PAPER 20. EUROPEAN FASCISM SINCE 1919

Introduction Fascism was the most consequential political invention of the twentieth century. Its challenge to the liberal, capitalist order of Europe was more momentous – and murderous – than that of communism. The terror and destruction unleashed by the major fascist regimes have left an indelible mark on the course of modern history and our collective memory. The symbols and imagery of fascism remain instantly recognizable, while its ideas have seen a remarkable renaissance in the past twenty years. Despite this enormous impact, fascism has proved strangely elusive as an object of historical analysis. Since 1945, it has been frequently explained away as a political pathology: a horrific, but fleeting deviation from Europe‟s path to modernity. Marxist commentators in particular have downplayed its significance by reducing it to a mere reflection of the „disintegrating bourgeois state‟. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, German (as well as Italian) historians insisted that „their‟ brand of fascism was so much more (or less) extreme than other variants that comparative interpretations were morally reprehensible (or lacking in heuristic value). Today, after a decade of renewed academic interest in „generic fascism‟, prompted by the works of Roger Griffin, Stanley Payne and Zeev Sternhell, there is still considerable scholarly hostility to the notion that fascism represented a serious alternative to parliamentary democracy and the free market on the one hand and communism on the other.

Paper 20 takes fascism seriously. It provides a sober, scrupulous recharting of the fascist „third way‟, beyond the ira et studium of the anti-fascists and the pieties of the Sonderweg theorists. The goal is to explain fascism‟s powerful appeal as well as its tremendous destructive potential. The paper approaches fascism not as a temporary aberration from, but as an integral part of modernization and a defining feature of the „dark continent‟ (M. Mazower) that was Europe in the first half of the twentieth century. It traces the history of fascism in a roughly chronological manner, from its intellectual origins in the Fin de Siècle to the resurgence of the Radical Right in the 1980s and 1990s. While focusing on the „classic cases‟ of Italian Fascism and German National Socialism, Paper 20 also examines less familiar movements and regimes such as the Iron Guard in Romania, the Arrow Cross in Hungary, the British Union of Fascists and the Croix de Feu in France. What were the central tenets and principles uniting these movements? Under what social and economic conditions did they arise? Was World War I the cause of their emergence or merely a catalyst? Who were the supporters, who were the beneficiaries of fascism? Why did fascist parties „seize power‟ in Italy and Germany, but not in France or Britain? How was power exercized in the two fascist dictatorships? What made German fascism so much more genocidal than Italian fascism? What are the continuities between inter-war and post-war fascism? Do neo- fascist groups pose a serious threat to the political stability of a rapidly expanding European Union?

These questions will be tackled in a rigorously comparative and conceptual framework. Students will investigate the similarities as well as the differences between Italian Fascism, Nazism and other European fascisms in order to test the relative merit of the various competing attempts to define and interpret „generic fascism‟. After having studied a wealth of primary sources (e.g. the philosophical writings of Nietzsche, Futurist art, Mussolini‟s war-time journalism, the neo- classical architecture of Fascist Rome, the films of Leni Riefenstahl, Hitler‟s „Political Testament‟, transcripts of the Nuremberg Trial, neo-fascist websites) and the secondary literature, including contemporary Marxist assessments (Togliatti, Neumann, Adorno and Horkheimer), sociological analyses (Lipset, Linz, Michael Mann) as well as the most recent conceptualizations of the „nature of fascism‟ (Sternhell, Payne, Gentile, Paxton), students will be in a position to evaluate for themselves the viability of the so-called „new consensus‟ in fascism studies, recently proclaimed by Roger Griffin and Roger Eatwell. Though concentrating largely on the actual causes, experience and impact of fascism „in its epoch‟ (E. Nolte), Paper 20 thus also has a strong theoretical dimension, which should generate some spin-off value for HAP. In contrast to the Modern Europe paper in Part I (Paper 18), which approaches Italian Fascism and Nazism from a predominantly political historical angle, this paper pays particular attention to the ideological bases and the various cultural manifestations of fascism, such as its emphasis on virility, its representations of the national community and the (often biologically defined) „Other‟, its appropriations of the past and its „sacralization of politics‟. This cultural historical approach will enable students to explore the fascist mentalité in its own terms and to see the fascists, to some extent at least, as they saw themselves. As one of the seminal scholars in the field, George Mosse, remarked: „Only when we have grasped fascism from the inside out, can we truly judge its appeal and its power.‟

Teaching Lectures (16 in Michaelmas and 16 in Lent Term), supervisions (7) and revision seminars (4 in Easter Term) will be provided by a circus of teachers, including Dr Pollard, Dr Ruehl, Prof. Evans, Dr Villis, Dr Tooze, and Dr Thom. Each student will have three supervisions on the following compulsory topics: (1) the intellectual origins of fascism, (2) Italian Fascism, (3) German National Socialism; and four more supervisions on a selection of optional topics, including fascist economics, fascism and gender, fascist aesthetics, fascist cinema, fascism in Central and Eastern Europe, the British Union of Fascists, French fascism and Vichy, fascist genocides, the resurgence of fascism after World War II and interpretations of fascism. All students need to confirm their choices of supervision topics in the first week of Michaelmas. Throughout Michaelmas and Lent, there will be weekly screenings of fascist films. In Lent, a specialist from outside Cambridge will give a guest lecture on his or her current research in the field.

Reading suggestions This is a very selective list of English-speaking publications. It is organized thematically as well as chronologically, each section beginning with the most recently published (or re-edited) books and articles. The most important titles are marked with an asterisk (*). Students wishing to prepare for Paper 20 over the summer holidays should read M. Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe‟s Twentieth Century (New York 1999), chs 1-5, M. Blinkhorn, Fascism and the Right in Europe, 1919-1945 (London 2000) and R. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism (New York 2004) – in that order. The best single book on European fascism is still S. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914-1945 (Madison 1995).

I. Introductions * A. Lyttelton, „What was Fascism?‟, New York Review of Books (October 21, 2004). P. Morgan, Fascism in Europe, 1919-1945, London 2003. * K. Passmore, Fascism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford 2002. P. Davies and D. Lynch, The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right, London 2002. * M. Blinkhorn, Fascism and the Right in Europe, 1919-1945, London 2000. R. Griffiths, An Intelligent Person‟s Guide to Fascism, London 2000. M. Neocleous, Fascism, Milton Keynes 1997. W. Laqueur, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, New York 1996. N. O‟Sullivan, Fascism, London 1983. S.J. Woolf, „Introduction‟, in: S.J. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism, London 1968, pp. 1-18.

2 H. Trevor-Roper, „The Phenomenon of Fascism‟, in: S.J. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism, London1968, pp. 18-38.

II. Readers/Bibliographies R. Griffin et al. (eds), Critical Concepts in Political Science: Fascism, 5 vols, London 2004. * A. Kallis (ed.), The Fascism Reader, London 2002. R. Stackelberg and S.A. Winkle, The Nazi Germany Sourcebook: An Anthology of Texts, London 2002. N. Gregor (ed.), Nazism, Oxford 2000. J.T. Schnapp (ed.), A Primer of Italian Fascism, Lincoln 2000. C. Leitz (ed.), The Third Reich: The Essential Readings, Oxford 1999. R. Griffin (ed.), International Fascism: Theories, Causes, and the New Consensus, London 1998. J. Noakes and G. Pridham (eds), Nazism, 1919-1945: A Documentary Reader, 4 vols, Exeter 1998. * J.F.Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London 1998. * R. Griffin (ed.), Fascism, Oxford 1995. P. Rees, Biographical Dictionary of the Extreme Right since 1890, New York 1990. D. Beetham (ed.), Marxists in Face of Fascism: Writings by Marxists on Fascism from the Inter- War Period, Totowa 1984. P. Rees, Fascism and Pre-Fascism in Europe, 1890-1945: A Bibliography of the Extreme Right, Brighton 1984. E. Weber, Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, new edn, Malabar/Fl. 1985, pt II („Readings‟), pp. 145-189. P. Rees, Fascism in Britain: An Annotated Bibliography, Hassocks 1979. B. Miller Lane and L.J. Rupp (eds), Nazi Ideology before 1933: A Documentation, Manchester 1978. W. Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader‟s Guide – Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography, London 1976, pts II-IV, pp. 125-379. A. Lyttelton (ed.), Italian Fascisms: From Pareto to Gentile (Roots of the Right: Readings in Fascist, Racist, and Elitist Ideology), New York 1973 H. Thomas (ed.), José Antonio Primo de Rivera: Selected Writings (Roots of the Right: Readings in Fascist, Racist, and Elitist Ideology), London 1972. * C.F. Delzell (ed.), Mediterranean Fascism, 1919-1945, New York 1970. J.S. McClelland (ed.), The French Right: From de Maistre to Maurras (Roots of the Right: Readings in Fascist, Racist, and Elitist Ideology), New York 1970. N. Greene (ed.), Fascism: An Anthology, Arlington Heights 1968. * G. Mosse (ed.), Nazi Culture: A Documentary History, New York 1966.

III. General background R. Paxton, Europe in the Twentieth Century, new edn, New York 2004. J. Jackson (ed.), Europe, 1900-1945, Oxford 2002. * M. Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe‟s Twentieth Century, London 1999. E. J. Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914-1991, London 1994. T. Blanning (ed.), The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern Europe, Oxford 1996. J. Joll, Europe since 1870: An International History, new edn, London 1990. * G. Lichtheim, Europe in the Twentieth Century, London 1972.

3 IV. Theories of Fascism R. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism, London 2004, ch. 8 („What is Fascism?‟), pp. 206-221. * M. Mann, Fascists, Cambridge 2004, ch. 1 („A Sociology of Fascist Movements‟), pp. 1-31. * A. Kallis (ed.), The Fascism Reader, London 2003, pt I („Generic fascism: the search for definitions and explanations‟), pp. 43-101. A. Kalllis, „The “Regime-Model” of Fascism: A Typology‟, European History Quarterly 30, 1 (2000), pp. 77-104. J. Linz, „Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes‟, in: F. Greenstein and N. Polsby (eds), Handbook of Political Science, Reading/Mass. 1975, vol. III, pp. 175-357, repr. as J. Linz, Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes, London 2000. D. Guérin, Fascism and Big Business [1938], new edn, New York 2000. C. Levy, ‘Fascism, National Socialism and Conservatives in Europe, 1914-1945: Issues for Comparativists’, Contemporary European History 8, 1 (1999), pp. 97-126. * G. L. Mosse, „Toward a General Theory of Fascism‟, in: G. Mosse, The Fascist Revolution: Toward a General Theory of Fascism, New York 1999, pp. 1-45. D. Renton, Fascism: Theory and Practice, London 1999. „Three Definitions of Fascism: Paul Wilkinson, Zeev Sternhell, and Roger Griffin‟, in: R. Griffin (ed.), International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus, London 1998. pp. 22-39. * R. Paxton, „The Five Stages of Fascism‟, Journal of Modern History 70 (1998), pp. 1-23. R. Eatwell, „On Defining the “Fascist Minimum”: The Centrality of Ideology‟, Journal of Political Ideologies 1, 3 (1996), pp. 303-319. * S. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914-1945, Madison/Wisconsin 1995, „Introduction. Fascism: A Working Definition‟, pp. 3-23, and ch. 15 („Elemens of a Retrodictive Theory of Fascism‟), pp. 487-495. A. Gramsci, „Socialists and Fascists‟ [1921], „La Stampa and the Fascists‟ [1921], „The Two Fascisms‟ [1921] and „The Mezzogiorno and Fascism‟ [1924], in: A. Gramsci, Pre-Prison Writings, ed. R. Bellamy, Cambridge 1994, pp. 213-216, pp. 219-223, pp. 227-230, pp. 260-265. E. Fromm, Escape from Freedom [1941], new edn, New York 1994. T.W. Adorno et al., The Authoritarian Personality [1950], new edn, New York 1993. * R. Griffin, The Nature of Fascism, 2nd edn, London 1992. R. Eatwell, „Towards a New Model of Generic Fascism‟, Journal of Theoretical Politics 4, 2 (1992), pp. 161-194. * G. Eley, „What Produces Fascism: Preindustrial Traditions or a Crisis of the Capitalist State?‟, Politics and Society 12, 2 (1983), pp. 53-82; repr. in: G. Eley, From Unification to Nazism: Reinterpreting the German Past, Boston 1986, pp. 254-282. R. Eatwell and N. O‟Sullivan, The Nature of the Right, London 1991. Z. Sternhell, „Fascism‟, in: D. Miller (ed.), The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Thought, Oxford 1987, pp. 148-150. S. Friedländer, „Nazism: Fascism or Totalitarianism?‟, in: C.S. Maier et al. (eds.), The Rise of the Nazi Regime: Historical Re-Assessments, Boulder/Col. 1986. D. Beetham (ed.), Marxists in Face of Fascism: Writings by Marxists on Fascism from the Inter- War Period, Totowa 1984. H. Mommsen, „The Concept of Totalitarian Dictatorship vs. the Comparative Theory of Fascism: The Case of National Socialism‟ in: E.A. Menze (ed.), Totalitarianism Reconsidered, Port Washington 1981, pp. 146-166. W. Reich, The Mass Psychology of Fascism [1946], new edn, New York 1980. * G. Allardyce, „What Fascism is not: Thoughts on the Deflation of a Concept‟, American Historical Review 84, 2 (1979), pp. 367-388 (see also the comment by Nolte and the reply by Allardyce, ibid., pp. 389-399). A. Sohn-Rethel, Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism, London 1978.

4 O. Bauer, „Fascism‟ [1936], in: T. Bottomore and P. Goode (eds), Austro-Marxism, Oxford 1978, pp. 167-186. E. Laclau, „Fascism and Ideology‟, in: E. Laclau, Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory: Capitalism, Fascism, Populism, London 1977. R. De Felice, Interpretations of Fascism, Cambridge/Mass. 1977. * R. De Felice, Fascism: An Informal Introduction to its Theory and Practice, New Brunswick 1976. * Z. Sternhell, „Fascist Ideology‟, in: W. Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader‟s Guide – Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1976, pp. 315-379. J. Dülffer, „Bonapartism, Fascism and National Socialism‟, Journal of Contemporary History 11, 4 (October 1976), pp. 109-128. H.A. Turner, Jr. (ed.), Reappraisals of Fascism, New York 1975, chs 3-6 („Subsequent Re- Interpretations‟), pp. 43-141. * N. Poulantzas, Fascism and Dictatorship: The Third International and the Problem of Fascism, London 1974. A.J. Gregor, Interpretations of Fascism, Morristown 1974. H. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism [1951], new edn, New York 1973. W. Sauer, „National Socialism: Totalitarianism or Fascism?‟, American Historical Review 73, 2 (December 1967), pp. 404-422. * E. Nolte, Three Faces of Fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, National Socialism, New York 1966. Journal of Contemporary History 1, 1 (1966), special issue on „International fascism‟. * C. Friedrich and Z. Brzezinski, „The General Characteristics of Totalitarian Dictatorship‟, in: C. Friedrich and Z. Brzezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy, new edn, Cambridge/Mass. 1965, pp. 15-27. E. Weber, „The Right: An Introduction‟, in: H. Rogger and E. Weber (eds), The European Right: A Historical Profile, London 1965, pp. 1-28. S.M. Lipset, „Fascism – Left, Right and Center‟, in: S.M. Lipset, Political Man, New York 1960, ch. 5, pp. 127-179. T. Parsons, „Some Sociological Aspects of the Fascist Movements‟ and „Democracy and Social Structure in Pre-Nazi Germany‟, in: T. Parsons, Essays in Sociological Theory, Glencoe/Ill. 1954, pp. 124-141 and 104-123. H.J. Laski, „The Meaning of Fascism‟, in: H.J. Laski, Reflections on the Revolution of our Time, New York 1943, pp. 90-139. R.P. Dutt, Fascism and Social Revolution, London 1934.

V. General Histories of Fascism * R. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism, New York 2004. * R. Bessel (ed.), Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts, Cambridge 1996. * R. Eatwell, Fascism: A History, London 1995. * S. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914-1945, Madison/Wisconsin 1995. E. Weber (ed.), Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, new edn, Malabar/Fl. 1985, pt I („Fascisms and National Socialisms‟), pp. 3-145. W. Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader‟s Guide – Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography, London 1976, pts II and III. H.R. Kedward and H. Roderick (eds), Fascism in Western Europe, 1900-1945, Glasgow 1973. O.E. Schüddekopf, Revolutions of our Time: Fascism, New York 1973. G. Allardyce, The Place of Fascism in European History, Englewood Cliffs 1971. S.J. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism, London 1968. H. Rogger and E. Weber (eds), The European Right: A Historical Profile, London 1965.

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V.1. General Histories of Fascist Italy * R. Bosworth, Mussolini‟s Italy: Life under the Italian Dictatorship, 1915-1945, London 2006. A. Lyttelton (ed.), Liberal and Fascist Italy, 1900-1945, Oxford 2002. A. De Grand, Italian Fascism: Its Origins and Development, new edn, Lincoln and London 2000. * P. Morgan, Italian Fascism, 1919-1945, Basingstoke 1995. M. Blinkhorn, Mussolini and Fascist Italy, 2nd edn, London 1994. D. Forgacs (ed.), Rethinking Italian Fascism: Capitalism, Populism and Culture, London 1986. A. Cassels, Fascist Italy, 2nd edn, Arlington Heights/Ill. 1985. P.V. Cannistraro, Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy, Westport/Conn. 1982. * E.R. Tannenbaum, The Fascist Experience: Italian Society and Culture, 1922-1945, New York 1972.

V.2. General Histories of Nazi Germany * W. Benz, A Concise History of the Third Reich, Berkeley and Los Angeles 2006. R. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, London 2006. R. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, London 2003. * M. Burleigh, The Third Reich: A New History, London 2000. C. Leitz (ed.), The Third Reich: The Essential Readings, Oxford 1999. M. Burleigh (ed.), Confronting the Nazi Past: New Debates on Modern German History, London 1996. D. Crew (ed.), Nazism and German Society, 1933-1945, London 1994. T. Childers and J. Caplan (eds), Reevaluating the Third Reich, New York 1993. N. Frei, National Socialist Rule in Germany: The Führer State, 1933-1945, Oxford 1993. M.N. Dobkowski and I. Walliman (eds), Radical Perspectives on the Rise of Facism in Germany, 1919-1945, New York 1989. K. Hildebrand, The Third Reich, London 1984. * K.D. Bracher, The German Dictatorship. The Origins, Structure and Consequences of National Socialism, Harmondsworth 1970.

VI. Roots of the Radical Right: Intellectual Origins of Fascism/Fascist Ideologies/Fascist Intellectuals T. Villis, Reaction and the Avant-Garde: The Revolt against Liberal Democracy in early Twentieth-Century Britain, London 2006. * E. Gentile, The Origins of Fascist Ideology, 1918-1925, New York 2005. M. Kellogg, The Russian Roots of Nazism: White Émigrés and the Making of National Socialism, 1917-1945, Cambridge 2005. * A.J. Gregor, Mussolini‟s Intellectuals: Fascist Social and Political Thought, Princeton 2004. * R. Weikart, From Darwin to Hitler: Evolutionary Ethics, Eugenics, and Racism in Germany, New York 2004. R. Wolin, The Seduction of Unreason: The Intellectual Romance with Fascism from Nietzsche to Postmodernism, Princeton 2004, esp. chs 2-5. * A. Kallis (ed.), The Fascism Reader, London 2003, pt II („Fascist movements: Ideology and variations‟), section III („Fascist ideology – the quest for the fascist mininum‟), pp. 143-191. R. Weikart, „Progress through Racial Extermination: Social Darwinism, Eugenics, and Pacifism in Germany, 1860-1918‟, German Studies Review 26, 2 (May 2003), pp. 273-294. R. Weikart, „Darwinism and Death: Devaluing Human Life in Germany, 1860-1920‟, Journal of the History of Ideas 63 (2002), pp. 323-344.

6 G.E. Allen, „The Ideology of Elimination: American and German Eugenics, 1900-1945‟, in: F.R. Nicosia and J. Huener (eds), Medicine and Medical Ethics in Nazi Germany, New York 2002, pp. 13-39. M. Loughlin, „Gustave Hervé‟s Transition from Socialism to National Socialism: Another Example of French Fascism?‟, Journal of Contemporary History 36, 1 (2001), pp. 5-39. M. Ledeen, D‟Annunzio: The First Duce, new edn, New York 2001. J. Burrow, The Crisis of Reason: European Thought, 1848-1914, New Haven and London 2000, chs 1.5, 2.4, 3.4, 4-6. M.J. Hawkins, „The Foundations of Fascism: The Worldviews of Drieu la Rochelle‟, Journal of Political Ideologies 5, 3 (October 2000), pp. 321-41. Z. Sternhell, „Fascism: Reflections on the Fate of Ideas in the Twentieth Century‟, Journal of Political Ideologies 5, 2 (June 2000), pp. 139-162. D.D. Roberts, „How not to think about Fascism and Ideology, Intellectual Antecedents and Historical Meaning‟, Journal of Contemporary History 35, 2 (2000), pp. 185-212. G. Mosse, „The Occult Origins of National Socialism‟, in: G. Mosse, The Fascist Revolution: Toward a General Theory of Fascism, New York 1999, pp. 117-137. M. Clark, „Giocchino Volpe and Fascist Historiography in Italy‟, in: S. Berger et al. (eds), Writing National Histories: Western Europe since 1800, London 1999, pp. 189-201. * G. Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich [1966], new edn, New York 1998. G. Eley, „What Are the Contexts for German Antisemitism? Some Thoughts on the Origins of Nazism, 1800-1945‟, Studies in Contemporary Jewry 13 (1997), pp. 100-133. D. Baker, Ideology of Obsession: A.K. Chesterton and British Fascism, London 1996. N. Bobbio, Ideological Profile of Twentieth-Century Italy, Princeton 1995. D. Carroll, French Literary Fascism: Nationalism, Anti-Semitism and the Ideology of Culture, Princeton 1995. *Z. Sternhell, The Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution, Princeton 1994. N. Goodrick-Clarke, The Occult Roots of Nazism: Secret Aryan Cults and Their Influence on Nazi Ideology, New York 1994. R. Weikart, „The Origins of Social Darwinism in Germany, 1859-1895‟, Journal of the History of Ideas 54 (1993), pp. 469-88. W.L. Adamson, Avant-Garde Florence: From Modernism to Fascism, Cambridge/Mass. 1993. P. Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unifciation and Nazism, 1870-1945, Cambridge 1993. R. Eatwell, „Fascism‟, in: R. Eatwell and A. Wright (eds), Contemporary Political Ideologies, London 1993, pp. 169-191. S.E. Aschheim, The Nietzsche Legacy in Germany, 1890-1990, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1992, pp. 232-308. A. Vincent, „Fascism‟, in: A. Vincent, Modern Political Ideologies, Oxford 1992, pp. 141-171. R. Tombs (ed.), Nationhood and Nationalism in France. From Boulangism to the Great War, 1889-1914, London 1991. L. Volovici, Nationalist Ideology and Antisemitism. The Case of Romanian Intellectuals in the 1930s, New York 1991. W. Adamson, „Modernism and Fascism: The Politics of Culture in Italy, 1903-1922‟, American Historical Review 95, 2 (1990), pp. 359-390. V. Farías, Heidegger and Nazism, Philadelphia 1989. P. Pulzer, The Rise of Political Antisemitism in Germany and Austria, new edn, Cambridge 1988. M. Ricketts, Mircea Eliade: The Romanian Roots, 1907-1945, 2 vols, Boulder/Col. 1988. Z. Sternhell, „The Anti-Materialist Revision of Marxism as an Aspect of Fascist Ideology‟, Journal of Contemporary History 22, 3 (1987), pp. 379-400.

7 W.D. Smith, The Ideological Origins of Nazi Imperialism, Oxford 1986. * J. Herf, Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture, and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich, Cambridge 1984. J. Bendersky, Carl Schmitt: Theorist for the Reich, Princeton 1983. D.D. Roberts, „Croce and Beyond: Italian Intellectuals and the First World War‟, International History Review 3, 2 (April 1981), pp. 201-235. J.J. Roth, The Cult of Violence: Sorel and the Sorelians, Berkeley 1980. R. Soucy, Fascist Intellectual: Drieu la Rochelle, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1979. A.J. Gregor, Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism, Berkeley 1979. D. Beetham, „From Socialism to Fascism: The Relation between Theory and Practice in the Work of Robert Michels‟, Political Studies 25, 1-2 (1977), pp. 3-24. * Z. Sternhell, „Fascist Ideology‟, in: W. Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader‟s Guide – Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1976, pp. 315-379. A.J. Gregor, The Ideology of Fascism: The Rationale of Totalitarianism, New York 1976. R. Winegarten, „The Fascist Mentality – Drieu la Rochelle‟, in: H.A. Turner, Jr. (ed.), Reappraisals of Fascism, New York 1975, pp. 215-231. W. Struve, Elites against Democracy: Leadership Ideals in Bourgeois Political Thought in Germany, 1890-1933, Princeton 1973. A. De Grand, „Curzio Malaparte: The Illusion of Fascist Revolution‟, Journal of Contemporary History 7, 1-2 (1972), pp. 73-91. R. Soucy, Fascism in France: The Case of Maurice Barrès, London 1972. E. Noether, „Italian Intellectuals under Fascism‟, Journal of Modern History 43, 4 (December 1971), pp. 631-648. D.E. Ingersoll, Communism, Fascism, Democracy: The Origins and Development of three Ideologies, Ohio 1971. S.J. Woolf (ed.), The Nature of Fascism, London 1968, pt IV („Fascism and the Intellectuals‟), pp. 205-253. A. Hamilton, The Appeal of Fascism: A Study of Intellectuals and Fascism, 1919-1945, London 1971. * G. Mosse, „The Genesis of Fascism‟, Journal of Contemporary History 1, 1 (April 1966), pp. 14-26. F. Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair: A Study in the Rise of the German Ideology, Berkeley 1965. F.L. Carsten, The Rise of Fascism, London 1967, ch. I („Nationalism and Anti-Semitism before 1914‟), pp. 9-45. * J. Joll, „Marinetti: Futurism and Fascism‟, in: J. Joll, Three Intellectuals in Politics, New York 1965, pp. 133-185.

VII. The Rise of Fascism: Social, Economic and Political Factors * M. Mann, Fascists, Cambridge 2004. * A. Kallis (ed.), The Fascism Reader, London 2003, pt I, section II („What produces fascism?‟), pp. 101-143. * R. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, London 2003, chs 1-4, pp. 1-309. C. Fischer, The Rise of the Nazis, new edn, Manchester 2002. A.J. Nicholls, Weimar and the Rise of Hitler, new edn, New York 2000. P. Fritzsche, „Did Weimar Fail?‟, Journal of Modern History 68, 3 (1996), pp. 629-656. P. Mazgaj, „The Origins of the French Radical Right: A Historiographical Essay‟, French Historical Studies 15, 2 (1987), pp. 287-315. W.S. Allen, „Farewell to Class Analysis in the Rise of Nazism: Comment‟, Central European History 17, 1 (March 1984), pp. 54-63.

8 P. Kennedy and A.J. Nicholls (eds), Nationalist and Racist Movements in Britain and Germany before 1914, London 1981. A. De Grand, The Italian Nationalist Association and the Rise of Fascism in Italy, Lincoln 1978. * H. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, new edn, New York 1973, pts 1 („Antisemitism‟) and 2 („Imperialism‟), pp. 3-305. * G. Salvemini, The Origins of Fascism in Italy, London 1973. A.G. Whiteside, Austrian National Socialism before 1918, The Hague 1962. D. Shapiro, The Right in France, 1890-1919, London 1962. P. Baldwin, „Social Interpretations of Nazism: Reviewing a Tradition‟, Journal of Contemporary History 25 (1990), pp. 5-37. S.M. Lipset, Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics, London 1963. * F.L. Carsten, The Rise of Fascism, London 1967.

VII.1. The Crisis of Bourgeois Society G. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars Through the Third Reich, new edn, New York 2001, chs 1 („The New Politics‟) and 7 („The Workers‟ Contribution‟), pp. 1-21 and pp. 161-183. G. Strong, Seedtime for Fascism: The Disintegration of Austrian Political Culture, 1867-1918, London 1998. G. de Meur and D. Berg-Schlosser, „Conditions of Authoritarianism, Fascism, and Democracy in Interwar Europe‟, Comparative Political Studies 29, 4 (August 1996), pp. 423-468. * A. Lyttelton, „The “Crisis of Bourgeois Society” and the Origins of Fascism‟, in: R. Bessel (ed.), Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts, Cambridge 1996, pp. 12-23. G. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe, Oxford 1991. G. Eley, Reshaping the German Right: Radical Nationalism and Poltical Change after Bismarck, new edn, Ann Arbor 1991. * P. Fritzsche, Rehearsal for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany, Oxford 1990. F.M Snowden, Violence and Great Estates in the South of Italy: Apulia, 1902-1922, Cambridge 1986. G. Eley, „What Produces Fascism: Preindustrial Traditions or a Crisis of the Capitalist State?‟ Politics and Society 12, 2 (1983), pp. 53-82; repr. in: G. Eley, From Unification to Nazism: Reinterpreting the German Past, Boston 1986, pp. 254-282. R. Bessel, Political Violence and the Rise of Nazism, New Haven 1984. D.D. Roberts, The Syndicalist Tradition and Italian Fascism, Chapel Hill 1979. * J. Linz and A. Stepan (eds), The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Europe, Baltimore 1978. L.E. Jones, „“The Dying Middle”: Weimar Germany and the Fragmentation of Bourgeois Politics‟, Central European History 5 (1972), pp. 23-54. C. Fischer, The Rise of National Socialism and the Working Classes in Weimar Germany, Oxford 1996. * W. Brustein, „“Red Menace” and the Rise of Italian Fascism‟, American Political Science Review 56, 4 (1991), pp. 652-664. C. Fischer, The German Communists and the Rise of Nazism, New York 1991.

VII.2. The Impact of World War I M. Morselli, Caporetto 1917: Victory or Defeat?, London 2001. V.G. Liulevicius, War Land on the Eastern Front: Culture, National Identity, and German Occupation in World War I, Cambridge 2000. H.-U. Gumbrecht, „I redentori della vittoria: On Fiume‟s Place in the Genealogy of Fascism‟, Journal of Contemporary History 31 (1996), pp. 253-272.

9 S. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914-1945, Madison 1995, ch. 3 („The Impact of World War I‟), pp. 71-80. * R. Bessel, Germany after the First World War, Oxford 1993, chs 1, 3, 8-9. * H.J. Burgwyn, The Legend of the Mutilated Victory: Italy, the Great War and the Paris Peace Conference, 1915-1919, London 1993. * G. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memories of the World Wars, Oxford 1990, chs 8-10, pp. 159-227. * B. Hüppauf, „The Birth of the Fascist man from the Spirit of the Front: From Langemarck to Verdun‟, in J. Milfull (ed.), The Attractions of Fascism: Social Psychology and the Aesthetics of the “Triumph of the Right”, New York 1990, pp. 45-67. M. Eksteins, Rites of Spring: The Great War and the Birth of the Modern Age, Boston 1989, ch. 10 („Spring without End‟), pp. 300-335. * J.M. Winter, The Experience of World War I, London 1988. R. Bessel, „The Great War in German Memory: The Soldiers of the First World War, Demobilization and Weimar Political Culture‟, German History 6, 1 (1988), pp. 20-34. J. Kocka, Facing Total War: German Society, 1914-1918, Cambridge/Mass. 1985. R.N. Stromberg, Redemption by War: The Intellectuals and 1914, Lincoln 1982. D.D. Roberts, „Croce and Beyond: Italian Intellectuals and the First World War‟, International History Review 3, 2 (April 1981), pp. 201-235. E.J. Leed, No Man‟s Land: Combat and Identity in World War I, New York 1979. * G. Procacci, „Italy: From Interventionism to Fascism, 1917-19‟, Journal of Contemporary History 3, 4 (1968), pp. 153-176. J.A. Thayer, Italy and the Great War. Politics and Culture, 1870-1915, Madison 1964.

VII.3. Who Were the Fascists? Members, Voters and Supporters of the Fascist Parties D. Mühlberger, The Social Bases of Nazism, 1919-1933, Cambridge 2003. D. Geary, „Who Voted for the Nazis?‟, History Today 48, 10 (October 1998), pp. 8-14. W. Brustein, The Logic of Evil. The Social Origins of the Nazi Party, 1925-1933, New Haven 1996. J. Hatheway, „The Pre-1920 Origins of the National Socialist German Workers‟ Party‟, Journal of Contemporary History 29, 3 (1994), pp. 443-462. D. Mühlberger, Hitler‟s Followers: Studies in the Sociology of the Nazi Movement, London 1991. * M. Blinkhorn (ed.), Facists and Conservatives: The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe, London 1990. R. Koshar, „From Stammtisch to Party: Nazi Joiners and the Contradictions of Grassroots Fascism in Weimar Germany‟, Journal of Modern History 59, 1 (March 1987), pp. 1-24. * D. Mühlberger (ed.), The Social Basis of European Fascist Movements, London 1987. * T. Childers, The Nazi Voter: The Social Foundations of Fascism in Germany, 1919-1933, new edn, Chapel Hill 1986. * H.A. Turner, Jr., German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler, New York 1985. M.H. Kater, The Nazi Party: A Social Profile of Members and Leaders, 1919-45, Cambridge/Mass. 1983. D. Geary, „The Industrial Elite and the Nazis in the Weimar Republic‟, in P.D. Stachura (ed.), The Nazi Machtergreifung, New York 1983. A.L. Cardoza, Agrarian Elites and Italian Fascism: The Province of Bologna, 1901-1926, Princeton 1983. R. Hamilton, Who Voted for Hitler?, Princeton 1982. * S.U. Larsen, Who were the Fascists? Social Roots of European Fascism, Bergen 1980. D. Mühlberger, „The Sociology of the NSDAP: The Question of Working-Class Membership‟, Journal of Contemporary History 15 (1980), pp. 493-512.

10 * J. Linz, „Some Notes Towards a Comparative Study of Fascism in a Sociological Historical Perspective‟, in: W. Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader‟s Guide – Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography, London 1976, pp. 3-125. P.H. Merkl, Political Violence under the Swastika: 581 Early Nazis, Princeton 1975. H. Gies, „The NSDAP and Agrarian Organizations in the Final Phase of the Weimar Republic‟, in: H. Ashby Turner, Jr. (ed.), Nazism and the Third Reich, New York 1972. D. Orlow, The History of the Nazi Party, 1919-1945, 2 vols, Pittsburgh 1969.

VIII. Seizing Power: The Triumph of Fascism in Italy and Germany A. Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy, London 2006, chs 1-4. * R. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism, London 2004, ch. 4 („Getting Power‟), pp. 87-119. * R. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, London 2003, chs 4-6, pp. 231-462. D.S. Elazar, The Making of Fascism: Class, State, and Counter-Revolution, Italy 1919-1922, New York 2001. N. Gregor (ed.), Nazism, Oxford 2000, pp. 95-112. C. Leitz (ed.), The Third Reich: The Essential Readings, ch. 2 („Seizure and Consolidation of Power‟), pp. 25-49. P. Fritzsche, Germans into Nazis, Cambridge/Mass.1998. * H. Ashby Turner, Jr., Hitler‟s Thirty Days to Power, Reading/Mass. 1996. H. Mommsen, „National Socialism: Continuity and Change‟, in: H. Mommsen, From Weimar to Auschwitz: Essays in German History, Cambridge 1991, pp. 141-163. M. Broszat, Hitler and the Collapse of the Weimar Republic, New York 1987. * A. Lyttelton, The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919-1929, 3rd edn (with a new introduction), London 2004. T. Abse, „The Rise of Fascism in an Industrial City: The Case of Livorno, 1918-1922‟, in: D. Forgacs (ed.), Rethinking Italian Fascism: Capitalism, Populism and Culture, London 1986, pp. 52-82. * W.S. Allen, The Nazi Seizure of Power: The Experience of a Single German Town, 1922-1945, new edn, New York 1984. P.D. Stachura (ed.), The Nazi Machtergreifung, New York 1983. J. Petersen, „Violence in Italian Fascism, 1919-25‟, in: W.J. Mommsen and G. Hirschfeld (eds), Social Protest, Violence and Terror in Nineteenth and Twentieth-Century Europe, London 1982. R. Vivarelli, „Revolution and Reaction in Italy‟, Journal of Italian History 1, 2 (1978), pp. 235- 263. A. Cassels, „The Rise of Fascism in Italy, 1918-1922: Revolution, Counter-Revolution or Re- Arrangement?‟, in: C.L. Bertrand (ed.), Revolutionary Situations in Europe, 1917-1922: Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Montreal 1977. * P. Corner, Fascism in Ferrara, 1915-1925, Oxford 1975.

IX. Exercising Power: The Fascist Style of Rule * R. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism, London 2004, ch. 5 („Exercising Power‟), pp. 119-148. * A. De Grand, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: The Fascist Style of Rule, 2nd edn, London 2004. * A. Kallis (ed.), The Fascism Reader, London 2003, pt III („The regime model of fascism‟), section V („Techniques of fascist rule‟), pp. 249-319. W. Laqueur, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, New York 1996, pp. 35-76. R. Bessel (ed.), Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts, Cambridge 1996, chs 3-6, pp. 40-113.

11 R. Eatwell, Fascism: A History, London 1996, chs 4-5, 7-8.

IX.1. Fascist Italy * R. Bosworth, Mussolini‟s Italy: Life under the Italian Dictatorship, 1915-1945, London 2006. V. De Grazia, The Culture of Consent: Mass Organisation of Leisure in Fascist Italy, Cambridge 2002. * P. Corner, „Italian Fascism: Whatever Happened to Dictatorship?‟, Journal of Modern History 74 (June 2002), pp. 325-351. V.R. Suzzi, „The Myth of Squadrismo in the Fascist Regime‟, Journal of Contemporary History 35, 2 (2000), pp. 131-150. A. De Grand, Italian Fascism: Its Origins and Development, new edn, Lincoln and London 2000. * J.F. Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London 1998. E. Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy, Cambridge/Mass. 1996. C. Ipsen, Dictating Demography: The Problem of Population in Fascist Italy, Cambridge 1996. P. Morgan, Italian Fascism, 1919-1945, Basingstoke 1995. M. Blinkhorn, Mussolini and Fascist Italy, 2nd edn, London 1994. * V. De Grazia, How Fascism Ruled Women, Berkeley 1992. * A. De Grand, „Cracks in the Façade: The Failure of Fascist Totalitarianism, 1935-1939‟, European History Quarterly 21 (1991), pp. 515-535. R. Sarti, „Italian Fascism: Radical Politics and Conservative Goals‟, in: M. Blinkhorn (ed.), Fascists and Conservatives. The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe, London 1990, pp. 14-31. D. Forgacs (ed.), Rethinking Italian Fascism: Capitalism, Populism and Culture, London 1986. T. Koon, Believe, Obey, Fight: Political Socialization of Youth in Fascist Italy, 1922-1943, Chapel Hill 1985. E. Gentile, „The Problem of the Party in Italian Fascism‟, Journal of Contemporary History 19 (1984), pp. 51-74. * A.J. Gregor, Italian Fascism and Developmental Dictatorship, Princeton 1979. J. Cohen, „Fascism and Agriculture in Italy: Policies and Consequences‟, Economic History Review 32 (1979), pp. 70-87. L. Passerini, „Work, Ideology and Consensus under Italian Fascism‟, History Workshop Journal 8 (1979), pp. 84-92. * R. Sarti (ed.), The Ax Within: Italian Fascism in Action, new edn, New York 1974. R. Sarti, „Fascist Modernisation in Italy: Traditional or Revolutionary?‟, American Historical Review 75 (1970), pp. 1029-1045. E.R. Tannenbaum, „The Goals of Italian Fascism‟, American Historical Review 74 (1969), pp. 1183-1204. F.W. Deakin, The Six Hundred Days of Mussolini, New York 1966.

IX.2. Nazi Germany * R. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 1933-1939, London 2006, chs 1-5, pp. 1-506. N. Wachsmann, Hitler‟s Prisons: Legal Terror in Nazi Germany, New Haven 2004. * R. Gellately, Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany, Oxford 2001. M. Burleigh, The Third Reich: A New History, London 2000, chs 2-3, pp. 149-281. P. Hoffmann, The History of the German Resistance, 1933-1945, new edn, Montreal 1996. J. Dülffer, Nazi Germany: Faith and Annihilation, 1933-1945, London 1996. * M. Geyer and J.W. Boyer (eds), Resistance against the Third Reich, 1933–1990, Chicago 1994. J. Caplan, Government without Administration : State and Civil Service in Weimar and Nazi Germany, Oxford 1988. * D. Peukert, Inside Nazi Germany: Conformity, Opposition and Racism in Everyday Life, Harmondsworth 1987.

12 * H. Trevor-Roper, The Last Days of Hitler, new edn, London 1987. R. Bessel (ed.), Life in the Third Reich, Oxford 1987. I. Kershaw, Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich: Bavaria 1933-1945, Oxford 1983. G. Hirschfeld and L. Kettenacker (eds), The „Führer State‟: Myth and Reality. Studies on the Structure and Politics of the Third Reich, Stuttgart 1981. * M. Broszat, The Hitler State: The Foundations and Development of the Internal Structure of the Third Reich, London 1981. J. Noakes (ed.), Government, Party and People in Nazi Germany, Exeter 1980. P.D. Stachura (ed.), The Shaping of the Nazi State, London 1978. H. Mommsen, „National Socialism: Continuity and Change‟, in: W. Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader‟s Guide – Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography, London 1976, pp. 179-211. H. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, new edn, New York 1973, pt 3 („Totalitarianism‟), pp. 305-493. H. Buchheim, „The Position of the SS in the Third Reich‟, in: H. Holborn (ed.), Republic to Reich: The Making of the Nazi Revolution, New York 1972, pp. 251-297. H. Hoehne, The Order of the Death‟s Head: The Story of Hitler‟s SS, New York 1970. E. Fraenkel, The Dual State: A Contribution to the Theory of Dictatorship [1941], new edn, New York 1969. H. Krausnick et al., Anatomy of the SS State, London 1968. * F. Neumann, Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National Socialism [1942], new edn, New York 1963.

IX.3. Fascist Leaders: The Politics of Charisma * A. Costa Pinto, R. Eatwell and S.U. Larsen (eds), Charisma and Fascism, London 2006. I. Kershaw, „Hitler and the Uniqueness of Nazism‟, Journal of Contemporary History 39 (2004), pp. 213-238. * R.J.B. Bosworth, Mussolini, New York 2002. I. Kershaw, Hitler, 2 vols, London 1998-2000. F.W. Deakin, Brutal Friendship: Mussolini, Hitler and the Fall of Italian Fascism, new edn, London 2000. H. Trevor-Roper, „The Mind of Adolf Hitler‟, in: H. Trevor-Roper (ed.), Hitler‟s Table Talk, 1941-1944, new edn, New York 2000, pp. xi – xxxix. I. Kershaw, „“Working Towards the Führer”: Reflections on the Nature of the Hitler Dictatorship‟, in: C. Leitz (ed.), The Third Reich: The Essential Readings, Oxford 1999, pp. 229- 253. * P. Preston, „The Absent Hero: José Antonio Prima de Rivera‟, in: P. Preston (ed.), Comrades! Portraits from the Spanish Civil War, London 1999, pp. 73-108. H.F. Dahl, Quisling: A Study in Treachery, Cambridge 1999. B. Hamann, Hitler‟s Vienna: A Dictator‟s Apprenticeship, New York 1999. P.J. Vatikiotis, Popular Autocracy in Greece, 1936-41: A Political Biography of General Metaxas, London 1998. * E. Gentile, „Mussolini‟s Charisma‟, Modern Italy 3, 2 (November 1998), pp. 219-237. W. Laqueur, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, New York 1996, pp. 27-35. P. Preston, Franco: A Biography, London 1995. H. Mommsen, „Hitler‟s Position in the Nazi System‟, in: H. Mommsen, From Weimar to Auschwitz, Cambridge 1991, pp. 163-189. * R. Skidelsky, Oswald Mosley, new edn, London 1990. O.K. Hoidal, Quisling: A Study in Treason, Oslo 1989. C. Segrè, Italo Balbo: A Fascist Life, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1987.

13 D.S. Lewis, Illusions of Grandeur: Mosley, Fascism and British Society, 1931-81, Manchester 1987. * I. Kershaw, The Hitler Myth: Image and Reality in the Third Reich, Oxford 1987. D. Mack Smith, Mussolini: A Biography, New York 1982. A. Aquarone, „The Totalitarian State and Personal Dictatorship‟, in: E.A. Menze (ed.), Totalitarianism Reconsidered, Port Washington 1981, pp. 84-103. E. Jäckel, Hitler‟s Worldview: A Blueprint for Power, Harvard 1981. * S. Haffner, The Meaning of Hitler, Cambridge/Mass. 1979. K.D. Bracher, „The Role of Hitler: Perspectives of Interpretation‟, in: W. Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader‟s Guide – Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography, London 1976, pp. 211-229. J.P. Stern, Hitler: The Führer and the People, new edn, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1975. H. Thomas, „The Hero in the Empty Room: José Antonio and Spanish Fascism‟, Journal of Contemporary History 1 (1966), pp. 174-182. S.J. Woolf, „Mussolini as Revolutionary‟, Journal of Contemporary History 1 (1966), pp. 187- 196.

IX.4. The Social and Economic Bases of the Fascist Regimes * A. Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy, London 2006. C. Buchheim and J. Scherner, „The Role of Private Property in the Nazi Economy: The Case of Industry‟, The Journal of Economic History 66 (2006), pp. 390-416. * A. Kallis (ed.), The Fascism Reader, London 2003, pt IV („Societal attitudes to fascism‟), pp. 375-482. H. James, The Deutsche Bank and the Nazi Economic War Against the Jews: The Expropriation of Jewish-Owned Property, Cambridge 2001. P. Ayçoberry, The Social History of the Third Reich, New York 2000. A. Lüdtke, „Working Class and Volksgemeinschaft‟, in: C. Leitz (ed.), The Third Reich: The Essential Readings, Oxford 1999, pp. 151-179. N. Gregor, Daimler-Benz in the Third Reich, New Haven 1998. * T. Abse, „Italian Workers and Italian Fascism‟, in: R. Bessel (ed.), Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts, Cambridge 1996, pp. 40-60. R. Overy, The Nazi Economic Recovery, 1932-1938, new edn, Cambridge 1996. * J. Caplan (ed.), Nazism, Fascism and the Working Class: Essays by Tim Mason, Cambridge 1995, chs 2-4, 6-8, pp. 53-131, 212-274. A. Lüdtke, „What happened to the “Fiery Red Glow”?‟, in: A. Lüdtke (ed.), History of Everyday Life: Reconstructing Historical Experiences and Ways of Life, Princeton 1995, pp. 198-251. F.H. Adler, Italian Industrialists from Liberalism to Fascism: The Political Development of the Industrial Bourgeoisie, Cambridge 1995. R. Overy, „Guns or Butter: Living Standards, Finance and Labour in Germany, 1939-1942‟, in: R. Overy, War and the Economy in the Third Reich, Oxford 1994. * V. Zamagni, The Economic History of Italy, 1860-1990, Oxford 1993, chs 8-10, pp. 243-321. T. Mason, Social Policy in the Third Reich: The Working Class and the National Community, Providence and Oxford 1993. T. Saunders, „Nazism and Social Revolution‟, in: G. Martel (ed.), Modern Germany Reconsidered 1870-1945, London 1992, pp. 159-77. P. Baldwin, „Social Interpretations of Nazism: Reviewing a Tradition‟, Journal of Contemporary History 25 (1990), pp. 5-37. M. Blinkhorn, „Allies, Rivals or Antagonists? Facists and Conservatives in Modern Europe‟, in: M. Blinkhorn (ed.), Facists and Conservatives: The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe, London 1990, pp. 1-14.

14 G. Corni, Hitler and the Peasants. Agrarian Policy of the Third Reich, 1930-1939, New York 1990. T. Mason, „Italy and Modernization: A Montage‟, History Workshop Journal (1988), pp. 127-47. P. Hayes, Industry and Ideology: IG Farben in the Nazi Era, Cambridge 1987. M.H. Kater, The Nazi Party: A Social Profile of Members and Leaders, 1919-45, Cambridge/Mass. 1983. * P. Einzig, The Economic Foundations of Fascism, New York 1982. * A.S. Milward, „Fascism and the Economy‟, in: W. Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader‟s Guide. Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1976, pp. 379-415. R. Sarti, Fascism and the Industrial Leadership in Italy, 1919-1940: A Study in the Expansion of Private Power under Fascism, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1971. * S.J. Woolf (ed.), The Nature of Fascism, London 1968, pts 2 („Fascism and Society‟) and 3 („Fascism and the Economy‟), pp. 65-118 and pp. 119-204. D. Schoenbaum, Hitler‟s Social Revolution: Class and Status in Nazi Germany, 1933-1939, New York 1967.

IX.5. The Cultures of Fascism IX.5.a. Fascism and Religion E. Gentile, Politics as Religion, Princeton 2006, introduction, chs 1-3, pp. 1-68. * J.F. Pollard, The Vatican and Italian Fascism, 1929-1932: A Study in Conflict, new edn, Cambridge 2005. R. Griffin (ed.), Fascism, Totalitarianism, and Political Religion, London 2005. * R. Steigmann-Gall, The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919-1945, Cambridge 2004. U. Tal, Religion, Politics and Ideology in the Third Reich, London 2004. R. Eatwell, „Reflections on Fascism and Religion‟, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 4, 3 (2003), pp. 145-166. J. Sanchez, Pius XII and the Holocaust: Understanding the Controversy, Washington 2002. * W. Hardtwig, „Political Religion in Modern Germany: Reflections on Nationalism, Socialism, and National Socialism‟, Bulletin of the German Historical Institute 28 (Spring 2001), pp. 3-27; see also the response by J. Caplan, „Politics, Religion and Ideology‟, ibid., pp. 28-36. R.J. Rychlak, Hitler, the War and the Pope, Huntington/Ind. 2000. G. Lewy, The Catholic Church and Nazi Germany, new edn, New York 2000. S. Zuccotti, Under his very Windows: The Vatican and the Holocaust in Italy, New Haven 2000. R. Ericksen and S. Heschel (eds.), Betrayal: German Churches and the Holocaust, Minneapolis 1999. D. L. Bergen, Twisted Cross: The German Christian Movement in the Third Reich, Chapel Hill 1996. * E. Gentile, „Fascism as a Political Religion‟, Journal of Contemporary History 25 (1990), pp. 229-251. J. Gaillard, „The Attractions of Fascism for the Church of Rome‟, in: J. Milfull (ed.), The Attractions of Fascism: Social Psychology and Aesthetics of the „Triumph of the Right‟, New York and Oxford 1990. P. Burrin, „Political Religion: The Relevance of a Concept‟, History and Memory 9, 1-2 (1997), pp. 321-349. J. Pollard, „Conservative Catholics and Italian Fascism: The Clerico-Fascists‟, in: M. Blinkhorn (ed.), Fascists and Conservatives. The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe, London 1990, pp. 31-50.

15 J.F. Pollard, „A Marriage of Convenience: The Vatican and the Fascist Regime in Italy‟, in: J. Obelkevich et al. (eds), Disciplines of Faith: Studies in Religion, Politics and Patriarchy, London 1987. K. Scholder, The Churches and the Third Reich, 2 vols, London 1987. R.J. Wolff and J.K. Hoensch (eds), Catholics, the State and the European Radical Right, 1919- 1945, London 1987. E. Voegelin, The Political Religions [1938], new edn, Lewiston 1986. S. Baranowski, The Confessing Church, Conservative Elites, and the Nazi State, Lewiston 1986. P. Kent, The Pope and the Duce, London 1981. J.M. Rhodes, The Hitler Movement: A Modern Millenarian Revolution, Stanford 1980. D.A. Binchy, Church and State in Fascist Italy [1941], new edn, New York1970. S. Friedländer, Pius XII and the Third Reich: A Documentation, New York 1966. R.A. Webster, The Cross and the Fasces, Stanford 1960.

IX.5.b. Fascism and Gender * K. Passmore (ed.), Women, Gender and Fascism in Europe, 1919-1945, Manchester 2003, esp. chs 1, 2, 3 and 14. P. Willson, Peasant Women and Politics in Fascist Italy: The Massaie Rurali, New York and London 2002. J. Stephenson, Women in Nazi Germany, Harlow 2001. D. Renton, ‘Women and Fascism: A Critique’, Socialist History 20 (2001), pp. 72-83. * M. Durham, Women and Fascism, London 1998. G. Bock, „Ordinary Women in Nazi Germany: Perpetrators, Victims, Followers, and Bystanders‟, in: D. Ofer and L.J. Weitzmann (eds), Women in the Holocaust, New Haven 1998, pp. 85-100. B. Spackmann, Fascist Virilities: Rhetoric, Ideology, and Social Fantasy in Italy, Minneapolis 1997. P. Wilson, „Cooking the Patriotic Omelette: Women and the Italian Fascist Ruralization Campaign‟, European History Quarterly 27, 4 (1997), pp. 531-547. G. Czamowski, „The Value of Marriage for the Volksgemeinschaft: Policies Toward Women and Marriage under National Socialism‟, in: R. Bessel (ed.), Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, Cambridge (1996), pp. 94-112. J. Stephenson, „Women, Motherhood and the Family in the Third Reich‟, in: M. Burleigh (ed.), Confronting the Nazi Past: New Debates on Modern German History, London 1996, pp. 167-183. * P. Willson, „Women in Fascist Italy‟, in: R. Bessel (ed.), Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, Cambridge 1996, pp. 78-93. G. Bock, „Antinatalism in National Socialist Racism‟, in: D. Crew (ed.), Nazism and German Society, 1933-1945, London 1994, pp. 110-140. * A. von Saldem, „Victims or Perpetrators? Controversies about the Role of Women in the Nazi State‟, in: D. Crew (ed.), Nazism and German Society, 1933-1945 , London 1994, pp. 141-165. C. Koonz, „Eugenics, Gender and Ethics in Nazi Germany: The Debate about Involuntary Sterilization, 1933-1936‟, in T. Childers and J. Caplan (eds), Reevaluating the Third Reich, New York 1993, pp. 66-87. P. Willson, The Clockwork Factory: Women and Work in Fascist Italy, Oxford 1993. P. Corner, „Women in Fascist Italy: Changing Family Roles in the Transition from an Agricultural to an Industrial Society‟, European History Quarterly 23 (1993), pp. 51-68. * V. De Grazia, How Fascism Ruled Women, Berkeley 1992. A. Grossmann, „Feminist Debates about Women and National Socialism‟, Gender and History 3, 3 (Autumn 1991), pp. 350-358. K. Theweleit, Male Fantasies, 2 vols, Minneapolis 1987-89. U. Frevert, Women in German History: From Bourgeois Emancipation to Sexual Liberation, Oxford 1989, ch. 4 („Between Tradition and Modernity: Women in the Third Reich‟), pp. 217-

16 239. C. Koonz, Mothers in the Fatherland: Women and the Family in Nazi Politics, London 1988. *C. Koonz, „The Fascist Solution to the Woman Question in Italy and Germany‟, in: R. Bridenthal et al. (eds), Becoming Visible: Women in European History, Boston 1987, pp. 499- 534. L. Caldwell, „Reproducers of the Nation: Women and the Family in Fascist Policy‟, in: D. Forgacs (ed.), Rethinking Italian Fascism: Capitalism, Populism and Culture, London 1986, pp. 110-141. * G. Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality: Middle-Class Morality and Sexual Norms in Modern Europe, Madison 1985, ch. 8 („Fascism and Sexuality‟), pp. 153-181. R. Bridenthal, When Biology Became Destiny: Women in Weimar and Nazi Germany, New York 1984. J. Stephenson, The Nazi Organization of Women, London 1981. M.-A. Macciocchi, „Female Sexuality in Fascist Ideology‟, Feminist Review 1 (1979), pp. 59-82. A. De Grand, „Women under Italian Fascism‟, Historical Journal 19, 4 (December 1976), pp. 947-968. T. Mason, „Women in Germany, 1925-1940‟, History Workshop Journal 1 (Spring 1976), pp. 74- 113, and 2 (Autumn 1976), pp. 5-32. R. Evans, „German Women and the Triumph of Hitler‟, Journal of Modern History 48, 1 (March 1976) (supplement), pp. 123-175. J. McIntyre, „Women and the Professions in Germany, 1930-1940‟, in: A.J. Nicholls and E. Matthias (eds), Democracy and the Triumph of Hitler: Essays in Recent German History, London 1971, pp. 175-213.

IX.5.c. Fascist Aesthetics C. Lazarro and R.J. Crum, Donatello among the Blackshirts: History and Modernity in the Visual Culture of Fascist Italy, Cornell 2004. R. Griffin, „The Primacy of Culture. The Current Growth (or Manufacture) of Consensus within Fascist Studies‟, Journal of Contemporary History 37, 1 (2002), pp. 21-43. F. Spotts, Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics, London 2002. * M. Antliff, „Fascism, Modernism and Modernity‟, The Art Bulletin 3, 1 (2002), pp. 148-169. P. Betts, „The New Fascination with Fascism: The Case of Nazi Modernism‟, Journal of Contemporary History 37, 4 (2002), pp. 541-558. R. Ben-Ghiat, Fascist Modernities: Italy, 1922-1945, Berkeley 2001. * W. Adamson, „Avant-Garde Modernism and Italian Fascism: Cultural Politics in the Era of Mussolini‟, Journal of Modern Italian Studies 6, 2 (2001), pp. 230-248. * G. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich, new edn, New York 2001, chs 8 („Hitler‟s Taste‟) and 9 („The Political Cult‟), pp. 183-207 and 207-217. R. Griffin, „The Reclamation of Fascist Culture‟, European History Quarterly 31, 4 (October 2001), pp. 609-620. D.D. Roberts, „How not to think about Fascism and Ideology, Intellectual Antecedents and Historical Meaning‟, Journal of Contemporary History 35, 2 (2000), pp. 185-212. * G. Mosse, „Fascist Aesthetics and Society‟, in: G. Mosse, The Fascist Revolution: Toward a General Theory of Fascism, New York 1999, pp. 45-55. G. Mosse, „Fascism and the Avant Garde‟, in: G. Mosse, The Fascist Revolution: Toward a General Theory of Fascism, New York 1999, pp. 137-157. R. Griffin, “The Sacred Synthesis: Ideological Cohesion and Fascist Cultural Policy”, Modern Italy 3, 1 (1998), pp. 5-23. S. Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini‟s Italy, Berkeley 1997.

17 M. Affron and M. Antliff, Fascist Visions: Art and Ideology in France and Italy, Princeton 1997. J. Schnapp, Staging Fascism: 18BL and the Theatre of Masses for Masses, Stanford 1996. G. Berghaus, Fascism and Theatre. Comparative Studies on the Aesthetics and Politics of Performance in Europe, Providence 1996. J. Tambling, Opera and the Culture of Fascism, Oxford 1996. * Journal of Contemporary History 31, 2 (April 1996), special issue on „The Aesthetics of Fascism‟. Modernism/Modernity 3, 1 (January 1996) and Modernism/Modernity 2, 3 (September 1995), special issues on „Fascism and Culture‟. G.R. Cuomo (ed.), National Socialist Cultural Policy, New York 1995. * D. Ades et al. (eds), Art and Power: Europe under the Dictators, 1930-1945, London 1995. M. Stone, „Staging Fascism: The Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution‟, Journal of Contemporary History 28 (1993), pp. 215-241. A. Hewitt, Fascist Modernism: Aesthetics, Politics, and the Avant-Garde, Stanford 1993. R. Visser, ‘Fascist Doctrine and the Cult of the Romanità’, Journal of Contemporary History 27 (1992), pp. 5-22. * P. Adam, The Arts of the Third Reich, London 1992. G. Mosse, „Beauty without Sensuality/ The Exhibition Entartete Kunst‟ in: S. Barron (ed.), „Degenerate Art‟: The Fate of the Avant-Garde in Nazi Germany, Los Angeles 1991, pp. 25-32, repr. in: G. Mosse, The Fascist Revolution: Toward a General Theory of Fascism, New York 1999, pp. 183-199. R.J. Golsan, Fascism, Aesthetics, and Culture, London 1992. M. Berezin, „The Organization of Political Ideology: Culture, State and Theatre in Fascist Italy‟, American Sociological Review 56 (October 1991), pp. 639-651. Stanford Italian Review 8, 1-2 (1990), special issue on „Fascism and Culture‟. P. Cannistraro, „Fascism and Culture in Italy, 1919-1945‟, in: E. Braun (ed.), Italian Art in the Twentieth Century: Painting and Sculpture, 1900-1988, London and Munich 1989, 147-154. W. Adamson, „Fascism and Culture: Avant-Gardes and Secular Religions in the Italian Case‟, Journal of Contemporary History 24 (July 1989), pp. 411-35. * S. Sontag, „Fascinating Fascism‟, in: S. Sontag, Under the Sign of Saturn, New York 1981, pp. 71-105. B. Hinz, Art in the Third Reich, New York 1979. P. Cannistraro, „Mussolini‟s Cultural Revolution‟, Journal of Contemporary History 7, 3-4 (1972), pp. 115-141. G. Mosse (ed.), Nazi Culture: A Documentary History, New York 1966, Introduction, pp. xix-xli.

IX.5.d. Fascist Cinema R. Ben-Ghiat, „The Italian Colonial Cinema: Agendas and Audiences‟, in: R. Ben-Ghiat and M. Fuller (eds), Italian Colonialism, New York 2005, pp. 179-192. * S. Kracauer, From Caligari to Hitler: A Psychological History of the German Film [1947], new edn, Princeton 2004, esp. „Introduction to the 2004 edition‟ and „Supplement: Propaganda and the Nazi War Film‟. A. Ascheid, Hitler‟s Heroines: Stardom and Womanhood in Nazi Cinema, Temple 2003. * J. Reich (ed.), Re-viewing Fascism: Italian Cinema, 1922-1943, Indiana 2002. * David Welch, „Hitler‟s History Films‟, History Today 52 (December, 2002), pp. 20-25. L. Koepnick, The Dark Mirror: German Cinema between Hitler and Hollywood, Berkeley and Los Angeles 2002, pt I („Hollywood in Berlin, 1933-1939‟), pp. 23-137. R. Rother, Leni Riefenstahl: The Seduction of Genius, New York and London 2002. * Richard Etlin (ed.), Art, Culture and Media under the Third Reich, Chicago 2002, chs 4-6. S. Hake, German National Cinema, London 2002, ch. 3 („Third Reich Cinema‟), pp. 59-86.

18 R. C. Reimer (ed.), Cultural History through a National Socialist Lens: Essays on the Cinema of the Third Reich, Rochester 2000. D.B. Hinton, „The Nuremberg Trilogy‟, in: D.B. Hinton, The Films of Leni Riefenstahl, new edn, Metuchen/N.J. 2000, pp. 19-46. R. Ben-Ghiat, „The Fascist War Trilogy‟, in: D. Forgacs et al. (eds), Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real, London 2000. S. Lowry, „Fascist Film or Unpolitical Entertainment?‟, New German Critique 74 (Spring– Summer 1998), pp. 125–49. F.P. Tomasulo, „The Mass Psychology of Fascist Cinema: Leni Riefenstahl‟s Triumph of the Will‟, in: B.K. Grant and J. Sloniowski (eds), Documenting the Documentary: Close Readings of Documentary Film and Video, Detroit 1998, pp. 99-118. M. Klotz, „Epistemological Ambiguity and the Fascist Text: Jew Süss, Carl Peters, and Ohm Krüger‟, New German Critique 74 (Spring-Summer 1998), pp. 91-124. T.J. Saunders, „A “New Man”: Fascism, Cinema and Image Creation‟, International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 12, 2 (1998), pp. 227-246. New German Critique 74 (Spring–Summer 1998), special issue on Nazi Cinema. * R. Taylor, Film Propaganda: Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany, new edn, London 1998, chs 10- 16. M. Daris, „Leni Riefenstahl, Art and Propaganda‟, in: K. Macdonald and M. Cousins (eds), Imagining Reality: The Faber Book of Documentary, Boston and London 1996, pp. 129-135. K. Kreimeier, The Ufa Story: A History of Germany‟s Greatest Film Company, 1918–1945, New York, 1996. R. Ben-Ghiat, „Envisioning Modernity: Desire and Discipline in the Italian Fascist Film‟, Critical Inquiry 23 (Autumn 1996), pp. 109–44. E. Rentschler, The Ministry of Illusion: Nazi Cinema and its Afterlife, Cambridge/Mass. 1996, esp. Introduction, chs 2, 6 and 7, as well as Appendix A („Films and Events: 1933-1945‟). H. Hoffmann, The Triumph of Propaganda: Film and National Socialism, 1933-1945, Providence 1996. L. Schulte-Sasse, Entertaining the Third Reich: Illusions of Wholeness in Nazi Cinema, Durham 1996. M. Quinn, „Kino Swastika‟, in: M. Quinn, The Swastika: Constructing the Symbol, London 1994, pp. 104-107. L. Deutschmann, Triumph of the Will: The Image of the Third Reich, Wakefield/N.H. 1991. M. Loiperdinger and D. Culbert, „Leni Riefenstahl, the SA, and the Nazi Party Rally Films, Nuremberg 1933-1934: “Sieg des Glauben” and “Triumph des Willens”‟, Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 8, 1 (1988), pp. 3-38. J. Hay, Popular Film Culture in Fascist Italy: The Passing of the Rex, Bloomington/Ind. 1987. M. Landy, Fascism in Film : The Italian Commercial Cinema, 1931-1943, Princeton 1986. * G. Nowell-Smith, „The Italian Cinema Under Fascism‟, in: D. Forgacs (ed.), Rethinking Italian Fascism: Capitalism, Populism and Culture (London 1986). P. Besas, Behind the Spanish Lens: Spanish Cinema under Fascism and Democracy, Philadelphia 1985. G. Williams, „The People‟s War in Film: A British and a Nazi View‟, Trivium 20 (May 1985): pp. 181-21. D. Weinberg, „Approaches to the Study of Film in the Third Reich: A Critical Appraisal‟, Journal of Contemporary History 19, 1 (1984), pp. 105-126. * D. Welch, Propaganda and the German Cinema, 1933-1945, Oxford 1983. J.W. Baird, „From Berlin to Neubabelsberg: Nazi Film Propaganda and Hitler Youth Quex‟, Journal of Contemporary History 18, 3 (1983) pp. 495-515. * P. Bondanella, Italian Cinema from Neo-realism to the Present, New York 1983, ch. I.

19 J.M. Gardner, „Contribution of the German Cinema to the Nazi Euthanasia Program‟, Mental Retardation 20, 4 (1982), pp. 174-175. * S. Sontag, „Fascinating Fascism‟, in S. Sontag, Under the Sign of Saturn, New York 1981, pp. 71-105. * B. Winston, „Was Hitler There? Reconsidering “Triumph of the Will”‟, Sight and Sound 50, 2 (Spring 1981), pp. 102-107. S. Neale, „Triumph of the Will: Notes on Documentary and Spectacle‟, Screen 20, 1 (1979), pp. 63-86. J. Petley, Capital and Culture: German Cinema, 1933-1945, London 1979. A. Rhodes, Propaganda - the Art of Persuasion: World War II, New York 1976. R.M. Barsam, Film Guide to Triumph of the Will, Bloomington 1975. D.B. Hinton, „Triumph of the Will: Document or Artifice?‟, Cinema Journal 15, 1 (Fall 1975), pp. 48-57. E. Leiser, Nazi Cinema, London 1974. D.S. Hull, Film in the Third Reich, Berkeley 1969.

X. Other Fascist Movements in Inter-War Europe R. Paxton, „An Unsuccessful Fascism: France, 1924-1940‟ and „Some Other Unsuccessful Fascisms‟, in: R. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism, London 2004, pp. 68-76. * S. Payne, „Four Major Variants of Fascism‟, in: S. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914-1945, Madison 1995, pp. 245-290. * A. Kallis (ed.), The Fascism Reader, London 2003, pt II. section IV („Varieties of fascist movements‟), pp. 191-249.

X.1. Central and Eastern European Fascisms J. Rothschild, East Central Europe Between the Two World Wars, new edn, Seattle 1991. * B. Vago, „Fascism in Eastern Europe‟, in: W. Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader‟s Guide. Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1976, pp. 229-255. P.F. Sugar (ed.), Native Fascism in the Successor States, 1918-1945, Santa Barbara 1971. * F.L. Carsten, The Rise of Fascism, London 1967, ch. 5 („Varieties of Fascism in Eastern Europe‟), pp. 160-194. H. Seton-Watson, „Fascism, Right and Left‟, Journal of Contemporary History 1 (1966), pp. 183- 197.

X.1.a. Austria M. Mann, „Austro-Fascists, Austrian Nazis‟, in: M. Mann, Fascists, Cambridge 2004, pp. 207- 237. G. Bischof et al. (eds), The Dollfuss-Schuschnigg Era in Austria: A Reassessment, New Brunswick and London 2003. J. Lewis, Fascism and the Working Class in Austria, 1918-1934, New York 1991. J. Lewis, „Conservatives and Fascists in Austria, 1918-1934, in: M. Blinkhorn (ed.), Fascists and Conservatives: The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe, London 1990, pp. 98-118. P. Black, Ernst Kaltenbrunner: Ideological Soldier in the Third Reich, Princeton 1984. * B.F. Pauley, Hitler and the Forgotten Nazis: A History of Austrian National Socialism, Chapel Hill 1981. J. Boyer, Political Radicalism in Late Imperial Austria, Chicago 1981. M. Kitchen, The Coming of Austrian Fascism, London 1980.

20 G. Botz, „The Changing Patterns of Social Support for Austrian National Socialism (1918-1945)‟, in: S.U. Larsen et al. (eds), Who were the Fascists? Social Roots of European Fascism, Bergen 1980, pp. 202-225. C.E. Edmondson, The Heimwehr and Austrian Politics, 1918-36, Athens/Georgia 1978. * F.L. Carsten, Fascist Movements in Austria: From Schönerer to Hitler, London 1977. K.R. Stadler, „Austria‟, in: S.J. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism, London 1968, pp. 88-111. L. Jedlicka, „The Austrian Heimwehr‟, Journal of Contemporary History 1 (1966), pp. 127-144. * A. Whiteside, „Austria‟, in: H. Rogger and E. Weber (eds), The European Right: A Historical Profile, London 1965, pp. 308-364.

X.1.b. The Balkans E. Redžić, Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War, London and New York 2005. J. Tomasevich, War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941-1945: Occupation and Colllaboration, Stanford 2001. * Y. Jelinek, „Clergy and Fascism: The Hlinka Party in Slovakia and the Croatian Ustasha Movement‟, in: S.U. Larsen et al. (eds), Who were the Fascists? Social Roots of European Fascism, Bergen 1980, pp. 367-378. Institute for Contemporary History (ed.), The Third Reich and Yugoslavia, 1933-1945, Belgrade 1977. * D. Djordjević, „Fascism in Yugoslavia‟, in: P.F. Sugar (ed.), Native Fascism in the Successor States, 1918-1945, Santa Barbara 1971, pp. 125-134. I. Avakumovic, „The Yugoslav Fascist Movements‟, in: P.F. Sugar (ed.), Native Fascism in the Successor States, 1918-1945, Santa Barbara 1971, pp. 135-142.

X.1.c. The Baltic States A. Kasekamp, The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia, New York 2000. * A. Kasekamp, „The Estonian Veterans‟ League: A Fascist Movement?‟, Journal of Baltic Studies 24, 3 (1993), pp. 263-268.

X.1.d. Czechoslovakia * D.D. Kelly, The Czech Fascist Movement, 1922-1942, Boulder/Col. 1995. J.R. Felak, „At the Price of the Republic‟: Hlinka‟s Slovak People‟s Party, 1929-1938, Pittsburgh 1994. J.K. Hoensch, „Slovakia: “One God, One People, One Party”‟, in: R.J. Wolff and J.K. Hoensch (eds), Catholics, the State and the Radical Right, 1919-1945, Boulder/Col. 1987, pp. 158-181. Y. Jelinek, „Clergy and Fascism: The Hlinka Party in Slovakia and the Croatian Ustasha Movement‟, in: S.U. Larsen et al. (eds), Who were the Fascists? Social Roots of European Fascism, Bergen 1980, pp. 367-378. Y. Jelinek, The Parish Republic: Hlinka‟s Slovak People‟s Party, 1939-1945, Boulder/Col. 1976. Y. Jelinek, „Slovakia‟s Internal Policy and the Third Reich, August 1940-February 1941‟, Central European History (September 1971), pp. 242-270. * J.F. Zacek, „Czechoslovak Fascism‟, in: P.F. Sugar (ed.), Native Fascism in the Successor States, 1918-1945, Santa Barbara 1971, pp. 47-62. Y. Jelinek, „Storm-Troopers in Slovakia: The Rodobrana and the Hlinka Guard‟, Journal of Contemporary History 3 (1971), pp. 97-120. Y. Jelinek, „Bohemia-Moravia, Slovakia and the Third Reich during the Second World War‟, East European Quarterly 3, 2 (June 1969), pp. 229-39.

X.1.e. Greece M. Mazower, Inside Hitler‟s Greece, The Experience of Occupation, 1941-44, New Haven and London 1995.

21 R. Higham and T. Veremis (eds), The Metaxas Dictatorship: Aspects of Greece, 1936-40, Athens 1993. * D. Close, „Conservatism, Authoritarianism and Fascism in Greece, 1915-45‟, in: M. Blinkhorn (ed.), Fascists and Conservatives. The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe, London 1990, pp. 200-218. J.V. Kofas, Authoritarianism in Greece: The Metaxas Regime, New York 1983. Y. Andricopouls, „The Power Base of Greek Authoritarianism‟, in: S.U. Larsen et al. (eds.), Who were the Fascists? Social Roots of European Fascism, Bergen 1980, pp. 568-584.

X.1.f. Hungary M. Mann, „The Hungarian Family of Authoritarians‟, in: M. Mann, Fascists, Cambridge 2004, pp. 237-261. M.M. Kovács, Liberal Professions and Illiberal Politics: Hungary from the Habsburgs to the Holocaust, London and Washington/DC 1995. I. Déak, „The Peculariaties of Hungarian Fascism‟, in: R.L. Braham and B. Vago (eds), The Holocaust in Hungary, New York 1985, pp. 43-51. M. Lackó, „The Social Roots of Hungarian Fascism‟, in: S.U. Larsen et al. (eds.), Who were the Fascists? Social Roots of European Fascism, Bergen 1980, pp. 395-400. N.M. Nagy-Talavera, The Green Shirts and the Others: A History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania, Stanford 1970. * G. Ránki, „The Problem of Fascism in Hungary‟, in: P.F. Sugar (ed.), Native Fascism in the Successor States, 1918-1945, Santa Barbara 1971, pp. 65-72. G. Barany, „The Dragon‟s Teeth: The Roots of Hungarian Fascism‟, P.F. Sugar (ed.), Native Fascism in the Successor States, 1918-1945, Santa Barbara 1971, pp. 73-82. * M. Lackó, Arrow Cross Men, National Socialists, 1935-1944, Budapest 1969. J. Erös, „Hungary‟, in: S.J. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism, London 1968, pp. 111-146. * I. Déak, „Hungary‟, in: H. Rogger and E. Weber (eds), The European Right: A Historical Profile, London 1965, pp. 364-408. C.A. Macartney, October Fifteenth: A History of Modern Hungary, 1929-1945, Edinburgh 1957.

X.1.g. Poland E.D. Wynot, Polish Politics in Transition: The Camp of National Unity and the Struggle for Power, 1935-1939, Athens/Georgia 1974. P.S. Wandycz, „Fascism in Poland‟ in: P.F. Sugar (ed.), Native Fascism in the Successor States, 1918-1945, Santa Barbara 1971, pp. 83-100. * S. Andreski, „Poland‟, in: S.J. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism, London 1968, pp. 167-184.

X.1.h. Romania M. Mann, „The Romanian Family of Authoritarians‟, in: M. Mann, Fascists, Cambridge 2004, pp. 261-297. V. Săndulescu, „Fascism and its Quest for the “New Man”: The Case of the Romanian Legionary Movement‟, Studia Hebraica 4 (2004), pp. 349-361. K. Hitchens, Rumania, 1866-1947, Oxford 1994, pp. 416-425 and 451-471. I. Livezeanu, „Fascists and Conservatives in Romania: Two Generations of Nationalists‟, in: M. Blinkhorn (ed.), Fascists and Conservatives. The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe, London 1990, pp. 218-240. * R. Ioanid, The Sword of the Archangel: Fascist Ideology in Romania, New York 1990. A.F.C. Webster, The Romanian Legionary Movement: An Orthodox Christian Assessment of Anti-Semitism, Pittsburgh 1986. E. Weber, „Romania‟, in: E. Weber, Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, new edn, Malabar/Fl. 1985, pp. 96-105.

22 Z. Barbu, „Psycho-Historical and Sociological Perspectives on the Iron Guard, the Fascist Movement of Romania‟, in: S.U. Larsen et al. (eds.), Who were the Fascists? Social Roots of European Fascism, Bergen 1980, pp. 382-387. S. Fischer-Galati, Twentieth-Century Rumania, New York 1974, pp. 46-69. E. Turczynski, „The Background to Romanian Fascism‟, P.F. Sugar (ed.), Native Fascism in the Successor States, 1918-1945, Santa Barbara 1971, pp. 101-111. S. Fischer-Galati, „Fascism in Romania‟, in: P.F. Sugar (ed.), Native Fascism in the Successor States, 1918-1945, Santa Barbara 1971, pp. 112-122. N.M. Nagy-Talavera, The Green Shirts and the Others: A History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania, Stanford 1970. Z. Barbu, „Rumania‟, in: S.J. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism, London 1968, pp. 146-166. F.L. Carsten, „Anti-Semitism and Anti-Communism: The Iron Guard‟, in: F.L. Carsten, The Rise of Fascism, London 1967, pp. 181-193. * E. Weber, „The Men of the Archangel‟, Journal of Contemporary History 1, 1 (1966), pp. 101- 126. * E. Weber, „Romania‟, in: H. Rogger and E. Weber (eds), The European Right: A Historical Profile, London 1965, pp. 501-575.

X.1.i. Scandinavia * S.U. Larsen, „Conservatives and Fascists in the Nordic Countries: Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Finland, 1918-45‟, in: M. Blinkhorn (ed.), Fascists and Conservatives: The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe, London 1990, pp. 240-264. U. Lindstrom, Fascism in Scandinavia, 1920-1940, Stockholm 1985. A.F. Upton, „Finland‟, in: S.J. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism, London 1968, pp. 184-217. T.K. Derry, „Norway‟, in: S.J. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism, London 1968, pp. 217-231. M. Rintala, „Finland‟, in: H. Rogger and E. Weber (eds), The European Right: A Historical Profile, London 1965, pp. 408-443.

X.2.Western European Fascisms P.H. Lewis, Latin Fascist Elites: The Mussolini, Franco, and Salazar Regimes, Westport 2002. * S. Payne, „Fascism in Western Europe‟, in: W. Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader‟s Guide. Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1976, pp. 295-315. F.L. Carsten, The Rise of Fascism, London 1967, ch. 6 („Varieties of Fascism in Western Europe‟), pp. 194-230.

X.2.a. Belgium M. Conway, „The Extreme Right in Inter-War Francophone Belgium: Explanations of a Failure‟, European History Quarterly 26 (1996), pp. 267-292. * M. Conway, Collaboration in Belgium: Léon Degrelle and the Rexist Movement, 1940-44, New Haven 1993. W. Brustein, ‘The Political Geography of Belgian Fascism: The Case of Rexism’, American Sociological Review 53 (February 1988), pp. 69-80. E. Weber, Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, new edn, Malabar/Fl. 1985, pp. 122-129. G. Carpinelli, „Belgium‟, in: S.J. Woolf, European Fascism, London 1968, pp. 283-306. * J. Stengers, „Belgium‟, in: H. Rogger and E. Weber (eds), The European Right: A Historical Profile, London 1965, pp. 128-168.

X.2.b. France

23 B. Jenkins (ed.), France in the Era of Fascism: Essays on the French Authoritarian Right, Oxford and New York 2005. R. Gildea, Marianne in Chains: In Search of the German Occupation of France 1940-45, London 2003. * R. Paxton, Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940-1944, new edn, New York 2001. * M. Winock, Nationalism, Anti-Semitism, and Fascism in France, Stanford 1998. K. Passmore, From Liberalism to Fascism: The Right in a French Province, 1928-1939, Cambridge 1998. R. Paxton, French Peasant Fascism: Henry Dorgères‟ Greenshirts and the Crises of French Agriculture, 1929-1939, Oxford 1997. P. Burrin, Living with Defeat: France under German occupation 1940-1944, London 1996. K. Passmore, ‘Boy Scouting for Grown-Ups? Paramilitarism in the Croix de Feu and the Parti Social Français’, French Historical Studies 19, 2 (1995), pp. 527-557. R. Soucy, French Fascism: The Second Wave, 1933-1939, New Haven 1995. * W. Irvine, ‘Fascism in France and the Strange Case of the Croix de Feu’, Journal of Modern History 63 (June 1991), pp. 271-295. Z. Sternhell, Neither Right nor Left: Fascist Ideology in France, Berkeley 1986. R.J. Soucy, ‘French Fascism and the Croix de Feu: A Dissenting Interpretation’, Journal of Contemporary History 26, 1 (1991), pp. 159-188. * R. Soucy, French Fascism: The First Wave, 1924-1933, New Haven 1986. M. Marrus and R.O. Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, New York 1981. K.J. Müller, „French Fascism and Modernisation‟, Journal of Contemporary History 11 (1976), pp. 75-107. J. Levey, „Georges Valois and the Faisceau‟, French Historical Studies 8 (1973), pp. 279-304. * E. Weber, „France‟, in: H. Rogger and E. Weber (eds), The European Right: A Historical Profile, London 1965, pp. 71-128. E. Tannenbaum, Action Française: Die-hard Reactionaries in Third Republic France, New York 1962.

X.2.c. Great Britain and Ireland M. Pugh, Hurrah for the Blackshirts! Fascists and Fascism in Britain Between the Wars, London 2005. D. Stone, „The English Mistery, the BUF, and the Dilemma of British Fascism‟, Journal of Modern History 75 (June 2003), pp. 336-358. * T. Linehan, British Fascism 1918-1939: Parties, Ideology, Culture, Manchester 2000. * R. Thurlow, Fascism in Britain: From Oswald Mosley‟s Blackshirts to the National Front, new edn, London 1998. R. Benewick, The Fascist Movement in Britain, London 1992. J. Stevenson, „Conservatism and the Failure of Fascism in Interwar Britain‟, in: M. Blinkhorn (ed.), Fascists and Conservatives: The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe, London 1990, pp. 264-283. R. Thurlow, „The Failure of Fascism‟, in: A. Thorpe (ed.), The Failure of Political Extremism in Interwar Britain (University of Exeter Studies in History 21, 1989). R. Griffiths, Fellow Travellers of the Right: British Enthusiasts for Nazi Germany, 1933-39, London 1980. K. Lunn and R. Thurlow (eds), British Fascism: Essays on the Radical Right in Interwar Britain, London 1980. M. Manning, The Blueshirts, Toronto 1971. * R. Skidelsky, „Britain‟, in: S.J. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism, London 1968, pp. 231-262. J.R. Jones, „England‟, in: H. Rogger and E. Weber (eds), The European Right: A Historical Profile, London 1965, pp. 29-71.

24

X.2.d. Portugal * A. Costa Pinto, The Blue Shirts: Portuguese Fascists and the New State, New York 2000. A. Costa Pinto, Salazar‟s Dictatorship and European Fascism, Boulder/Col. 1995. T. Gallagher, ‘Conservatism, Dictatorship and Fascism in Portugal, 1914-1945’, in: M. Blinkhorn (ed.), Fascists and Conservatives. The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe, London 1990, pp. 157-176. * H. Martins, ‘Portugal’, in: S.J. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism, London 1968, pp. 302-337.

X.2.e. Spain M. Mann, „The Spanish Family of Authoritarians‟, in: M. Mann, Fascists, Cambridge 2004, pp. 297-353. * S. Payne, Fascism in Spain, 1923-1977, Madison 1999. M. Richards, A Time of Silence: Civil War and the Culture of Repression in Franco Spain, 1936- 1945, Cambridge 1998. * P. Preston, The Politics of Revenge: Fascism and the Military in Twentieth-Century Spain, new edn, London 1995. S.M. Ellwood, Spanish Fascism in the Franco Era: Falange Española de las JONS, 1936-76, New York 1988. S. Ben-Ami, Fascism from Above: The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain, 1923-1930, Oxford 1983. S. Payne, ‘Spanish Fascism in Comparative Perspective’, in: H.A. Turner, Jr. (ed.), Reappraisals of Fascism, New York 1975, pp. 142-170. * H. Thomas, ‘Spain’, in: S.J. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism, London 1968, pp. 280-302. S. Payne, „Spain‟, in: H. Rogger and E. Weber (eds), The European Right: A Historical Profile, London 1965, pp. 168-208. S. Payne, Falange: A History of Spanish Fascism, Stanford 1961.

XI. Radicalization I: World War II and the Fascist „New Orders‟ * D. Rodogno, Fascism‟s European Empire: Italian Occupation during the Second World War, Cambridge 2006. R. Ben-Ghiat and M. Fuller, Italian Colonialism, New York 2005. E. Redžić, Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War, London and New York 2005. R. Bessel, Nazism and War, New York 2004. * A. Kallis, „To Expand or not to Expand? Territory, Generic Fascism and the Quest for an “Ideal Fatherland”‟, Journal of Contemporary History 38, 2 (2003), pp. 237-260. L. Santarelli, „Muted Violence: War Crimes in Occupied Greece‟, Journal of Modern Italian Studies (September 2003), pp. 280-299. R. Gildea, Marianne in Chains: Daily Life in the Heart of France during the German Occupation, New York 2002. G. B. Strang, „Imperial Dreams: The Mussolini-Laval Accords of January 1935‟, Historical Journal 44 (2001), pp. 799-809. * O. Bartov, The Eastern Front, 1941-45: German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare, new edn, London 2001. J. Tomasevich, War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941-1945: Occupation and Colllaboration, Stanford 2001. A. Kallis, Fascist Ideology and Expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922-1945, London 2000. * M. Knox, Common Destiny: Dictatorship, Foreign Policy, and War in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, Cambridge 2000.

25 M. Knox, Hitler‟s Italian Allies: Royal Armed Forces, Fascist Regime, and the War of 1940- 1943, Cambridge 2000. M. Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe‟s Twentieth Century, London 1999, chs 2-5. H. Heer (ed.), The German Army and Genocide: Crimes Against War Prisoners, Jews and Other Civilians in the East, 1939-1944, New York 1999. R. Mallett, The Italian Navy and Fascist Expansionism, 1935-40, London 1998. P. Burrin, France under the Germans: Collaboration and Compromise, New York 1998. O. Bartov, „Savage War‟, in: M. Burleigh (ed.), Confronting the Nazi Past: New Debates on Modern German History, London 1996, pp. 125-139. G. Weinberg, Germany, Hitler and World War II: Essays in Modern German and World History, Cambridge 1995. M. Mazower, Inside Hitler‟s Greece, The Experience of Occupation, 1941-44, New Haven and London 1995. * M. Kitchen, Nazi Germany at War, London 1995. M. Knox, „The Fascist Regime, its Foreign Policy and its Wars: An Anti-anti-Fascist Orthodoxy?‟, Contemporary European History 4 (1995), pp. 13-31. O. Bartov, Hitler‟s Army: Soldiers, Nazis and War in the Third Reich, New York 1991. A. Sbacchi, Ethiopia under Mussolini, London 1989. G. Hirschfeld, Nazi Rule and Dutch Collaboration: The Netherlands under German Occupation, 1940-45, New York 1988. K.-J. Müller, The Army, Politics and Society in Germany, 1933-45. Studies in the Army‟s Relation to Nazism, Manchester 1987. * M. Knox, „Conquest, Foreign and Domestic, in Facist Italy and Nazi Germany‟, Journal of Modern History 56 (1984), pp. 1-57. A. Cassels, „Was there a Rascist Foreign Policy? Tradition and Novelty‟, International History Review 2 (1983), pp. 255-268. W.J. Mommsen and L. Kettenacker (eds), The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement, London 1983. M. Knox, Mussolini Unleashed 1939-41: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy‟s Last War, Cambridge 1982. R.E. Herzstein, When Nazi Dreams Come True: The Third Reich‟s Internal Struggle over the Future of Europe after a German Victory: A Look at the Nazi Mentality, 1939-45, London1982. A. Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 1941-1945: A Study in Occupation Politics [1957], 2nd edn, Boulder/Col. 1981. D. Mack Smith, Mussolini‟s Roman Empire, New York 1976. W. Carr, „National Socialism: Foreign Policy and the Wehrmacht‟, in: W. Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader‟s Guide. Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1976, pp. 151-179. E.M. Robertson, Mussolini as Empire-Builder: Europe and Africa, 1932-1936, London 1977. M.A. Ledeen, Universal Fascism: The Theory and Practice of the Fascist International, 1928- 1936, New York 1972. * N. Rich, Germany‟s War Aims, vol. II: The Establishment of the New Order, New York 1974. * C. Segrè, The Fourth Shore: The Italian Colonization of Libya, Chicago 1974. A. Del Boca, The Ethiopian War, Chicago 1969. L. Preti, „Fascist Imperialism and Racism‟, in: R. Sarti (ed.), The Ax Within: Italian Fascism in Action, new edn, New York 1974.

XII. Radicalization II: Terror, Persecution and Genocide under the Fascist Regimes F. De Donno, „La Razza Ario-Mediterranea: Ideas of Race and Citizenship in Colonial and Fascist Italy, 1885-1941‟, in: F. De Donno and N. Srivastava (eds), Colonial and Postcolonial

26 Italy = special issue of Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies 8, 3 (2006), pp. 394-412. * J.D. Zimmerman (ed.), The Jews of Italy under Fascist and Nazi Rule, 1922–1945, Cambridge 2005. B. Madley, „From Africa to Auschwitz: How German South West Africa Incubated Ideas and Methods Adopted and Developed by the Nazis in Eastern Europe‟, European History Quarterly 35, 3 (2005), pp. 429-464. M. Mann, The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing, New York 2005. * R. Paxton, „Radicalization or Entropy‟, in: R. Paxton, The Anatomy of Facism, London 2004, pp. 148-172. G. Barrera, ‘Mussolini’s Colonial Race Laws and State-Settler Relations in Africa Orientale Italiana (1935-1941)’, Journal of Modern Italian Studies (September 2003), pp. 423-443. * A. Kallis (ed.), The Fascism Reader, London 2003, pt III, section IV („Fascism and anti- Semitism‟), pp. 319-375. C. Burdett, „Italian Fascism and Utopia‟, History of the Human Sciences 16, 1 (2003), pp. 93-108. L. Rotman and M. Ionescu (eds), The Holocaust and Romania, Bucharest 2003. A. Gillette, Racial Theories in Fascist Italy, London 2002. * R. Gellately and N. Stoltzfus (eds), Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany, Princeton 2001. T.W. Adorno, „Anti-Semitism and Fascist Propaganda‟, in: T.W. Adorno, The Stars Down to Earth and Other Essays on the Irrational Culture, new edn, London 2001. * R. De Felice, The Jews in Fascist Italy: A History, new edn, New York 2001. U. Herbert and G. Aly (eds), National Socialist Extermination Policies: Contemporary German Perspectives and Controversies, Oxford 2000. R. Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, Chicago 2000. M. Sarfatti, „The Persecution of the Jews in Fascist Italy‟, in: B.D. Cooperman and B. Garvin (eds), The Jews of Italy: Memory and Identity, Bethesda 2000, pp. 412-424. H. Heer (ed.), The German Army and Genocide: Crimes Against War Prisoners, Jews and Other Civilians in the East, 1939-1944, New York 1999. E.A. Johnson, Nazi Terror: The Gestapo, Jews, and Ordinary Germans, New York 1999. R.S. Wistrich and S. Della Pergola (eds), Fascist Antisemitism and the Italian Jews, Jerusalem 1995. * D. Cesarani (ed.), Genocide and Rescue: The Holocaust in Hungary, 1944, Oxford 1998. M. Winock, Nationalism, Anti-Semitism and Fascism in France, Stanford 1998. * R.L. Braham, Romanian Nationalists and the Holocaust, New York 1998. L. Karsai, „The Last Phase of the Hungarian Holocaust: The Szalasi Regime and the Jews‟, in: R. Braham and S. Miller (eds), The Nazis‟ Last Victims: The Holocaust in Hungary, Detroit 1998. H. Rousso, „The Dreyfus Affair in Vichy France: Past and Present in French Political Culture‟, Studies in Contemporary Jewry 13 (1997), pp. 153-170. G. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution. A History of European Racism, New York 1997. S. Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews: The Years of Persecution, New York 1997. S. Zuccotti, „The Italian Racial Laws, 1938-1943: A Reevaluation‟, Studies in Contemporary Jewry 13 (1997), pp. 133-153. A. Sbacchi, „Poison Gas and Atrocities in the Italo-Ethiopian War‟, in: R. Ben-Ghiat and M. Fuller (eds), Italian Colonialism, New York 2005, pp. 47-56. P. Weindling, „Understanding Nazi Racism: Precursors and Perpetrators‟, in: M. Burleigh (ed.), Confronting the Nazi Past: New Debates on Modern German History, London 1996, pp. 66-83. O. Bartov, Murder in Our Midst: The Holocaust, Industrial Killing, and Representation, New York 1996 R.H. Weisberg, Vichy Law and the Holocaust in France, New York 1996. G. Aly et al., Cleansing the Fatherland: Nazi Medicine and Racial Hygiene, Baltimore and London 1994.

27 M. Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: „Euthanasia‟ in Germany c. 1900–1945, Cambridge 1994. D. Carpi. Between Mussolini and Hitler: The Jews and the Italian Authorities in France and Tunisia, Hanover/N.H. 1994. P. Burrin, Hitler and the Jews: The Genesis of the Holocaust, London 1994. S.T. Katz, The Holocaust in Historical Context, vol. I: The Holocaust and Mass Death before the Modern Age, New York 1994. * R.J. Rummel, Death by Government: Genocide and Mass Murder since 1900, New Brunswick 1994. P. Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unifciation and Nazism, 1870-1945, Cambridge 1993. S. Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French and the Jews, New York 1993. * D. Peukert, „The Genesis of the “Final Solution” from the Spirit of Science‟, in: T. Childers and J. Caplan (eds), Reevaluating the Third Reich, New York 1993, pp. 234–52. J. Ancel, „Antonescu and the Jews‟, Yad Vashem Studies 23 (1993), pp. 213-280. A. Stille, Benevolence and Betrayal. Five Jewish Families under Fascism, London 1992. * C. Browning, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland, New York 1992. I.C. Butnaru, The Silent Holocaust: Romania and its Jews, New York 1992. H. Graml, Antisemitism in the Third Reich, Oxford 1992. V. Dedijer, The Yugoslav Auschwitz and the Vatican: The Croatian Massacre of the Serbs during World War II, New York 1992. J. Ancel, „The Impact of the Course of the War on Romanian Jewish Policy‟, in: A. Cohen et al. (eds), The Shoah and the War, New York 1992, pp. 177–210. * M. Burleigh and W. Wippermann, The Racial State: Germany 1933-1945, Cambridge 1991. H. Mommsen, „The Realization of the Unthinkable: The “Final Solution of the Jewish Question” in the Third Reich‟, in: H. Mommsen, From Weimar to Auschwitz: Essays in German History, Cambridge 1991, pp. 224-253. R. Birn, „Austrian Higher SS and Police Leaders and their Participation in the Holocaust in the Balkans‟, Holocaust and Genocide Studies 6, 4 (1991), pp. 351-372. R. Gellately, The Gestapo and German Society: Enforcing Racial Policy, 1933-1945, Oxford 1990. * J. Steinberg, All or Nothing: The Axis and the Holocaust, 1941-1943, London 1990. L. Fargion, „The Anti-Jewish Policy of the Italian Social Republic (1943-1945)‟, in: M. Marrus (ed.), The Nazi Holocaust, Westport 1989, vol. IV (The Final Solution Outside Germany). S. Fischer-Galati, „Fascism, Communism and the Jewish Question in Romania‟, in: M. Marrus (ed.), The Nazi Holocaust, Westport 1989, vol. IV (The Final Solution Outside Germany). * M. Michaelis, „Fascism, Totalitarianism and the Holocaust: Reflections on Current Interpretations of National Socialist Anti-Semitism‟, European History Quarterly 19 (1989), pp. 85-103. E.M. Robertson, „Race as a Factor in Mussolini‟s Policy in Africa and Europe‟, Journal of Contemporary History 23 (1988), pp. 38-54. R.N. Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis, Cambridge/Mass. 1988. * S. Zuccotti, The Italians and the Holocaust: Persecution, Rescue, and Survival, New York 1987. G. Hirschfeld, The Policies of Genocide: Jews and Soviet Prisoners of War in Nazi Germany, London 1986. * L. Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century, New Haven 1982. J. Petersen, „Violence in Italian Fascism, 1919-25‟, in: W.J. Mommsen and G. Hirschfeld (eds), Social Protest, Violence and Terror in Nineteenth and Twentieth-Century Europe, London 1982. Y. Bauer, A History of the Holocaust, New York 1982. L. Kostich, Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia, Chicago 1981.

28 R.L. Braham, The Politics of Genocide: The Holocaust in Hungary, New York 1981. * M. Marrus and R. Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, New York 1981. G. Bertram, Collaborationism in France during the Second World War, Ithaca 1980. M Michaelis, Mussolini and the Jews: German-Italian Relations and the Jewish Question in Italy, 1922-1945, Oxford 1978. S. Bernardini, „The Origins and Development of Racial Antisemitism in Italy‟, Journal of Modern History 49 (1977), pp. 431-453. M.A. Ledeen, „The Evolution of Italian Fascist Antisemitism‟, Jewish Social Studies 37 (1975): pp. 3-17. R. Pankhurst, ‘Fascist Racial Policies in Ethiopia 1922-1941’, Ethiopian Observer 12 (1969), pp. 270-286. * L. Preti, „Fascist Imperialism and Racism‟, in: R. Sarti (ed.), The Ax Within: Italian Fascism in Action, New York 1968. E. Paris, Genocide in Satellite Croatia, 1941-1945: A Record of Racial and Religious Persecutions and Massacres, Chicago 1961. M. Michaelis, „The Attitude of the Fascist Regime to the Jews in Italy‟, Yad Vashem Studies 4 (1960), pp. 38-9.

XIII. The Resurgence of Fascism after World War II A. James Gregor, The Search for Neofascism: The Use and Abuse of Social Science, Cambridge 2006, chs 1-4. * R. Eatwell and C. Mudde (eds), Democracy and the New Extreme Right Challenge, London 2004. * C. Mudde, The Ideology of the Extreme Right, new edn, Manchester 2003. R. Wodak and A. Pelinka, The Haider Phenomenon in Austria, New Brunswick 2002. P. Davies, The Extreme Right in France, 1789 to the Present: From de Maistre to Le Pen, London and New York 2002. M. Schain et al. (eds), Shadows Over Europe: The Development and Impact of the Extreme Right in Western Europe, London and New York 2002. N. Goodrick-Clark, Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity, New York 2002. R. Eatwell, „The Rebirth of the “Extreme Right” in Western Europe?‟, Parliamentary Affairs 53 (2000), pp. 407-425. R. Thurlow, Fascism in Modern Britain, Stroud 2000. * P. Hainsworth (ed.), The Politics of the Extreme Right: From the Margins to the Mainstream, London and New York 2000. J.W.P. Veugelers, „Right-Wing Extremism in Contemporary France: A “Silent Counterrevolution”?‟, The Sociological Quarterly 41, 1 (2000), pp. 19-40. R. Griffin, „Interregnum or Endgame? The Radical Right in the “Post-Fascist” Era?‟, Journal of Political Ideologies 5, 2 (2000), pp. 163-178 Parliamentary Affairs 53, 3 (July 2000), special issue on the rebirth of the extreme right in Europe. * S. Payne, „Historical Fascism and the Radical Right‟, Journal of Contemporary History 35, 1 (2000), pp. 109-118. C. Mudde, „Extreme Right Parties in Eastern Europe‟, Patterns of Prejudice 34, 1 (January 2000), pp. 5-27. S.P. Ramet (ed.), The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989, University Park 1999. J. Kaplan and L. Weinberg, The Emergence of a Euro-American Radical Right, Rutgers 1999.

29 P. Davies, The National Front in France: Ideology, Discourse and Power, London and New York 1999. R. Karapin, „Radical Right and Neo-Fascist Parties in Western Europe‟, Comparative Politics 30, 2 (January 1998), pp. 213-234. A.J. Gregor, Phoenix: Fascism in our Time, New Brunswick 1998. N. Lowles and S. Silver (eds), White Noise: Inside the International Nazi Skinhead Scene, London 1998. J. Kaplan and T. Bjørgo (eds), Nation and Race: The Developing Euro-American Racist Subculture, Boston 1998. R.J. Golsan (ed.), Fascism‟s Return: Scandal, Revision, and Ideology since 1980, Lincoln 1998. R. Thurlow, Fascism in Britain: From Oswald Mosley‟s Blackshirts to the National Front, new edn, London 1998. * S.U. Larsen (ed.), Modern Europe after Fascism, 1943-1980s, New York 1998. H. Kitschelt, The Radical Right in Western Europe : A Comparative Analysis, Ann Arbor 1997. R. Eatwell, „Towards a new Model of the Rise of Right-Wing Extremism‟, German Politics 6, 3 (1997), pp. 166-184. H. Kurthen et al. (eds), Antisemitism and Xenophobia in Germany after Unification, Oxford 1997. P.H. Merkl and L. Weinberg (eds), The Revival of Right-Wing Extremism in the Nineties, London 1997. C. Levy, „From Fascism to “Post-Fascists”: Italian Roads to Modernity‟ in: R. Bessel (ed.), Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts, Cambridge 1996, pp. 165-197. * F. Ferraresi, Threats to Democracy: The Radical Right in Italy after the War, new edn, Princeton 1996. L. Cheles et al (eds), The Far Right in Western and Eastern Europe, new edn, London1995. * D. Prowe, „Classic Fascism and the New Radical Right in Western Europe: Comparisons and Contrasts‟, Contemporary European History 3, 3 (1994), pp. 289-314. C. Mudde, „The War of Words: Defining the Extreme Right Party Family‟, West European Politics 19, 2 (1996), pp. 225-248. R. Eatwell, „Why are Fascism and Racism Reviving in Western Europe?‟, Political Quarterly 65, 3 (1994), pp. 313-325. T. Kushner, „The Fascist as “Other”? Racism and Neo-Nazism in Contemporary Britain‟, Patterns of Prejudice 1 (1994), pp. 27-45. H.G. Betz, Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe, Basingstoke 1994. P. Hockenos, Free to Hate: The Rise of the Right in Post-Communist Europe, London 1993. P. Merkl and L. Weinberg (eds), Encounters with the Contemporary Radical Right, Boulder/Col. 1993. T. Saalfeld, „The Politics of National Populism: Ideology and Politics of the German Republikaner Party‟, German Politics 2 (1993), pp. 177-199. P. Ignazi, „The Silent Counter Revolution: Hypotheses on the Emergence of Extreme Right-Wing Parties in Europe‟, European Journal of Political Research 22 (1992), pp. 3-34. P. Hainsworth (ed.), The Extreme Right in Europe and the USA, London 1992. Parliamentary Affairs 45, 3 (July 1992), special issue on the extreme right. R.C. Lewis, A Nazi Legacy: Right-Wing Extremism in Postwar Germany, New York 1991. R. Stöss, Politics against Democracy: Right-Wing Extremism in West Germany, Oxford 1991. * L. Cheles et al. (eds), Neo-Fascism in Europe, London 1991. K.v. Beyme, Right-Wing Extremism in Western Europe, London and Ottawa 1988. F. Ferraresi, „The Radical Right in Postwar Italy‟, Politics and Society 16 (March 1988), pp. 71- 119. S. Payne, „Fascism and Right Authoritarianism in the Iberian World: The Last Twenty Years‟, Journal of Contemporary History 21 (1986), pp. 163-178.

30 C. Seton-Watson, „Fascism in Contemporary Europe‟, in: S.J. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism, London 1968, pp. 337-354. J. Weiss, The Fascist Tradition: Radical Right-Wing Extremism in Europe, New York 1967. G. Mammarella, Italy after Fascism: A Political History, 1943-1965, Notre Dame/Ind. 1966.

XIV. Fascism in Historiography and Memory: Interpretations, Representations, Controversies R. Griffin et al. (eds), Fascism Past and Present, West and East: An International Debate on Concepts and Cases in the Comparative Study of the Extreme Right, Stuttgart 2006. * A. Costa Pinto, „Back to European Fascism‟, Contemporary European History 15, 1 (February 2006), pp. 103-115. A. Bauerkämper, „A New Consensus? Recent Research on Fascism in Europe, 1918–1945‟, History Compass 4, 3 (December 2005), pp. 536-566. F. Furet and E. Nolte, Fascism and Communism, Lincoln 2004. A. Lyttelton, „What was Fascism?‟, New York Review of Books (October 21, 2004); see also the ensuing exchange between Lyttelton and Zeev Sternhell, New York Review of Books 52, 8 (May 12, 2005). R. Griffin, „Review of R. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascim‟, American Historical Review 109, 5 (2004), pp. 1530–1. D.B. MacDonal, Balkan Holocausts? Serbian and Croatian Victim Centred Propaganda and the War in Yugoslavia, Manchester 2003. L. Pellicani, „Was Fascism Revolutionary?‟, Telos 122 (Winter 2002), pp. 59-79. * T. Abse, „Review of Fascism and the Right in Europe, 1919-1945 by Martin Blinkhorn‟, Reviews in History (October 2001), http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/paper/abseTobias.html (see also the author‟s response: http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/paper/blinkhornMartin.html * I. Kershaw, „The Essence of Nazism: Form of Fascism, Brand of Totalitarianism, or Unique Phenomenon?‟, in: I. Kershaw, The Nazi Dictatorship. Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, 4th edn, London 2000, pp. 20-47. J. Foot, „Via Rasella, 1944: Memory, Truth and History‟, Historical Journal 43, 4 (2000), pp. 1173-1181. R. Braham, „Remembering and Forgetting: The Vatican, the German Catholic Hierarchy and the Holocaust‟, Holocaust and Genocide Studies 13, 2 (1999), pp. 222-251. M. Knox, „In the Duce‟s Defense‟, Times Literary Supplement (February 26, 1999). * R.J.B. Bosworth and P. Dogliani (eds), Italian Fascism: History, Memory, Representation, London 1999. R. Rosenbaum, Explaining Hitler: The Search for the Origins of his Evil, New York 1998. J. Lukacs, The Hitler of History, New York 1998. * R. Bosworth, The Italian Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives in the Interpretation of Mussolini and Fascism, London 1998. N. Doumanis, Myth and Memory in the Mediterranean: Remembering Fascism‟s Empire, New York 1997. E. Gentile, „Renzo de Felice: A Tribute‟, Journal of Contemporary History 32 (1997), pp. 139- 151. J. Walston, „History and Memory of the Italian Concentration Camps‟, Historical Journal 40, 1 (1997), pp. 169-183. * G. Bartram et al. (eds), Reconstructing the Past: Representations of the Fascist Era in Post-War European Culture, Keele 1996. R. Paxton, „The Uses of Fascism‟, New York Review of Books 43, 19 (November 28, 1996). * R. Bessel, „Introduction: Italy, Germany and Fascism‟, in: R. Bessel (ed.), Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts, Cambridge 1996, pp. 1-12. A. Gleason, Totalitarianism: The Inner History of the Cold War, New York 1995.

31 R. Paxton, „Radicals‟, New York Review of Books 41, 12 (June 23, 1994). B. Denich, „Dismembering Yugoslavia: Nationalist Ideologies and the Symbolic Revival of Genocide‟, American Ethnologist 21 (1994), pp. 367-90. * N. Zapponi, „Fascism in Italian Historiography, 1986-93: A Fading National Identity‟, Journal of Contemporary History 29 (1994), pp. 547-568. D. Lipstadt, Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory, New York 1993. * T. Mason, „Whatever happened to Fascism?‟, in: T. Childers and J. Caplan (eds), Reevaluating the Third Reich, New York 1993, pp. 253-262. S.C. Azzi, „The Historiography of Fascist Foreign Policy‟, The Historical Journal 36, 1 (1993), pp. 187-203. T. Judt, „The Past is Another Country: Myth and Memory in Postwar Europe‟, Daedalus 121, 4 (Fall 1992), pp. 83-118. R.M. Hayden, ‘Balancing Discussion of Jasenovac and the Manipulation of History’, East European Politics and Societies 6, 2 (Spring 1992), pp. 207-212. L. Passerini (ed.), Memory and Totalitarianism, Oxford 1992. P. Vidal-Naquet, Assassins of Memory: Essays on the Denial of the Holocaust, New York 1992. * R. Wohl, „French Fascism, both Right and Left: Reflections on the Sternhell Controversy‟, Journal of Modern History 63, 1 (March 1991), pp. 91-98. H. Rousso, The Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944, Cambridge/Mass. 1991. R. Vivarelli, „Interpretations of the Origins of Fascism‟, Journal of ModernHistory 63, 1 (March 1991), pp. 29-43. B.W. Painter, „Renzo De Felice and the Historiography of Italian Fascism‟, American Historical Review 95 (1990), pp. 113-135. F. Furet, Unanswered Questions. Nazi Germany and the Genocide of the Jews, New York 1989. C.S. Maier, The Unmasterable Past: History, Holocaust and German National Identity, Cambridge/Mass. 1988. M. Marrus, The Holocaust in History, London 1987 * R.J. Evans, „The New Nationalism and the Old History: Perspectives on the West German Historikerstreit‟, Journal of Modern History 59 (December 1987), pp. 761-797. M. Broszat and S. Friedländer, „A Controversy about the Historicization of National Socialism‟, New German Critique 44 (1988) pp. 85-1-6. L. Passerini, Fascism in Popular Memory: The Cultural Experience of the Turin Working Class, Cambridge 1987. A. Costa Pinto, „Fascist Ideology Revisited: Zeev Sternhell and His Critics‟, European History Quarterly 16 (1986), pp. 465-483. * E. Gentile, „Fascism in Italian Historiography: In Search of an Individual Historical Identity‟, Journal of Contemporary History 21, 2 (1986), pp. 179-208. W. Hofer, „Fifty Years On: Historians and the Third Reich‟, Journal of Contemporary History 21, 2 (April 1986), pp. 225-251. E. Nolte, „Between Myth and Revisionism? The Third Reich in the Perspective of the 1980s‟, in: H.W. Koch (ed.), Aspects of the Third Reich, New York 1985, pp. 17-38. E. Nolte, „Capitalism-Marxism-Fascism‟, in: E. Nolte, Marxism, Fascism, Cold War, Assen 1982, pp. 76-79. P. Ayçoberry, The Nazi Question: An Essay on the Interpretations of National Socialism 1922- 1975, New York 1981. * S. Payne, Fascism: Comparison and Definition, Madison 1980. B. Hagtvet and R. Kühnl, „Contemporary Approaches to Fascism: A Survey of Paradigms‟, in: S.U. Larsen et al. (eds), Who were the Fascists? Social Roots of European Fascism, Bergen 1980, pp. 26-51.

32 J. Caplan, „Theories of Fascism: Nicos Poulantzas as Historian‟, History Workshop Journal 3 (1977), pp. 83-100. * R. De Felice, Interpretations of Fascism, Cambridge/Mass. 1977. M. Kitchen, Fascism, London 1976. M. Ledeen, „Renzo de Felice and the Controversy over Italian Fascism‟, Journal of Contemporary History 11 (1976), pp. 269-283. * F. Carsten, „Interpretations of Fascism‟, in: W. Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader‟s Guide – Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1976, pp. 415-435. J. Dülffer, „Bonapartism, Fascism, and National Socialism‟, Journal of Contemporary History 11, 4 (1976), pp. 109-128. G. Botz, „Austro-Marxist Interpretations of Fascism‟, Journal of Contemporary History 11, 4 (1976), pp. 129-156. R. Wistrich, „Leon Trotsky‟s Theory of Fascism‟, Journal of Contemporary History 11, 4 (1976), pp. 157-184. E. Weber, „Revolution? Counter-Revolution? What Revolution?‟, in: W. Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader‟s Guide – Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1976, pp. 435-469. H.A. Turner, Jr. (ed.), Reappraisals of Fascism, New York 1975, chs 1-2 („The Interpretation of Ernst Nolte‟), pp. 1-43. C.F. Delzell, „The Italian Anti-Fascist Resistance in Retrospect‟, Journal of Modern History 47 (1975), pp. 66-96. A.J. Gregor, Interpretations of Fascism, Morristown 1974. M. Kitchen, „August Thalheimer‟s Theory of Fascism‟, Journal of the History of Ideas 34, 1 (January-March 1973), pp. 67-78. G. Mosse, „Review of E. Nolte, Three Faces of Fascism‟, Journal of the History of Ideas 24, 4 (October-December 1966), pp. 621-625. H. Rogger, „Afterthoughts‟, in: H. Rogger and E. Weber (eds), The European Right: A Historical Profile, London1965, pp. 575-589.

XV. Web resources http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook42.html http://www.library.wisc.edu/libraries/dpf/Fascism/Home.html http://eserver.org/history/fighting-fascism/ http://www.dhm.de/ENGLISH/sammlungen/ http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~german/gtext/index.html http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/online/ http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/ http://www.warwick.ac.uk/~poscv/F&N/Studnotes1/index.htm http://www.searchlightmagazine.com http://www.adl.org/main_Extremism/default.htm

XV.1. Neo-fascist websites (visit responsibly) http://www.skrewdriver.net/ http://www.aryanunity.com/ http://www.bpp.org.uk/ http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/town/estate/xcv71/ http://www.politicalsoldier.net/ http://www.national-socialism.us/ http://www.bloodandhonour.org/ http://www.stormfront.org/default.htm

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