RESEARCH Convergence of the Pamir and the South Tian Shan In

RESEARCH

Convergence of the Pamir and the South Tian Shan in the late Cenozoic: Insights from provenance analysis in the Wuheshalu section at the convergence area

Xinwei Chen1,2,3,4, Hanlin Chen1,2,*, Edward R. Sobel4, Xiubin Lin1,2, Xiaogan Cheng1,2, Jiakai Yan1,2, and Shaomei Yang1,2 1SCHOOL OF EARTH SCIENCES, ZHEJIANG UNIVERSITY, HANGZHOU 310027, CHINA 2RESEARCH CENTER FOR STRUCTURES IN OIL- AND GAS-BEARING BASINS, MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, HANGZHOU 310027, CHINA 3KEY LABORATORY OF TECTONIC CONTROLS ON MINERALIZATION AND HYDROCARBON ACCUMULATION OF MINISTRY OF LAND AND RESOURCE, CHENGDU UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, CHENGDU 610059, CHINA 4UNIVERSITÄT POTSDAM, INSTITUT FÜR ERD- UND UMWELTWISSENSCHAFTEN, KARL-LIEBKNECHT-STRASSE 24, POTSDAM 14476, GERMANY

ABSTRACT

In response to collision and convergence between India and Asia during the Cenozoic, convergence took place between the Pamir and South Tian Shan. Here we present new detrital zircon U-Pb ages coupled with conglomerate clast counting and sedimentary data from the late Cenozoic Wuheshalu section in the convergence zone, to shed light on the convergence process of the Pamir and South Tian Shan. Large Triassic zircon U-Pb age populations in all seven samples suggest that Triassic igneous rocks from the North Pamir were the major source area for the late Cenozoic Wuheshalu section. In the Miocene, large populations of the North Pamir component supports rapid exhumation in the North Pamir and suggest that topography already existed there since the early Miocene. Exhumation of the South Tian Shan was relatively less important in the Miocene and its detritus could only reach a limited area in the foreland area. Gradually increasing sediment loading and convergence of the Pamir and South Tian Shan caused rapid subsidence in the convergence area. Since ca. 6–5.3 Ma, the combination of a major North Pamir component and a minor South Tian Shan component at the Wuheshalu section is consistent with active deformation of the South Tian Shan and the North Pamir. During deposition of the upper Atushi Formation, a larger proportion of North Pamir–derived sediments was deposited in the Wuheshalu section, maybe because faulting and northward propagation of the North Pamir caused northward displacement of the depocenter to north of the Wuheshalu section.

LITHOSPHERE; v. 11; no. 4; p. 507–523; GSA Data Repository Item 2019161 | Published online 23 May 2019 https://doi.org/10.1130/L1028.1

1. INTRODUCTION terrestrial strata in the Pamir–South Tian derived from the South Tian Shan with a minor Shan convergence area and the western Tarim component from recycling of the northern In the Cenozoic, collision and subsequent Basin (e.g., Sobel and Dumitru, 1997; Wang et margin of the Tarim Basin due to Cenozoic convergence of the Asian and Indian plates al., 1992) (Fig. 2). These sediments preserve uplift of the South Tian Shan (Yang et al., 2014). (e.g., Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975; Rowley, important information for understanding the To the southeast, in the Kangsu section (Fig. 1), 1996; DeCelles et al., 2014) caused extensive tectonic process of convergence between detrital zircons from widespread Cretaceous and intracontinental deformation in Central Asia. the Pamir and the South Tian Shan and its Jurassic sediments have main age peaks of 276 After westward retreat of the Para-Tethys in the sedimentary and climatic influence to western Ma, 445 Ma, and 819 Ma (Fig. 3), indicating that Paleogene (e.g., Tang et al., 1989; Bosboom et Tarim Basin or even broader regions (e.g., Chen a well-developed drainage in the Middle Jurassic al., 2011, 2014), northward indentation, crustal et al., 2010; Bosboom et al., 2011, 2014; Sun et and Early Cretaceous delivered sediment with thickening and exhumation took place in the al., 2013, 2015). a provenance from the South Tian Shan and Pamir Plateau, forming an arcuate syntax (e.g., In the study area, several detrital zircon a recycled component from the Tarim Basin Burtman and Molnar, 1993; Sobel et al., 2013; provenance studies have been carried out in (Yang et al., 2017). Detrital zircons from the Rutte et al., 2017) (Fig. 1A), and leading to the foreland areas of the South Tian Shan and modern Rivers, which drains the Pamir–South convergence between the Pamir and South Tian Pamir (Bershaw et al., 2012; Yang et al., 2014, Tian Shan convergence area, have prominent Shan (Fig. 1A). This process resulted in arc- 2017; Sun et al., 2016; Clift et al., 2017; Liu, population peaks at 190–360 Ma and 360–510 shaped thrust belts of the Pamir superimposed 2017; Liu et al., 2017). In the South Tian Shan Ma (Clift et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2017) (Fig. 3). with imbricated thrust belts of the South Tian foreland, detrital zircons from the late Cenozoic In the foreland of the northeast Pamir, detrital Shan (Qian et al., 2011) and widespread succession in the Ulugqat section (Fig. 1) have zircons sampled from Cenozoic successions deposition of up to 10-km-thick late Cenozoic four main age groups: 240–320 Ma, 400–540 and the modern river at the Bieertuokuoyi Ma, 550–1600 Ma, and 1640–2800 Ma (Yang section (Liu, 2017; Liu et al., 2017) (Fig. 1) *Corresponding author: [email protected] et al., 2014). They are interpreted to be mainly and the Oytag section (Bershaw et al., 2012;

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70 39 2-4 74°35′E N 38° 37°N 39°N N 40° N N Q Q L map of the study area; and (C) surface geology of the measured Wuheshalu section (modified after BGMRXUAR, 1993). MPT—Main Pamir Thrust; PFT—Pamir Frontal Thrust; RPZ— Thrust; Frontal PFT—Pamir Pamir Thrust; MPT—Main 1993). BGMRXUAR, section (modified after Wuheshalu of the measured geology and (C) surface area; map of the study and research detrital zircon Locations of previous fault. WF—Wuheshalu fault; TFF—Talas-Fergana System; Transfer al., et Clift 2016; al., Sun et KYTS—Kashi-Yecheng Belt; 2015; KTB—Kashi Thrust al., Thompson et Zone; Rushan-Pshart 2015; et al., Tang 2015; Chen et al., 2018; 2017, 2015, 2014, et al., Yang 2012; et al., (Bershaw shown sections are magnetostratigraphic 2017). Qiao et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2017; Liu, 2017; Figure 1. (A) Digital elevation model and structural interpretation of the Pamir and Pamir–South Tian Shan convergence area showing tectonic setting and distribution of igneous rocks and distribution of igneous rocks setting tectonic showing area Tian Shan convergence and Pamir–South of the Pamir interpretation and structural model (A) Digital elevation 1. Figure geological simplified (B) 2014); al., Schurr et 2013; et al., Stübner 2013; et al., Sobel 2012; al., et Bershaw 2007; 2004, et al., Robinson 1997; Dumitru, and Sobel (modified after the Pamir in

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by guest Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/lithosphere/article-pdf/11/4/507/4799919/507.pdf XINWEI CHEN ET AL. | Late Cenozoic convergence of the Pamir and the South Tian Shan RESEARCH

5km generally younging southward (e.g., Yin and N Harrison, 2000; Schwab et al., 2004; Angiolini A Pamir 4 STS A’ et al., 2013). The Main Pamir Thrust (MPT) Na1 Wuheshalu Np1 Nk1 E and the Pamir Frontal Thrust (PFT) form its 2 E E E Na1 K K K Nk1 J northern boundary and separate it from the Alai K Nk1 E T preMz 0 preMz PF K Basin and the South Tian Shan to the north (e.g., Na2 E E J ) K preMz WF J Sobel et al., 2013) (Figs. 1A and 2). The Pamir -2 K (km Np1 preMz is separated by the Kashi-Yecheng Transfer

n Na1 E -4 Nk1 System from the western Tarim Basin on the east E K K side (Cowgill, 2010) and the Darvaz fault from -6 preMz Elevatio the Tajik Basin in the west side (e.g., Strecker preMz -8 et al., 1995) (Fig. 1A). preMz The Pamir could be divided into the North, -10 Central, and South Pamir with different basement rocks separated by Paleozoic-Mesozoic sutures B Pamir NE Legend 4 B’ (e.g., Burtman and Molnar, 1993; Schwab et al., Wupoer Qx1 K E Nk1 Xiyu Fm. 2004; Robinson et al., 2012). The North Pamir 2 MPT J Qx1 Na1 2 Na Np1 Na2 consists of the Permian-Triassic Karakul-Mazar preMz Atushi Fm. 0 Na1 belt and the Kunlun Terrane (e.g., Schwab et Np1 Pakabulake Fm.

) E Nk1 1 PFT al., 2004; Robinson et al., 2004, 2007). It is Nk Nk1 Qx1 -2 Na1 Anjuan Fm.

(km E bounded by the Torbashi thrust (Robinson et E E K Nk1 Keziluoyi Fm. -4 J K K al., 2012) and the south-dipping late Triassic– preMz Na2 E Paleogene Early Jurassic Tanymas suture (e.g., Burtman -6 preMz Elevation preMz and Molnar, 1993) to the south (Fig. 1A). The Np1 K Cretaceous -8 Na1 North Pamir has mainly Carboniferous-Triassic- Nk1 J Jurassic E Jurassic ages related to the Kunlun arc of the -10 K J preMz preMz pre Mesozoic Karakul-Mazar terrane and Songpan-Ganzi terrane (e.g., Schwab et al., 2004; Weislogel, Figure 2. Interpretation of seismic profiles showing structures of (A) the A–A′ section across the convergence zone (modified after Shang et al., 2004); and (B) the B–B′ section across the Wupoer 2008) (Fig. 3). This is consistent with modern subbasin emphasizing structures from the Main Pamir Thrust (MPT) to the Pamir Frontal Thrust river detrital zircon results from the North (PFT) (modified after Wang et al., 2016). Locations are shown in Figure 1B. WF—Wuheshalu fault; Pamir which have a Triassic main age peak STS—South Tian Shan. Note that the vertical scale is exaggerated. (e.g., Carrapa et al., 2014; Blayney et al., 2016; Rittner et al., 2016). The minor amount of early Paleozoic ages (ca. 400–500 Ma) (Carrapa et Sun et al., 2016; Liu, 2017) (Fig. 1) have Shan (Yang et al., 2014) and therefore return al., 2014; Liu et al., 2017) in the North Pamir similar age distributions, revealing five main results that indicate potential sources from the are associated with sources from the northern age groups: 30–60 Ma, 75–110 Ma, 200–220 relevant domains. Establishing the convergence and southern Kunlun magmatic belts (Schwab Ma, 280–310 Ma, and 400–470 Ma. Supported process between the Pamir and South Tian Shan et al., 2004) (Fig. 3). by N-directed and/or NE-directed paleocurrent requires examining a section in the center of The Central Pamir, consisting of Paleozoic, direction, the Eocene, the early Cenozoic–Late the convergence area. In this study, the well- Triassic-Jurassic (meta)sedimentary rocks and Cretaceous, and the early Mesozoic–Paleozoic exposed late Cenozoic Wuheshalu succession several Cenozoic gneiss domes, is separated zircons are interpreted to be sourced from the in the Pamir–South Tian Shan convergence area by the Cretaceous Rushan-Pshart zone from Central Pamir, the South Pamir and the North is studied using detrital zircon geochronology, the South Pamir (e.g., Yin and Harrison, 2000; Pamir, respectively (Bershaw et al., 2012; Sun conglomerate clasts counts, and paleocurrent Robinson et al., 2007; Schmidt et al., 2011) (Figs. et al., 2016). measurements in order to shed new light on 1A and 3). Magmatic rocks in the Vanj complex However, the lack of convergence-related changes in the provenance of the late Cenozoic of the Central Pamir yield ages of 41–36 Ma volcanic units and poor exposure of late sediments in the convergence zone, and through (Chapman et al., 2018). Detrital zircons from Cenozoic sediments in the Pamir–South Tian this, to establish the convergence process modern rivers draining the Central Pamir reveal Shan convergence area makes the detailed between the Pamir and the South Tian Shan in main age peaks of ca. 32 Ma (He et al., 2018) source-to-sink relation of the Pamir–South the late Cenozoic. and ca. 40 Ma (Lukens et al., 2012) (Fig. 3). Tian Shan convergence area poorly established, The South Pamir is bounded by the Rushan- hindering our understanding of intracontinental 2. GEOLOGIC BACKGROUND Pshart suture to the north and the mid-Triassic deformation in the convergence area. Previous Wakhan-Tirich suture zone (Angiolini et studies of detrital zircon chronology of the 2.1. Pamir al., 2015) from the Karakoram terrane to the late Cenozoic sediments, as noted above, were south (Zanchi and Gaetani, 2011) (Fig. 1A). conducted in the foreland region of either the The Pamir Plateau in the western part of Widespread Cretaceous and Cenozoic igneous northeast Pamir or the South Tian Shan. These the India-Asia collision belt is an arcuate rocks (Fraser et al., 2001; Schaltegger et al., localities are tectonically relevant to either the structural belt, consisting of several accreted 2002; Stübner et al., 2013) (Fig. 3), Precambrian- Pamir (e.g., Bershaw et al., 2012; Blayney E-W–trending terranes resembling the Tibet Paleozoic metamorphic rocks, and Triassic and et al., 2016; Liu, 2017) or the South Tian Plateau terranes with their collision ages Jurassic sedimentary rocks (Vlasov et al., 1991;

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286Ma

400Ma n=680

N STS 432Ma n=95 276Ma

Cretaceous

Kangs 819Ma Figure 3. Relative probability density plots of the 445Ma n=95 zircon U-Pb ages from the South Tian Shan (STS),

urassic

J the convergence area, the North Pamir, the Central Pamir, and the South Pamir from north to south. 217Ma n=687 Red curves represent results from basement rocks.

Convergence ar Blue curves represent results from sediments and 290Ma modern river sands. Data references: basement uheshalu 436Ma

W (this study) rocks of the South Tian Shan (Brookfield, 2000;

290Ma n=875 Yang et al., 2001; Liu et al., 2004; Liang et al., 2005; r Konopelko et al., 2007, 2009; Wang et al., 2007;

odern rive 446Ma Zhang et al., 2007; Gao et al., 2009, 2011; Yang and

M Zhou, 2009; Glorie et al., 2010; Ren et al., 2011; Selt- 237Ma n=107 mann et al., 2011; Gou et al., 2012; Huang et al., 2012; Zhu, 2012; Xia et al., 2014; Alexeiev et al., 2016; Käßner et al., 2017; Kröner et al., 2017); the Cretaceous and Jurassic sediments in the Kangsu 210Ma n=630 section (Yang et al., 2017); the late Cenozoic sedi-

North Pamir 446Ma ments in the Wuheshalu section (this study); modern river sands from the convergence area n=30 (Clift et al.,2017; Liu et al., 2017); basement rocks of the North Pamir (Robinson et al., 2004; 2007, 2012; Schwab et al., 2004); modern river sands in the North Pamir (Carrapa et al., 2014; Blayney et 40Ma n=133 al., 2016; Rittner et al., 2016); basement rocks of

Central Pamir the Central Pamir (Schwab et al., 2004; Schmidt et al., 2011); modern river sands in the Central Pamir

n x 11Ma n=76 (Lukens et al., 2012); basement rocks in the Taxkor-

ga gan Complex (Ke et al., 2006; Robinson et al., 2007;

xkor Jiang et al., 2012); basement rocks of the South

Comple Ta Pamir (Schwab et al., 2004; Schmidt et al., 2011); 27Ma n=104 modern river sands in the South Pamir (Lukens et al., 2012; Blayney et al., 2016). 109Ma

S 102Ma n=470

South Pamir

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Age (Ma)

Schwab et al., 2004) constitute the South Pamir. along the north-dipping Shyok zone in the Late Jolivet et al., 2010), creating ~10-km-thick late Exhumation and metamorphism of gneiss Cretaceous (e.g., Schwab et al., 2004; Heuberger Cenozoic basin fills and basinward propagation domes occurred in the South Pamir during the et al., 2007; Khan et al., 2009) (Fig. 1A). of thrust belts in the foreland regions (e.g., Cenozoic (e.g., Schwab et al., 2004; Stübner et Sobel and Dumitru, 1997; Wang et al., 2002; al., 2013; Stearns et al., 2015). Detrital zircons 2.2. South Tian Shan Heermance et al., 2007). from modern rivers draining the South Pamir Available U-Pb zircon ages from basement have a main age peak of ca. 102 Ma, with minor The E-W– to ENE-WSW–trending Tian rocks in the South Tian Shan area west of late Cenozoic ages (Lukens et al., 2012; Blayney Shan is an ~2500 km intracontinental range Kepingtage were compiled to identify the et al., 2016; Chapman et al., 2018) (Fig. 3). stretching across central Asia (Fig. 1A). It potential provenance age peaks in this study To the south of the Pamir are the Karakoram formed through complex accretions of island (see references in Fig. 3). These results reveal terrane and the Kohistan-Ladakh arc. The arcs and amalgamations of continental two remarkable age groups: 250–364 Ma (sub- Karakoram terrane comprises metamorphic rocks lithospheric blocks during the late Paleozoic peak at 286 Ma) and 374–500 Ma (sub-peak at exhumed from the lower crust, and Cretaceous (e.g., Windley et al., 1990; Xiao et al., 1992; 400 Ma) (Fig. 3). The 250–364 Ma age group and Cenozoic intrusive, and sedimentary rocks Alekseev et al., 2009). During the Cenozoic, corresponds to the collision between the Central (Fraser et al., 2001). The Kohistan-Ladakh arc, the South Tian Shan was reactivated by far- Tian Shan and the Tarim block during the late mostly consisting of Late Cretaceous plutons, field effect of the India-Asia convergence (e.g., Paleozoic (e.g., Gou et al., 2012; Huang et al., was accreted onto the southern Asian margins Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975; Yin et al., 1998; 2012). The 374–500 Ma age group could be

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related to magmatism during the Ordovician- southwestern Tarim Basin (Fig. 1). It has been 3.2. LA-ICP-MS Zircon U-Pb Dating Devonian subduction of the South Tian Shan active in the late Miocene (5–6 Ma) or earliest oceanic lithosphere (e.g., Gao et al., 2009; Yang Pliocene (e.g., Cowgill, 2010; Sobel et al., 2011; Ages of detrital zircons are believed to and Zhou, 2009). Late Cretaceous–Paleogene Cao et al., 2013). be unaffected by erosion, transportation, and zircons, from basalts in the Tuoyun basin, In front of the South Tian Shan, late Ceno- deposition processes; therefore, they have possibly relate to a small plume rooted at a zoic thrust belts developed along the foreland been widely used in determining the potential shallow level in the asthenosphere (Sobel and and are cut by the NW-SE–trending, dextral provenance of sedimentary rocks (e.g., Cawood Arnaud, 1999; Liang et al., 2007). Talas-Fergana strike-slip fault, which was acti- and Nemchin, 2000; Liu et al., 2013). In this vated at ca. 25–16 Ma (Yang et al., 2014; Bande study, zircons from seven sandstone samples 2.3. Western Tarim Basin et al., 2017) (Fig. 1). Activation of the South collected from the Wuheshalu section Tian Shan foreland thrust belt west of the Talas- have been U-Pb dated using laser ablation– The Tarim Basin is a large inland basin with Fergana fault is poorly constrained. The con- inductively coupled plasma–mass spectroscopy a stable basement that developed in the Archean glomerate deposits became prevalent along the (LA-ICP-MS). and Neoproterozoic (e.g., Lu et al., 2008; Cheng foreland since the Pliocene (Yang et al., 2014, More than 300 zircon grains were selected et al., 2017). The western Tarim Basin is now 2015; Chen et al., 2015). At the foreland area from each sample (except for the sample WHSL-2 bounded by the South Tian Shan to the north east of the Talas-Fergana fault, uplift of the hin- with 235 grains) using conventional heavy liquid and the northeast Pamir to the southwest (Fig. terland structure began at ca. 25–20 Ma (Sobel and magnetic techniques, and handpicking 1A). From the Late Cretaceous to the Paleogene, et al., 2006; Heermance et al., 2008), followed under a microscope. Cathodoluminescence (CL) five major marine incursions through the Alai by rapid deformation in the Kashi Thrust Belt images were obtained to study zircon internal Valley left widespread shallow marine deposits since ca. 19 Ma, a decrease in the shortening rate morphology and to select potential sites for in the western Tarim Basin (e.g., Tang et al., between ca. 13.5–4.0 Ma, and a final accelera- isotopic analysis that avoided fractures and 1989; Burtman, 2000; Bosboom et al., 2011). tion of propagation at ca. 4.0 Ma (Heermance inclusions (Boggs and Krinsley, 2006; Mange During the Neogene, up to 10-km-thick et al., 2007). This faulting caused the growth and Wright, 2007) (Fig. S1 in the GSA Data sediments of terrestrial facies derived from the of anticlines generally parallel with the basin Repository Item1). adjacent mountain belts were deposited in the boundary and basinward propagation of con- After CL imaging, LA-ICP-MS U-Pb basin (Wang et al., 1992), providing a good glomerate deposits (e.g., Chen et al., 2007; dating was performed at the Key Laboratory of opportunity to study the tectonic evolution and Heermance et al., 2007, 2008; Thompson Jobe Orogenic Belts and Crustal Evolution, Peking provenance changes related to convergence of et al., 2018). University. Zircons with obvious metamorphic the Pamir and the South Tian Shan. In the Pamir–South Tian Shan convergence features on the CL images were excluded during area west of the Talas-Fergana fault, numerous dating. The laser beam had a diameter of 32 μm 2.4. Late Cenozoic Tectonics in the W-E–trending, N- or S-directed faults developed and a depth of 20–40 μm. The common lead was Convergence Area between the PFT and the South Tian Shan corrected following the method described by foreland thrust belt (Fig. 1). These faults, which Andersen (2002). After that, Glitter 4.4 (Griffin In the Pamir–South Tian Shan convergence extend ~5 km to tens of kilometers and penetrate et al., 2008) was used for data reduction. Grains area, the complex tectonic context and discrete to shallow depth, cut strata from Mesozoic to which are >10% disconcordant (disagreement Cenozoic sedimentary successions are caused by Quaternary (Figs. 1 and 2) and are likely to between the 206Pb/238U and 207Pb/235U ages) or pluses of basinward migration of late Cenozoic be activated by convergence of the Pamir and Th/U < 0.1 (Corfu et al., 2003; Hoskin and fault belts. the South Tian Shan during the Pliocene and Schaltegger, 2003) were not included in the The northeast Pamir is bounded by the MPT, Quaternary. The south-dipping Wuheshalu following discussions because of their low PFT, and Kashi-Yecheng Transfer System (Fig. fault, in front of the PFT, thrusts Pliocene and accuracy. 207Pb/206Pb ages were chosen for 1). The MPT places the North Pamir over the Miocene strata over Miocene strata (Figs. 1 and older (>1000 Ma) zircons, and 206Pb/238U ages Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata (BGMRXUAR, 2). Growth strata are not observed in the Atushi were chosen for younger (<1000 Ma) ones 1993; Sobel et al., 2013) (Figs. 1 and 2). It was Formation in the hanging wall of the Wuheshalu (Compston et al., 1992; Griffin et al., 2004; active in the early-middle Miocene (Sobel fault, although these might have been eroded Gehrels, 2014) because of the counting statistics and Dumitru, 1997; Bershaw et al., 2012) and during Pliocene thrusting. Alternatively, growth and reliability of the ages. After removing grains became inactive since the Pliocene (Sobel et al., strata may not have formed, in which case, the with discordance >10%, 94–99 valid ages are 2013). The PFT is the north boundary of pres- Wuheshalu fault should have become active obtained from each sample. The final concordia ent Pamir, located tens of kilometers north of during the Quaternary. ages and diagrams were obtained using Isoplot the MPT (Fig. 1). It became active in the west- 4.15 (Ludwig, 2008) and DensityPlotter 7.0 ern Kashi Basin in the Pliocene (e.g., Fu et al., 3. SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL (Vermeesch, 2012) (Fig. S2). 2010; Thompson et al., 2015). In the Alai Valley, METHODS the PFT became active in the middle Miocene and remains active (Coutand et al., 2002). The 3.1. Sampling 1GSA Data Repository Item 2019161, Table A1: De- PFT accommodates most of the crustal shorten- tailed information about detrital zircon U-Pb analytical ing since late Miocene to Pliocene and places Seven sandstone samples of at least 2 kg data, and Figures S1–S3: Representative CL images Cretaceous and Cenozoic strata over younger each were collected from the Miocene Anjuan of zircons, U-Pb concordia diagrams of the analyzed basin fills (e.g., Coutand et al., 2002; Li et al., Formation to the Pliocene Atushi Formation in samples, and photographs of the four sites (Gc-1, 2012; Thompson Jobe et al., 2018) (Fig. 1). In the late Cenozoic succession of the Wuheshalu Gc-2, Gc-3 and Gc-4) for conglomerate clast counting in the Wuheshalu section, is available at http:// the eastern Pamir, the dextral Kashi-Yecheng section. The Xiyu Formation was not sampled, due www.geosociety.org/datarepository/2019, or on re- Transfer System divides the Pamir and the to difficulties in accessing the outcrops (Fig. 4F). quest from [email protected].

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the Wuqia Group (the Keziluoyi, Anjuan, and A W D W Pakabulake formations), the Atushi Formation, the Xiyu Formation, and overlying strata (e.g., E sandstone- BGMRXUAR, 1993; Chen et al., 2002; Jia et PFT dominated al., 2004). A summary of published description 0 50m N1p mudstone- of regional late Cenozoic strata is presented dominated in Table 1. The Wuheshalu section is located ~40 0 10m km west of Wuqia, between the PFT and the B NE Wuheshalu fault in the convergence area between the Pamir and the South Tian Shan (Figs. 1, 2, N1a and 4A). This ~15-km-long section exposes late E E E Cenozoic successions along the Kezilesu River N1a N1p southwest of the Wuheshalu Village, forming N2a 0 10m the south limb of an E-W–trending anticline (Fig. 1B and 1C). This section has not been described previously. C NE 0 10m The studied section presents the late Cenozoic N1p sedimentary succession of the Miocene Anjuan and Pakabulake, the Pliocene Atushi, and the N1a F NE Plio-Pleistocene Xiyu formations. The lower Q1x part of the Anjuan Formation is interrupted by two thrust faults near the core of the anticline (Fig. 4B). The formations have been previously mapped (BGMRXUAR, 1993), and this N2a study relies on their formation designations 0 10m and mapping. In the Wuheshalu section, the Miocene Anjuan Formation consists of ~547 m of Figure 4. Representative outcrop photographs from the Wuheshalu section. (A) The Pamir Frontal Thrust carrying Paleogene strata over the Miocene Pakabulake Formation. (B) The lower Anjuan brownish red sandstone-mudstone complexes. Formation with relatively more abundant mudstone interrupted by two small thrust faults. (C) Appear- Upsection, the thickness of fine sandstone ance of well-developed sandstone sheets indicating transition from the Anjuan Formation to the beds increases from ~2 cm to ~40 cm, and overlying Pakabulake Formation. (D) Shift from the middle Pakabulake Formation to the upper the bedforms change from laminated into Pakabulake Formation, with increase of sandstone/mudstone ratio. (E) Conglomerate of the Atushi lens-shaped beds. The thickness of brownish Formation overlying mudstone-sandstone packages of the Pakabulake Formation. (F) The Xiyu Forma- red mudstone beds varies from ~0.5 m to ~5 tion unconformably overlying the Pliocene Atushi Formation. E—Paleogene; N1a—Anjuan Formation; N p—Pakabulake Formation; N a—Atushi Formation; Q x—Xiyu Formation. m. Sedimentary structures in this formation 1 2 1 include ripple and cross-bedding. Paleocurrent directions are N-directed in the upper Anjuan Formation (Fig. 5). 3.3. Conglomerate Clast Counts 3.4. Paleocurrent Measurements The Miocene Pakabulake Formation consists of ~3531-m-thick sandstone-mudstone- In the Wuheshalu section, four conglom- Paleocurrent directions were determined siltstone packages and conformably overlies the erate beds were selected for conglomerate from unidirectional tabular and wedge-shaped Anjuan Formation (Fig. 4A). The lower part clast counting in 1 m2 areas for each sample cross bedding in the late Cenozoic succession (~433 m thick) begins with well-developed (Fig. S3). Grain sizes have been measured for of the Wuheshalu section. All the orientation fine-grained sandstone sheets (Fig. 4A) and both long (D) and short axes, and grain round- data were measured by a magnetic compass changes gradually into medium-grained ness and clast lithology have been counted for with their local magnetic declination anomaly thick sandstone channels. Mud cracks, cross- up to ~200 clasts in each site. Site Gc-4 has corrected. For each site, stratum orientation bedding, ripples, and burrows are found in the too many large clasts; thus, only 146 clasts are and 8–10 cross stratifications are measured sandstone channels in the lower part of the counted in the 1 m2 area. Following the divi- and corrected for tilted bedding (e.g., Lin et al., Pakabulake Formation. The middle and upper sion proposed by McLane (1995), gravels are 2010; Wang et al., 2017). Pakabulake Formation comprises mudstone- subdivided into granule (D ≤ 64 mm), pebble pelitic sandstone-medium-grained sandstone (64 256 mm) 4. STRATIGRAPHY AND AGE OF THE packages. Mudstone and pelitic sandstone beds and roundness is grouped into well-rounded, WUHESHALU SECTION are relatively more abundant in the middle part rounded, sub-rounded, sub-angular, angular, (1795 m thick). The thickness and proportion and very-angular. According to the outcrop, 4.1. Stratigraphy of the Wuheshalu Section of sandstone increase significantly in the upper lithologies of clasts are grouped into sand- part (1303 m thick) of this formation (Fig. 4D). stone, pebbly sandstone, granite, limestone, In the Pamir–South Tian Shan convergence Paleocurrent directions are N-directed at the shell limestone, gypsum, quartz, and magma- area and the western Tarim Basin, previous lower Pakabulake Formation and E-directed at tite (excluding granite). works divided the late Cenozoic strata into the top of this formation.

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TABLE 1. REGIONAL STRATIGRAPHY OF LATE CENOZOIC DEPOSIT Formation Thickness (m) Lithologic description Xiyu Formation 100–1700 Clast-supported conglomerates with sparsely interbedded lenses of light-yellow siltstones. The cobble-size gravels are very poorly sorted and sub-angular to angular. The diameters are 1–30 cm. The contact with the underlying Atushi Formation is marked by gradual increase in particle size and a sudden shift of sediment color from light gray to dark gray.

Atushi Formation 540–2080 The lower part is characterized by alternations of massive gray clast-supported conglomerates, coarse-grained sandstones and sandstone-siltstone-mudstone packages. The pebble to cobble conglomerates are poorly sorted and sub-angular with an average diameter of ~5 cm. The massive coarse-grained sandstones are intercalated with red thin-bedded mudstones (1–2 cm thick) and sub-rounded gravels. The sandstone, siltstone and mudstone are arranged in sheet forms. Erosive basal surfaces are abundant in this formation.

Pakabulake 1100–2168 This formation consists of sandstone-mudstone-siltstone packages and conglomerate. The brownish-red sandstone beds, Formation usually moderate- to thick-bedded with cross-bedding, ripples, mud cracks and burrows, changes its patterns from lens-shape in the lower to sheet form in the upper part. The siltstone component signiﬁcantly increases in the upper part. Conglomerate beds ﬁrst appears in the central part and becomes more frequent upward. The conglomerate is arranged in sheets or thin layers with sandstone beds. Conglomerates are matrix supported, poorly sorted to well sorted and contain rounded sandstone, limestone and quartz. The diameters are 0.5–4 cm.

Anjuan 450–723 This formation consists of brown and grayish-green sandstone interbedded with brown or brownish-red mudstone. The Formation sandstone layers are medium-thick bedded and ﬁne-medium grained with ripples and trough-cross-bedding. Upwards, brown mudstones and thin-bedded ﬁne-grained sandstones are present as intercalated beds, while brown and gray-green thick- bedded or lens-shaped sandstones are dominant in the upper part. A general coarsening-and thickening-upward sequence is recognized in this formation.

Keziluoyi 152–570 Low angle unconformity or disconformity with the underlying strata. The lower part consists of tan sandstone beds with well- Formation developed meter-scale low-angle trough-cross-bedding and thin gravel layers at the bottom of the sandstone beds. Gravels are matrix supported, rounded, and poorly sorted. The diameters are 0.5–3 cm. The upper part consists of (silty) mudstone- gypsiferous mudstone-gypsum packages. The mudstone layers are massive and brownish red. Proportion of gypsiferous mudstone and gypsum layers increase upwardly in the Tierekesazi section. Note: The description is mainly from observation of the Ulugqat, Tierekesazi, and Baxbulak sections west of the Talas-Fergana Fault (Chen, 2016; Jia et al., 2004; Sun et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2014).

The Pliocene Atushi Formation (662 m 4.2. Age Correlation study lacks description of the late Cenozoic thick) conformably overlies the Pakabulake sedimentary. Several missing chrons around Formation with a transition from sandstone- In this study, the age framework of the the boundary of the Pakabulake Formation and mudstone packages to massive conglomerate Wuheshalu section is based on correlation with the Atushi Formation makes the basal age of layers (Fig. 4E). This formation consists of nearby late Cenozoic magnetostratigraphically the Atushi Formation not so convincing (Qiao two upward-coarsening mudstone-(pebbly/ dated sections. Recently, several magneto- et al., 2017) (Fig. 5). The magnetostratigraphy coarse-grained) sandstone-conglomerate stratigraphic works had been carried out in the of Tang et al. (2015) at the Baxbulake section, (sheet/channel) sequences. Trough cross- study area (Chen et al., 2002, 2015; Heermance ~12 km north of the Wuheshalu section, covers bedding is developed in the sandstone and et al., 2007; Tang et al., 2015; Thompson et only the Oligocene Bashibulake Formation pebbly sandstone beds. Conglomerate beds, al., 2015; Yang et al., 2015; Qiao et al., 2016, and the early Miocene Keziluoyi Formation sometimes lenticular with basal erosive surface, 2017; Liu et al., 2017; Thompson Jobe et (Fig. 5). The magnetostratigraphy at the with thickness reaching ~4 m are sandy matrix– al, 2018). However, due to the lack of fossils Tierekesazi section (or the Mine section), supported in the lower and middle parts and and synchronous volcanic deposits, variable ~20 km northwest of the Wuheshalu section, change to clast-supported at the top of the thickness and lithofacies, and poor preservation, covers the Miocene-Quaternary (Chen et al., Atushi Formation. The imbricated gravels the late Cenozoic chronostratigraphic 2015; Yang et al., 2015) (Fig. 5). These two have grain sizes ranging from 7 mm to 500 framework throughout the Pamir–South Tian studies have different subdivisions for the mm and are mostly composed of sub-rounded Shan convergence area and the western Kashi Miocene strata: the Keziluoyi Formation of and sub-angular, brownish red/yellowish Basin still remains in dispute. In the Kashi Yang et al. (2015) includes the Keziluoyi and green sandstone and limestone. Paleocurrent Thrust Belt, previous magnetostratigraphic Anjuan formations of Chen et al. (2015), and directions are E-directed at the bottom and studies (e.g., Chen et al., 2002; Heermance et the Anjuan Formation of Yang et al. (2015) shift to N-directed at the upper part of the al., 2007; Qiao et al., 2016) documented the is equal with lower part of the Pakabulake Atushi Formation. late Cenozoic growth of the Kashi Thrust Belt. Formation of Chen et al. (2015) (Fig. 5). The In the study area, the Xiyu outcrops were The late Cenozoic stratigraphy of the Kashi correlations of the magnetozones in these inaccessible; therefore, we were unable to foreland differs from those in the Wuheshalu two studies are similar and are supported by describe them to the same level of detail as the section (Heermance et al., 2007). The work of apatite fission track age (Yang et al., 2014) and other units. The Xiyu Formation is a massive, Qiao et al. (2017) at the Sankeshu section, ~40 pollen samples (Chen et al., 2015) (Fig. 5). thick-bedded, dark gray conglomerate with km west of the Wuheshalu section, covers the Because the sedimentary characteristics of the sparsely interbedded sandstone lenses that upper Pakabulake Formation and the Pliocene Tierekesazi section resemble the Wuheshalu overlies the Atushi Formation with an angular Atushi Formation, with basal age of the Atushi section, we choose to correlate the Wuheshalu unconformity and is marked by a distinct Formation at ca. 7 Ma and basal age of the section with the Tierekesazi section in order to transition from light gray to dark gray (Fig. 4F). Xiyu Formation at ca. 2.6 Ma or younger. This give age estimations for the sampling horizons.

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on 01 October 2021

TABLE 2. SITE CHARACTERISTICS FOR DETRITAL ZIRCON SAMPLES AND CONGLOMERATE COUNTING SITES Sample ID Location Lithology Correlated horizon of Tierekesazi sectionEstimated age (Ma) Latitude Longitude (°N) (°E) WHSL-1 39.669 74.7692 SandstoneFirst thick channel of Anjuan Formation19 WHSL-2 39.665274.7662 SandstoneBottom horizon of Pakabulake Formation17 WHSL-3 39.663774.7622 SandstoneFirst thick channel of lower Pakabulake Formation16 WHSL-4 39.636474.7054 SandstoneRoughly estimated by thickness9 WHSL-5 39.638674.6729 SandstoneTop horizon of Pakabulake Formation6 WHSL-6 39.639374.6478 Sandstone Bottom of Atushi Formation5.3 WHSL-7 39.656774.6054 SandstoneUpper Atushi Formation N.D. Gc-1 39.637474.6535 Conglomerate Lower Atushi Formation N.D. Gc-2 39.639274.6467 Conglomerate Lower Atushi Formation N.D. Gc-3 39.651974.6129 Conglomerate Middle Atushi Formation N.D. Gc-4 39.651274.605 Conglomerate Upper Atushi Formation N.D. Note: N.D. = not determined.

In the Tierekesazi section, the pattern of the distribution of these coarse sediments sourced volcanic ash layers have not been found in the magnetozones from ca. 20 Ma to ca. 14 Ma from the South Tian Shan (Chen et al., 2015; Xiyu Formation that developed in the foreland resembles the reversal pattern of the GPTS Yang et al., 2015) and may also be consistent area of South Tian Shan. In general, we estimate 2012 (Gradstein et al., 2012). This correlation with the N-directed paleocurrent directions in the the basal age of the Atushi Formation in the is supported by the pollen from the middle Wuheshalu section. Upsection, the correlation of Wuheshalu section to be ca. 6–5.3 Ma (Table 2). Pakabulake Formation (Chen et al., 2015) and magnetozones from ca. 13 Ma to ca. 6 Ma in the Due to the difference in the sampling horizons, apatite fission track age of the Yang et al. (2015) Tierekesazi section is not as convincing (Chen et sample WHSL-5 at the top of the Pakabulake (Fig. 5). This part could be used to correlate al., 2015). Thus, the upper Pakabulake Formation Formation is estimated to be the lower limit age with the strata from the Anjuan Formation to the of the Tierekesazi section is not correlated or used of ca. 6 Ma, and sample WHSL-6 at the bottom Pakabulake Formation in the Wuheshalu section. for age control at the Wuheshalu section. of the Atushi Formation is estimated to be the In the Wuheshalu section, the Anjuan Formation In the Wuheshalu section, the transition upper limit age of ca. 5.3 Ma. Sample WHSL-4 is characterized by mudstone-sandstone packages from the Pakabulake Formation to the Atushi was collected from the middle Pakabulake with the sandstone/mudstone ratio generally Formation is marked by a massive conglomerate Formation. Its age, loosely constrained by the increasing upwardly and sandstone changing overlying a sandstone-mudstone package (Fig. formation time interval divided by the thickness from thin layers to channels (Chen et al., 2015; 4E), and these can also be observed at the of the distribution of the Pakabulake Formation, Yang et al., 2015) (Fig. 5). These sedimentary Ulugqat and Tierekesazi sections (Wang et al., is estimated to be ca. 9 Ma (Table 2). characteristics can also be found in the Tierekesazi 2014; Chen et al., 2015). Magnetostratigraphic In the Wuheshalu section, the Xiyu section (ca. 19.6–17.4 Ma, Yang et al. [2015]; ca. studies in the Tiereksazi and Sankeshu sections Formation is made up of massive, thick-bedded, 20.4–17.1 Ma, Chen et al. [2015]). Therefore, we reveal ages of ca. 5.2 Ma and ca. 7 Ma for the dark gray, and clast-supported conglomerates suggest the Anjuan Formation in the Wuheshalu bottom of the Atushi Formation. Nevertheless, that unconformably overlie the light gray Atushi section has an age interval of <20.4–ca. 17.1 Ma, these two sections lack independent age Formation (Fig. 4F). Researches about the Xiyu as the lower part is interrupted by faults. Sample constraints (Chen et al., 2015; Qiao et al., 2016) Conglomerate in the Kashi Thrust Belt suggest WHSL-1 was collected from the first sandstone (Fig. 5), making these results not as convincing. that it is highly time-transgressive (e.g., Chen channel of the Wuheshalu section; this is loosely In the Kashi Thrust Belt, magnetostratigraphic et al., 2002; Heermance et al., 2007; Thompson correlated with the first sandstone channels at the study of Heermance et al. (2007) and Qiao et al. Jobe et al., 2018), with basal ages varying from Tierekesazi section, given an age estimation of ca. (2016) revealed basal ages of ca. 5.3 Ma and ca. ca. 15.5 ± 0.5 to 0.7 ± 0.1 Ma, generally younging 19 Ma (Fig. 5). Sample WHSL-2 in the sandstone 6 Ma for the Atushi Formation. These results are from hinterland to the basin (Heermance et al., sheets overlying the Anjuan Formation of the supported by Pliocene fossils such as Hyacypris 2007) and overlying Cretaceous-Pliocene strata Wuheshalu section is given an age estimation of manasensi, Ilyocypris errabundis, Candona (Chen et al., 2002; Heermance et al., 2007; Qiao ca. 17 Ma (Fig. 5). Upsection, sample WHSL-3 (Candona) neglecta, Candona (Pseudocandona) et al., 2016). This sequence reflects progressive at the first thick sandstone channel can correlate subequalis, and Eucypris notabilis, etc., found shortening, deformation and basinward with the first thick sandstone channels with in the Atushi Formation near the Atushi City propagation of the thrust belts (e.g., Chen et thickness of ~5-m-thick and extending more than (XJUARRSCG, 1981; Jia et al., 2004). The al., 2002; Heermance et al., 2007; Qiao et al., 100 m laterally in the Tierekesazi section (Chen Atushi Formation is highly time transgressive 2016). In the Wupoer Piggyback Basin, the Xiyu et al., 2015); this is given an age estimation of in the south Tarim Basin. With the discovery conglomerate has basal ages that vary from ca. ca. 16 Ma (Fig. 5). In the Tierekesazi section, of a ca. 11 Ma volcanic ash layer in the Xiyu 6 Ma to ca. 1.9 Ma (Li et al., 2013; Thompson conglomerate–pebble sandstone–coarse-grained Formation (Zheng et al., 2015), the underlying et al., 2015; Thompson Jobe et al., 2018). At the sandstone packages that first appeared at ca. 14.4 Atushi Formation has basal ages varying from Ulugqat section, electron spin resonance dating Ma (Yang et al., 2015) or 13.9 Ma (Chen et al., ca. 23 Ma to ca. 4.6 Ma in the south Tarim Basin constrained the basal age of Xiyu Formation 2015) (Fig. 5) are not observed throughout the (Zheng et al., 2000, 2010, 2015; Sun, 2006; Sun to ca. 1 Ma (Wang et al., 2014). Due to high Pakabulake Formation of the Wuheshalu section. et al., 2008). These sections are hundreds of diachroneity of the Xiyu Conglomerate and This difference might be caused by limited kilometers away from the study area, and the lack of age control in the Wuheshalu section,

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the basal age of the Xiyu Formation in the WHSL-7 Wuheshalu section remains unsolved. n=96 upper Atushi Formation 5. RESULTS

0 100 200 300 400 500 5.1. U-Pb Geochronology of Detrital Zircons WHSL-6 n=97 Zircon grains from all 7 samples are mostly bottom of Atushi sub-rounded to sub-angular with long axes Formation, ca. 5.3 Ma ranging from 40 to 120 µm (Fig. S1). Well- developed oscillatory zoning could be observed 0 100 200 300 400 500 on the CL images (Fig. S1) and all of the Th/U ratios are >0.1, indicating a magmatic origin for WHSL-5 these zircons (Belousova et al., 2002). n=99 Zircon U-Pb ages from all 7 samples from top of Pakabulake the late Cenozoic Wuheshalu section range from Formation, ca.6 Ma 13 ± 0.3 Ma to 3377 ± 32 Ma. Age distributions

of 7 samples are characterized by 5 main age 0 100 200 300 400 500 groups: 190–250 Ma, 280–350 Ma, 390–480 Ma, 550–650 Ma, and 850–1020 Ma, and minor WHSL-4 components of 13–180 Ma and 1020–3400 Ma n=96 middle Pakabulake (Fig. 6). Age group 190–250 Ma has the largest Formation, ca.9 Ma population in all 7 samples (Fig. 6). Moving upsection, the proportions of zircons in age groups 280–350 Ma, 390–480 Ma, and 550– 0 100 200 300 400 500 650 Ma increase at the base of the Pakabulake Formation (ca.17 Ma, WHSL-2), decrease in WHSL-3 the lower Pakabulake Formation (ca. 9 Ma, n=94 lower Pakabulake WHSL-3), increase again at the top of the Formation, ca.16 Ma Pakabulake Formation (ca. 6 Ma, WHSL-5), and

decrease again in the upper Atushi Formation 0 100 200 300 400 500 (WHSL-7). Rare Late Cretaceous–late Cenozoic zircons appear at the bottom of the Pakabulake WHSL-2 Formation (WHSL-2) and from the middle n=95 Pakabulake Formation to the Atushi Formation bottom of Pakabulake Formation, ca.17 Ma (WHSL-4, WHSL-5, WHSL-6, and WHSL-7).

5.2. Conglomerate Clast Counts 0 100 200 300 400 500

WHLS-1 Site Gc-1 (GPS: 39.6374°N, 74.6535°E) is n=97 located at the bottom of the Atushi Formation. Upper Anjuan Gravels (7 ≤ D ≤ 74 mm) in this site consist of Formation, ca.19 Ma mostly sub-rounded and sub-angular granules with only one pebble. Sandstone (46%) and 0 100 200 300 400 500 limestone (33%) clasts are the major components of the gravel lithologies in this site, with minor 0500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 components of magmatite (except for granite) Age(Ma ) (12%) and quartz (8%) clasts (Figs. 7 and S3). Figure 6. Relative-age-probability plots of the detrital zircon U-Pb ages of the analyzed Upsection, site Gc-2 (GPS: 39.6392°N, samples in the Wuheshalu section, with 0–500 Ma age spectrums enlarged. 74.6467°E) is from the lower part of the Atushi Formation. This conglomerate (7 ≤D ≤ 160 mm) has more pebbles (13%) and sub-angular gravels than site Gc-1. Clast lithologies in this site are are sub-rounded and sub-angular. Lithologies granules but have the most pebbles (25%) and also sandstone (43%) and limestone (46%), of gravel clasts are mainly sandstone (54%), two cobbles. Gravels are mostly sub-angular and resembling site Gc-1 (Figs. 7 and S3). limestone (26%), and magmatite (excluding sub-rounded. Clasts in this site have the widest Site Gc-3 (GPS: 39.6519°N, 74.6129°E) is granite) (12%) (Figs. 7 and S3). range of lithologies, which are mainly sandstone from the upper part of the Atushi Formation. This Site Gc-4 (GPS: 39.6512°N, 74.6050°E) is (42%), pebbly sandstone (11%), granite (10%), conglomerate (7 ≤D ≤ 95 mm) consists of 95% from the horizon close to the top of the Atushi limestone (14%), quartz (12%), and magmatite granules and 5% pebbles. Most of the gravels Formation. Gravels (11 ≤ D≤ 504) are mainly (excluding granite) (10%) (Figs. 7 and S3).

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SizeRoundness 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0% 20%40% 60%80% 100% Gc-4 108 36 2 Gc-4 3 10 67 54 12

Gc-3 197 11 Gc-3 10 77 10615

Gc-2 179 27 Gc-2 3 14 69 10818

Gc-1 207 1 Gc-1 4 14 71 89 27 1 well-rounded rounded sub-rounded granule pebble cobble sub-angularangular very angular Lithology 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%60% 70%80% 90%100% Gc-4 62 16 15 16 5 17 15

Gc-3 109 3 5 46 9 1 11 24

Gc-2 87 1 484 11 2 7 10

Gc-1 95 3 60 8 17 25

sandstone pebble sandstone granite limestone shell limestone gypsum quartz magmatite (excluding granite)

Figure 7. Conglomerate clast counting data from the Pliocene Atushi Formation in the Wuheshalu section, showing numbers and percentages of different sizes, roundness, and lithologic grades.

6. SEDIMENTARY PROVENANCE from the Precambrian basement of the Tarim derivation from these regions. However, in this ANALYSIS Basin or recycled from source rocks containing case the north-flowing rivers would have to the Precambrian zircons (e.g., Gu, 1996; Zhang, cross the Pamir terranes to transport the zircons As summarized in Sections 2.1 and 2.2, the 2000; Zhang et al., 2001; Qu et al., 2003; He et to the Wuheshalu section; while the sample main zircon U-Pb age groups representing al., 2005; Ding et al., 2008). Thus, the Paleozoic WHSL-2 contains neither Eocene zircons Pamir basement rocks are late Cenozoic– and Precambrian zircons, which are minor from the Central Pamir nor Late Cretaceous Late Cretaceous, 210–247 Ma and 400–500 components in each sample, are not unequivocal to Cenozoic zircons from the South Pamir Ma. The main age groups of the South Tian for precise provenance discussion. (Figs. 3 and 6). Thus, the Paleocene zircons in Shan basement are 250–364 Ma and 400–500 All 7 samples contain a large number of the sample WHSL-2 are more likely to reflect Ma. Thus, the distinctive age groups of late angular and euhedral zircons from the 247– magmatic suites in the Pamir that have been Cenozoic–Late Cretaceous, and 210–247 Ma 210 Ma age group (Fig. 6), consistent with totally eroded or remain to be dated (Chapman in the Pamir and 250–364 Ma in the South Tian the Triassic igneous rocks in the North Pamir et al., 2018). Shan are useful for differentiating between the (Schwab et al., 2004) (Fig. 1A). Together with In the sample WHSL-4 (ca. 9 Ma, middle two source areas (Fig. 3). However, potential the N-directed paleocurrent directions, this data Pakabulake Formation) (Fig. 6), the ca. 36 Ma recycling of zircons in the study area hinders indicates that the North Pamir was the major zircon grains are interpreted to be derived from recognition of the South Tian Shan provenance source area for the Wuheshalu section from ca. igneous rocks of the Central Pamir (Lukens et in the late Cenozoic. In the Middle Jurassic 19 Ma to ca. 3 Ma (Fig. 6). al., 2012; Chapman et al., 2018). The ca. 13 and Early Cretaceous, the development of a At ca. 17 Ma (sample WHSL-2, bottom Ma zircon ages might be sourced from the mid- drainage system at the front of the South Tian of the Pakabulake Formation) (Fig. 5), the Miocene Dunkeldik volcanic belt (Ducea et al., Shan deposited widespread sediments in the increase in the Paleozoic and Precambrian 2003; Hacker et al., 2005), the potassic Taxkorgan area, both in the present foreland areas of the zircon components (Fig. 6) is synchronous intrusive complex (Ke et al., 2006; Robinson et South Tian Shan and the Pamir (Sobel, 1999; with the transition from laminated sandstone- al., 2007; Jiang et al., 2012), or the gneiss domes Yang et al., 2017) (Fig. 1). These Jurassic and mudstone complexes to sandstone sheets, of the South Pamir (Stearns et al., 2015; Rutte et Cretaceous sediments contain a significant likely indicating an increase of stream power al., 2017; Chapman et al., 2018). amount of zircons in the age groups of 250–364 and size of the source area of the Wuheshalu At the end of Pakabulake Formation time Ma and 400–500 Ma derived from the South section. Uncommon Paleocene zircons in the (ca. 6 Ma) (Fig. 6), the increasing proportion Tian Shan basement rocks (Fig. 3) (Yang et al., sample WHSL-2 (Fig. 6) are also reported in of Paleozoic and Precambrian zircons in 2017). Therefore, it is possible that recycled the late Cenozoic succession in the Aertashi sample WHSL-5 and the change in paleocurrent South Tian Shan basement rock zircons (e.g., section of the west Kunlun Mountain belt directions from N- to E-directed suggest age groups 250–364 Ma and 400–500 Ma) from (Blayney et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2018) and enhancement of erosion at their related source Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments deposited in the Oytag section of the northeast Pamir areas in the convergence area (Fig. 5) and a the location of the present Pamir foreland (Fig. (Sun et al., 2016). These Paleocene zircons combination of provenance from the South Tian 1C) were eroded and transported northward in have ages concordant with igneous rocks in Shan and the Pamir. The Eocene, Paleocene, and the late Cenozoic. In addition, Precambrian the Kohistan arc and Karakoram (Schwab et Late Cretaceous zircon grains in this sample zircons are interpreted being sourced either al., 2004; Heuberger et al., 2007), suggesting indicate sediment derived from the Pamir

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terranes (Schwab et al., 2004; Lukens et al., Shan in the late Cenozoic (summarized by the North Pamir. Deformation at the Oligocene- 2012; Thompson Jobe et al., 2018). Sobel et al., 2013), thereby delivering more Miocene boundary is interpreted from the rapid Since the deposition of the Atushi Formation, sediment from the Pamir than the South Tian exhumation widely observed in and around the conglomerate started to accumulate in the Shan. This interpretation is supported by the Pamir (e.g., Sobel and Dumitru, 1997; Amidon Wuheshalu section. Sample WHSL-6 from the higher sedimentary accumulation rate of the and Hynek, 2010; Rutte et al., 2017), reflecting bottom (ca. 5.3 Ma) of the Atushi Formation Wuheshalu section (>16.6 cm/k.y. to 34.3 plateau uplifting and thrusting of the MPT (Fig. 5) has a similar zircon age distribution cm/k.y.) (Fig. 5) compared to the Tierekesazi related to the India-Asia convergence and break- characteristics as sample WHSL-5 (Fig. 6). This, section in the South Tian Shan foreland area off of the down-going Indian plate (Negredo together with E-directed paleocurrent directions, (12.3 cm/k.y. to 22.8 cm/k.y.) (Chen et al., 2015). et al., 2007). In response to the N-S–directed indicates a combination of sediments from the India-Asia convergence, these events likely Pamir and the South Tian Shan. The Eocene 7.1. Miocene created E-W–trending topography in the North and Paleocene zircon grains indicate sediment Pamir and a N-directed drainage system sourced sourced from the Pamir terranes (Schwab et al., The Miocene sedimentary succession in the from high relief along the northern boundary of 2004; Lukens et al., 2012). Wuheshalu section consists of generally upward- the North Pamir (Fig. 8). In the sample WHSL-7 from the upper Atushi coarsening sandstone-mudstone complexes. The The small size of the Paleozoic South Formation (Fig. 5), the proportion of the 210– largest populations of detrital zircons were Tian Shan basement rock component in the 247 Ma age group increases. Combined with the sourced from Triassic igneous rocks in the Wuheshalu succession, with an unknown N-directed paleocurrent directions, this suggests North Pamir. The ca. 17.1 Ma to ca. 6–5.3 Ma, proportion derived from recycling of zircons enhanced sedimentary transported from the North ~3531-m-thick Pakabulake Formation is much deposited in Mesozoic strata in the Pamir Pamir. Two Paleocene zircon grains probably thicker than the Tierekesazi section (~1681 m, foreland area, indicates that the South Tian reflect materials derived from the Pamir terranes. Chen et al., 2015), the Baxbulake section (~2000 Shan contributed little or no sediment to the The four conglomerate clast counting sites m, Qiao et al., 2017) in the South Tian Shan depocenter of the convergence area in the are from the bottoms and tops of two upward- foreland, and the Bieertuokuoyi section (>800 Miocene. This could be explained by a smaller coarsening sequences in the Atushi Formation m, Liu, 2017) in the northeast Pamir foreland, exhumation amount, slower exhumation rates (Fig. 5). The lithologies of the gravels are mainly suggesting that the Wuheshalu section has a (e.g., Sobel et al., 2006; De Grave et al., 2012), brownish red/yellowish green sandstone and much faster sedimentary accumulation rate and relatively lower topography in the South (shell) limestone, consistent with the lithologies and rapid subsidence. This rapid subsidence Tian Shan compared to the Pamir during the of the Paleogene sediments in the Pamir–South event is probably caused by crustal flexure Miocene. As summarized by Sobel et al. (2013), Tian Shan convergence area (e.g., Bosboom et due to the increasing sedimentary loading and the South Tian Shan has an average amount of al., 2014). In the study area, the Paleogene compression between the Pamir and South Tian Cenozoic exhumation of ~3–5 km, less than sediments are widely exposed in the hanging Shan. The relatively larger Miocene sediment the ~7–10 km of the North Pamir (Sobel et al., wall of the PFT and poorly exposed in the thickness and higher sedimentary accumulation 2013). Moreover, dextral slip along the Talas- hanging wall of the Wuheshalu fault (Fig. 1B). rate of the Wuheshalu section (>4078 m, 16.6– Fergana fault since early Miocene (ca. 25 Ma) Since the Pliocene, the MPT became less active 34.3 cm/k.y.) and the Bieertuokuoyi section (Bande et al., 2015) would lead to northward (Sobel et al., 2013) and the PFT became active (>4118 m, >22.9 cm/k.y.) (Liu, 2017) compared displacement of the South Tian Shan region to (e.g., Fu et al., 2010; Thompson et al., 2015). to the South Tian Shan foreland area (2352 m, the west of the Talas-Fergana fault. This would Together with the observed majority of North 12.3–16.3 cm/k.y.) (Chen et al., 2015) implies reduce the amount of deformation absorbed by Pamir detrital zircons (samples WHSL-6 and that that the depocenter of the Pamir–South the development of the foreland regions of the WHSL-7) and N-directed paleocurrents at the Tian Shan convergence area was closer to the South Tian Shan west of the Talas-Fergana fault upper Atushi Formation, we suggest that gravels Pamir at this time. These observations indicate and would cause more shortening in the foreland of the conglomerate in the study area are mainly that the North Pamir provided a large amount on the eastern side of the fault compared to the derived from the hanging wall of the PFT. of sediments since the early Miocene (ca. 19 western side (Heermance et al., 2007; Chen Ma), implying that there was a northward- et al., 2015). All these factors would lead to 7. IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PAMIR–SOUTH flowing drainage system and therefore that the relatively less sediment from the South Tian TIAN SHAN CONVERGENCE PROCESS North Pamir had relatively high topography Shan to shed into the convergence area than DURING THE LATE CENOZOIC with respect to the Wuheshalu section. The the North Pamir (Fig. 8). topography of the North Pamir was probably The appearance of the late Cenozoic– Although the Wuheshalu section in the built during multiple rapid deformation events. Late Cretaceous zircons in the Wuheshalu Pamir–South Tian Shan convergence area The middle Eocene deformation in the North section reflects the development of a drainage is closer to the South Tian Shan (Fig. 1A), Pamir was recorded by accelerated exhumation network connecting the Pamir terranes and the Cenozoic and Mesozoic detrital zircons from the at the Karakul Lake of the North Pamir (Amidon deformation of the Pamir terranes (e.g., Stübner Pamir terranes comprise the largest component and Hynek, 2010) and the northeast Pamir et al., 2013; Stearns et al., 2015; Rutte et al., in the late Cenozoic sediments. It is difficult (Cao et al., 2013), consistent with the Eocene 2017). As discussed in Section 6, the uncommon to determine whether the minor components alluvial conglomerate reported at northern and Paleocene zircon grains that first appeared at ca. of Paleozoic and Precambrian zircons are northeastern foreland of the Pamir (Chen et al., 17 Ma (Fig. 5) likely came from magmatic suites derived from the Pamir or the South Tian 2018). These results reveal crustal thickening in the Pamir that are totally eroded or yet to be Shan, although paleocurrent directions are and tectonic uplift of the North Pamir (Amidon dated (Chapman et al., 2018), indicating that primarily N-directed. These features could be and Hynek, 2010) and early motion of the Kashi- the N-directed drainage connecting the Pamir partly explained by a much higher amount of Yecheng Transfer System (Cao et al., 2013), terranes already existed since that time. In sample exhumation in the Pamir than the South Tian which likely built an initial high topography for WHSL-4 (ca. 9 Ma) (Fig. 6), the ca. 13 Ma and

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Wuheshalu STS A Miocene N

Pamir

MP STS B ca. 6-5.3 Ma N

Pamir

T PFT MP

C deposition time of STS the upperAtushi Fm. N

Pamir

WF T T MP PF

Pliocene Miocene Paleogene pre Cenozoic mudstone/sandstone coarse sediments Water Body Thrust Fault River

Figure 8. Simplified late Cenozoic evolutionary model of the Pamir–South Tian Shan (STS) convergence area and speculated paleodrainage system (in blue) based on the sedimentary records in the Wuheshalu section. Red arrows refer to the N-S–directed compression stress in the study area. Note that the lithology of the Cenozoic sediments are represented on the surface. (A) In the Miocene, high topography, northward propagation and exhumation of the Pamir and thrusting of the Main Pamir Thrust (MPT) caused the majority of the sediment to be sourced from the North Pamir. (B) At ca. 6–5.3 Ma, the MPT became inactive and the thrusting of the Pamir Frontal Thrust (PFT) initiated, resulting in the deposition of conglomerate at the Wuheshalu section. Provenance of the Wuheshalu section was mainly from the North Pamir. Accelerated uplift and exhumation of the South Tian Shan and activities of its foreland thrust belt also provided a minor amount of detritus to the Wuheshalu area, leading to a mixed provenance and an E-directed paleocurrent direction. (C) During deposition of the upper Atushi Formation, northward thrusting of PFT and Wuheshalu fault (WF) resulted in northward propagation of the North Pamir and northward displacement of the depocenter to the north of the Wuheshalu section. These activities caused an increase of sediment sourced from the North Pamir.

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ca. 36 Ma zircon grains are consistent with the of major North Pamir provenance and minor These data provide new constraints for the age of complexes and gneiss domes in the eastern South Tian Shan provenance indicates that the convergence process of the Pamir and South South and Central Pamir (e.g., Ducea et al., 2003; Wuheshalu region was close to the depocenter Tian Shan. The large North Pamir detrital Robinson et al., 2007; Rutte et al., 2017) and the of the convergence area at ca. 6–5.3 Ma. zircon component present in all of the Miocene Vanj complex in the Central Pamir (Chapman An increase in the gravel size of the samples from the Wuheshalu section implies that et al., 2018), respectively, suggesting that the conglomerate occurred between the lower (long topographic relief in the North Pamir existed NE-directed rivers from the Central Pamir and the axis ranging from 7 to 74 mm) and the upper since at least the early Miocene. The South Tian N-directed river from the southeast Pamir which (long axis up to 500 mm) Atushi Formation Shan had a smaller amount of exhumation in the flowed to the convergence area had developed by (Fig. 7). A similar pattern was also found in the Miocene and its sediments could only reach a this time. These river networks might have been early Pliocene sediments of the Bieertuokuoyi limited area in the foreland area. In the Pamir– created and modified during Miocene exhumation Piggyback Basin (Thompson et al., 2015). This South Tian Shan convergence area, gradually in the Central and South Pamir (Thiede et al., coarsening likely indicates that the source area increasing sediment loading mainly sourced 2013; Stearns et al., 2015) and/or normal sense became more proximal. More heterogeneous from the Pamir and convergence of the Pamir and shear-zone deformation in the Central Pamir lithological composition of the gravels at the South Tian Shan caused rapid subsidence. Since ca. (Rutte et al., 2017). The Late Cretaceous zircon upper Atushi Formation implies enhancement 6–5.3 Ma, a combination of a major North Pamir grains that appeared in the latest Miocene (ca. of erosion in their related source areas and/ component and minor South Tian Shan component 6–5.3 Ma) (Fig. 6) are consistent with the Late or contribution from new source area. The of sediment deposited at the Wuheshalu section Cretaceous igneous rocks of the South Pamir characteristics of the conglomerate, together is consistent with northward propagation of the (e.g., Fraser et al., 2001; Stübner et al., 2013; with the N-directed paleocurrent direction and the North Pamir and activation of the PFT as well Thompson Jobe et al., 2018), likely reflect that decrease of the Paleozoic and Precambrian zircon as accelerated uplift and deformation in the N-directed rivers flowing from the South Pamir components could be explained by northward South Tian Shan and southward propagation of to the North Pamir existed at that time, and might thrusting of the PFT and/or Wuheshalu fault its foreland thrust belts. The Wuheshalu section be triggered by exhumation of the South Pamir (Figs. 2 and 8) and north-vergent thrusting of was close to the depocenter of the convergence domes in the late Cenozoic (Stübner et al., 2013; the North Pamir. These events caused northward area at this time. During deposition of the upper Chapman et al., 2018). Due to the scarcity of displacement of depocenter from the location of Atushi Formation, the North Pamir detrital zircon these late Cenozoic–Late Cretaceous zircons, Wuheshalu section to farther north, and led to a component had increased in the Wuheshalu section, their deficiency in the other samples could be decrease of the sedimentary accumulation rate reflecting an increase of sediments derived from caused by either complex variation of relative after ca. 6–5.3 Ma (Fig. 5) and a relatively greater the North Pamir, caused by continued faulting topography elevation difference in the Pamir proportion of sediment from the North Pamir in and northward propagation of the North Pamir. due to diverse deformation and loss in the U-Pb the Wuheshalu section. In turn, this caused northward displacement of zircon dating process. the depocenter to the north of the Wuheshalu 8. CONCLUSIONS section, resulting in an increased proportion of 7.2. Post Miocene sediment that was derived from the North Pamir Our detrital zircon analysis of samples to be deposited at the Wuheshalu section. Since ca. 6–5.3 Ma, conglomerate started collected at the late Cenozoic Wuheshalu to be deposited at the Wuheshalu section. The section provides a comprehensive understanding ACKNOWLEDGMENTS detrital zircon ages in the Atushi Formation are for the evolution of the Pamir–South Tian Shan This research is supported by the National Science Founda- mainly sourced from the Triassic igneous rocks convergence area. Seven detrital zircon samples tion of China (grant nos. 41330207, 41720104003, 41702205, in the North Pamir and the gravel lithologies from the Miocene-Pliocene succession of the 41472181, 41472182, and 41402170), the National SandT Major Project (grant nos. 2017ZX05008-001 and 2017ZX05003-001), are consistent with the Paleogene sediments at Wuheshalu section present zircon ages ranging the MOST of China (grant no. 2016YFC0600402), the Funda- the hanging wall of the PFT. We suggest that from 13 ± 0.3 Ma to 3377 ± 32 Ma, with five mental Research Funds for the Central Universities (grant no. the sediments are still mainly sourced from main age groups: 190–250 Ma, 280–350 Ma, 2018FZA3008), and the Open Fund of the Key Laboratory of Submarine Geosciences State Oceanic Administration. We the North Pamir and the hanging wall of the 390–480 Ma, 550–650 Ma, and 850–1020 Ma thank Dr. Kongyang Zhu in Zhejiang University and Dr. Valby PFT, driven by high topography, accelerated and other minor groups lying at 13–180 Ma van Schijndel at the University Potsdam for constructive advice northward deformation, and propagation of the and 1020–3400 Ma. The large populations of on detrital zircon analysis and to Dr. Fang Ma for help with detrital zircon U-Pb dating. We also thank M.S. Shengqiang Pamir (e.g., Sobel et al., 2013; Thompson et zircons from the 190–250 Ma age group in all Chen in Zhejiang University for his assistance during the field al., 2015; Blayney et al., 2016) and activation the seven samples suggests that Triassic igneous work. Special thanks to James B. Chapman and Jessica A. of the PFT in the northeast Pamir at ca. 5 Ma rocks from the North Pamir were the main Thompson Jobe for their constructive comments and advice. 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