:Salazar's Political Religions Political StatePortugal.”in Salazar’sNew and Democracy Movements and Political ReligionsPoliticaland Movements UniversityColumbia1995. Press, York: York: Routledge,2004. York: history rethinking Press,c2005. Chicago 203–214.2006): (June Portugal.” Inter-war Introduction Multidisciplinary Theory 4. 2005.Aldea.BogdanIvan Chicago:by Dee, R. Translated 6. c1995. Press, 1997. SAGE, c1968.14-35.Crowell,York:New Greene, Nathanael Rumania.and Hungary The death ofThe death past. the 29, nr. 2(May190-204.1990):29,nr. An infamous past: E.M.riseandfascismRomania.infamousAnpast:ofthein Cioran The anatomy offascism.anatomyThe A historyAoffascism,1914-1945. History, historians, &historians,History, autobiography. , edited by Alun1-5.NewRobertbyMunslow Rosenstone, A. e edited , VIII, n.º 2 (June 2007): 353–368.2007):2VIII,(June n.º . In: Totalitarian MovementsandTotalitarian PoliticalReligions The Green Shirts and the others: aGreenandShirts historyTheinFascismthe ofothers: Stanford, California:InstitutionPress,Stanford,1970. Hoover Discourse asa-Discourse process Discourseand structure Studies: 2ndPalgraveYork:NewMacmillan, ed. 2003. Acção , edited by Teun A.London:by Dijk, 185-207. Teun edited , van London:2004.Lane, Allen VIII,(June433–446.nr.2 2007): , 24dede1942., December Acção Madison: UniversityMadison:of Wisconsin n Fascism: an anthologyFascism: , 10 de1942:December&,10 1de Totalitarian Movements and MovementsTotalitarian Chicago: UniversityChicago:of holicism,Crisisof Conclusion.” Acção Experimentsin Charismatic Appeal inAppeal Charismatic , 9dedeApril1942:, .” Historyand Totalitarian Page Page VII, nr.2 VII, , edited by edited , New 111 of

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CEU eTD Collection Wood, Linda A., and Rolf O. Kroger.A.,LindaO. Rolf and Wood, MentheofArchangel.” Eugen. “The Weber, M LinguisticsLawrenceNoteD.onand Historical “A Walker, um também democrata.”“Eusou Ulisses. Jerzy.ofof historical truthnarratives.” “Conditions Topolski, Taylor, Stephanie. “Evaluating and Applying Discourse AnalyticReStephanie.and Applying“Evaluating Discourse Taylor, Historicism,Socia M.andtheGabrielle “History, Spiegel, “MarchH.LogicWilliamBlochandComparat the of Sewell, Manoilescuont Philippe.Mihail“Reflections and Schmitter, Valentin.Politics Action:inthe “Sacralised Sandulescu, Schiffrin, Deborah. Schiffrin, action in talk and text.talkinand action 101-126. (1966): Method.” (February47-60.1981):1 nr. Simeon2001.311-330.London: SAGE, J.and Yates, Taylor guideasadata:analysis for Discourse Middle Ages.” Middle Theory Studies, 1978.International Nation inChange1860-1940:DebateDevelopment Romania,ain EuropeanA Social on PeripheryonDevelopmentEur theDelayedof Dependent Westernof ReligionsPoliticaland Movements Marin.”MotaVasileIonLegionary andLeaders Romanian , montagem por KennethofInstitute117–173.montagem Jowitt,por Berkeley: , VI, nr. 2 (1967):VI,nr.208-218.2 HistoryTheoryand Approaches to discourse. Approaches to Speculum ThousandSageOaks,California:Publications, c2000. 65, nr. 1 (Jan 1990):65,nr.1(Jan59-86. XIX, nr. 2(February154-164.XIX,nr. 1980): Doing discourse analysis :Doinganalysisdiscourseforstudyingmethods VIII,(June259–269.nr.2 2007): Acção , edited bytMargaretWetherell, edited, Stephanie Oxford: B. Blackwell,Oxford:B. 1994. Journal ofHistoryContemporary Journal , 24 de June de1.deJune1943: ,24 February Burial the 1937 of l Logic of the Text inthetheof TextLogic l heNationalConsequences

ive History.” ive Historyand Theory arc Bloch's Comparative arc Totalitarian search.”In: Page Page History andHistory ope.” In ope.” 112 I, nr. 1I,nr. XX, of 112