Vladimír Slavík Róbert Grác Michal Klobučník Katarína Kohútová

VLADIMÍR SLAVÍK RÓBERT GRÁC MICHAL KLOBUČNÍK KATARÍNA KOHÚTOVÁ

Comenius University of Bratislava, Slovak Republic

DEVELOPMENT OF SUBURBANIZATION* OF SLOVAKIA ON THE EXAMPLE OF THE BRATISLAVA REGION

Abstract: Suburbanization is a process that chronologically is the second stage of urban development. While this process belongs already to the historical stages of development in the most urbanized regions of the world, it is dominant in Central and Eastern Europe at present. Suburbanization in the Slovak Republic started with some delay and with lower intensity. Until now, this process has not been investigated for all towns, but only in several biggest cities (Bratislava, Prešov, Košice, Nitra, Trenčín) and in selected aspects. It is most intensive and most advanced in the hinterland of the capital city - Bratislava. The process of suburbanization and its manifestations have been analysed in the city of Bratislava as such as well as its 17 administrative parts, because we consider the peripheral isolated urban areas to be part of the suburban zone. In a narrower sense, the region under study - the hinterland of Bratislava - consists of the communes of the Bratislava Region (71 units). In a broader sense, it comprises the communes in the functional urban region of Bratislava (108 units). This study covers changes in the studied region which occurred in the period 1990-2009. The paper present results of analysis of residential suburbanization using the following indicators: changes in the number of inhabitants, existence of land-use plans of communes, indices of population growth, net migration, and directions of migration.

Introduction The process of suburbanization is currently the dominant settlement process in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. However, suburbanization in the Slovak Republic began with some delay and lower intensity. The objective of this contribution

* Paper was prepared within the VEGA project No. 1/0965/11 Microregions - Spatial units for Communel reform in the Slovak Republic. 36 Vladimír Slavík, Róbert Grác, Michal Klobučník, Katarína Kohútová is to present the settlement structure of Slovakia and the process of urbanization as the first stage of urban development and next to analyse the development of suburbanization in the country. Results of more detailed research will be described only for the region of Bratislava, using several relevant indicators of residential suburbanization.

1. Settlement structure of Slovakia

The basic territorial units in the Slovak Republic are communes. Changes in their number depend on the predominating integration or disintegration tendency. During the 20th century, the downward trend prevailed up to 1989 to reach the lowest number in all modern history of Slovakia (with 2,694 communes) (Slavík 1994). Since 1990, thanks to the beginning of the disintegration of communes, their number has increased by approximately 200, reaching 2,891 communes in 2010. The communes in the Slovak Republic are currently divided into two fundamental categories - urban and rural communes. Within the census of inhabitants, houses and dwellings in 1991, a principal modification of definition of urban settlements in the country occurred. In 1990, the category of statutory cities approved by the Parliament was introduced, comprising 138 cities at present. The contemporary classification of communes in Slovakia into two basic categories only may be considered insufficient. More communes would deserve a division into special categories - mainly agglomerated communes in suburban zones of the biggest cities as well as communes having urban character without urban status. Already since 1970, the lowest level settlement and statistical units in the Slovak Republic have been the so-called Basic Settlement Units (BSU). They are suitable for detailed settlement analyses of rural regions with dispersed settlement and above all for analyses of the spatial structure of cities. In 2001, the number of BSU achieved 6,998 (Štatistický lexikón obcí Slovenskej republiky 2002,2003), i.e. 2.5 BSU per one commune. The prevalence of small communes is typical of the size structure of Slovak communes. The communes with 200 to 1,000 inhabitants still have the dominant position (51.3% in 2010) (Size groups of municipalities of Slovakia in figures, 2010). Larger rural communes in a sparser network prevail in the west of Slovakia, while towards the east of the country the size of communes decreases but their network is denser. At present, the largest rural communes have over 5 thousand inhabitants and are markedly larger than the smallest cities. The smallest rural communes have less than 30 inhabitants and if current development trends continue, their future will be endangered. A specific feature of rural settlement is dispersed settlement that was formed in certain areas of Slovakia during later colonization waves (such as the solitary cottager's, Wallachian and mountain ones). The cities of Slovakia are most often divided into big, medium and small. Small cities dominate the country's urban system - the most numerous category is that

Development of Suburbanization of Slovakia… 37 composed of cities with 5 to 10 thousand inhabitants. Most of the urban population is concentrated in the category of cities with 20 to 50 thousand inhabitants (almost 900 thousand persons in total). The authors pay the greatest attention to big cities (Korec, Rochovská, 2003; Slavík et al. 2005, etc.). The regional cities (8) as well as cities over 50 thousand inhabitants (10) are regarded as big cities in the Slovak Republic. A specofic feature of the country is the absence of the hierarchically lowest sub- category of big cities - those with 100 to 200 thousand inhabitants. The biggest cities - Bratislava and Košice - are considered to be metropolises, Bratislava (432,801 inhabitants in 2010) is the capital city and metropolis of state significance (Slavík 2003) while Košice (233,886 inhabitants in 2010) is regarded as the metropolis of Eastern Slovakia. A comprehensive hierarchization of the system of European metropolises with special emphasis on capital cities (Vandermotten et al. 1999) has identified as many as 11 types of cities (8 basic categories and 3 potential ones); the capital cities were classified into five categories. Within this hierarchization, Bratislava was classified into the category of third-rate capital cities (along with other 21 cities). Recently, greater attention has also been paid to the category of small cities (Halás 2004; Lauko, Tolmáči 2004; Slavík 2002,2004; Turnock 1994, etc). Up to now, spatial settlement structures in the Slovak Republic were not defined as official statistical units. Such units were analysed and defined only by individual authors. Especially the category of urban agglomerations has not been the focus of adequate attention among the scholars recently. Urban agglomerations are most often presented in the planning document named Conception of Territorial Development of Slovakia (1994, 1997, 2001, 2006) but only as planning or prospective units, not as really existing units. The delimita- tion of urban agglomerations according to out-commuting (communes with over 50% of persons commuting to work to the centre of an urban agglomeration) (Slavík et al. 2005) was one of a few attempts during the past years. Then Bezák for a long time examined the category of functional urban regions in Slovakia (1990, 2000). In 1991 he identified 66 functional urban regions of the country. The latest example of applying the methodology of functional urban regions has been the hierarchization of functional urban regions in the EU Member States (ESPON Atlas 2007). Of the five categories of Metropolitan European Growth Areas (MEGAs la - le) Bratislava was included in the category 1d - i.e. potential MEGAs along with Prague, Warsaw and Budapest.

2. Development of urbanization in Slovakia

Van der Berg et al (1982) distinguishes four stages of urban development - urbanization, suburbanization, counterurbanization and reurbanization. The first stage of urban development is defined by the process that is characteristic chiefly by the . 38 Vladimír Slavík, Róbert Grác, Michal Klobučník, Katarína Kohútová immigration of population to cities due to decreasing demand in the agricultural sector and increasing demand for workforce in the industrial sector. As a result, rising migration flows of inhabitants from the countryside to cities take place. Within the in- traurban structures, the population is concentrated in central parts of cities in the vi- cinity of industrial factories. Then, residential areas emerge in these parts of the city owing to the absence of transport and within pedestrian distance to the workplace. Van der Berg (1982) noted the emergence of industrial cities with a higher degree of division of labour and with a high concentration of population as a consequence of the described process. The progressive expansion in space of industrial and residential city parts results in the territorial development of the city, the improvement of its infrastructure and, subsequently, the transport interconnection of city centres with suburbs (Ouředníček 2000). Due to increasing flows of immigrants and a rise in the living standard of the original migration wave, there is a gradual moving of "original" inhabitants to areas with superior living conditions on urban fringes. At the same time, these inhabitants are replaced by new immigrants with a lower social status. In this way, con- centric zones with a low living standard are formed in the city centre. According to Ouředníček (2000), "...all the region - especially the urban core - grows at this stage of urban development, while population in the hinterland diminishes (absolute centralization) or increases less than in the urban core (relative centralization)" (p. 362). Some authors (Dubcová et al. 2008) consider the period of the 13th to 16th centu- ries to be the first stage of urbanization in Slovakia. At that time, a network of towns was created in the country. The first mining and merchant cities were founded and they gradually became centres of handicraft and trade. Several authors identify three developmental stages of urbanization in the Slovak Republic (Bašovský, Divinský 1991; Verešík 1974, etc). The first one is the period of modern urbanization since the mid-19th century until 1918. The second stage of urbanization, during 1918-1948, is so called modern urbanization between the wars. The third stage is socialist urbanization in the course of 1948-1989. At the beginning of the 1st stage of urbanization (i.e. 1869-1918), at the time of the first modern census in 1869, the territory of Slovakia had a manifestly rural character. The degree of urbanization achieved only 10.1% (Verešík 1974). In this period, cities with population over 50,000 inhabitants were still absent. Only two cities had higher population than 20,000 inhabitants - Bratislava a Košice, while six others had population over 10,000 inhabitants (1900 - Banská Štiavnica, Komárno, Myjava, Ni- tra, Nové Zámky, Prešov). In the 2nd stage of urbanization (i.e. 1918-1948) too, Slovakia remained a rural country. In 1921, the degree of urbanization in Slovakia was 18.8%. The number of cities over 5,000 inhabitants increased to 65. The development of urbanization was to a significant extent influenced by emigration abroad and lagging industrialization. The network of small cities to 5,000 inhabitants dominated; the number of cities with

Development of Suburbanization of Slovakia... 39 population over 20,000 inhabitants increased to seven. A significant change which took place in this period is the formation of the first city - Bratislava reached 123,844 inhabitans in 1930. The stage of socialist urbanization (i.e. 1948-1989) is also called the stage of quantitative urbanization. It is only this stage when the extreme growth of cities is taking place. The urbanization process occurs simultaneously with the industrialization process. The number of inhabitants living in the cities increased from 857,000 to almost 2,990,000, i.e. by 2,133,000. Thus, the growth index reached the value of 351%. The degree of urbanization increased from 24.9% in 1950 up to 56.7% in 1989. Among others, the integration process - affiliating communes to cities - considerably contributed to this growth. This stage is characterized by the construction of larger housing estates. A substantial increment in the number of flats in cities made possible the intensive emigration of persons from the countryside. Within the given urbanization stage, cities achieved the highest intensity of growth in 1970-1980, while the dynamics of urbanization in the last decade was sensibly reduced. Only in this stage, the category of big cities was formed; 11 cities had higher population than 50,000 inhabitants. Out of them, Bratislava and Kosice were distinguished by their size - they became metropolises. The planned growth of other four cities and the formation of a numerous category of big cities (those over 100 thousand inhabitants) was not realized. Still in this stage, urban agglomerations were principally formed on the basis of strong commuting links; an anticipated beginning of suburbanization did not materialize. In the current stage (i.e. 1990-2010), the degree of urbanization stagnates or shows a modest decline. In 1991 this degree was 56.8%, till 2010 it decreased to 54.7%. A comparison of the urbanization process in Slovakia, Europe and the world during 1950-2050

Fig. 1. Increase in the degree of urbanization in Slovakia, Europe and the world in 1950-2050 Source: World Urbanization Prospects. The 2009 Population Census Database (Figs. 1, 2).

40 Vladimír Slavík, Róbert Grác, Michal Klobučník, Katarína Kohútová

Fig. 2. Urbanization dynamics in Slovakia, Europe and the world in 1950-2050 is demonstrated by Figs. 1 and 2. As regards the degree of urbanization and the growth rate of urbanization, Slovakia had the same values as the world average and markedly different values than the European average at the start of period. The further development of both indicators was diametrically different. The degree of urbanization of Slovakia is from the 1970s moving between the world and European average and lagging about 15% behind European average. A radical change occured in the dynamics of urbanization. Average annual urban population growth of Slovakia reached in the 1980s the highest values exceeding the world average (over 3%). In the last decade of socialism decreased by half apprximating the European average, and between 1995- 2005 decreased below the European average and recorded a slight decline. Within the EU Member States, Slovakia belongs to the least urbanized countries, only Slovenia is less urbanized (49.6%) (World Urbanization Prospects 2010a,b.

3. Suburbanization development and research on this subject in Slovakia

"Suburbanization is a process that is part of contemporary settlement processes taking place in Central and Eastern Europe. It has occurred in neighbouring countries - the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary as well as the territory of Eastern Germany (ex-GDR) - since the beginning of the transformation process. However, in the Slovak Republic, suburbanization started with some delay and lower intensity" (Slavík, Chlapovič 2003, p. 137).

Development of Suburbanization of Slovakia… 41

At first we have to state that this process has not been studied in a comprehensive way in the cities of the Slovak Republic up to now. Some aspects of suburbanization in the selected biggest cities of the country are examined by individual authors or teams of authors. The first manifestation of suburbanization is stagnation or a decrease in the number of inhabitants in the city and an increase in the number of inhabitants in its hinterland. Fig. 3 shows development in the number of inhabitants of regional (and, at the same time, the biggest) cities in Slovakia and unequivocally proves a principal change in the trajectory of development. While in the era of communism (1950-1989) the process of urbanization was dominant, in the current transformation stage (1990- 2011) we witness stagnation or a modest decline in the number of inhabitants. This is a manifestation of the next developmental stage - suburbanization. The process of suburbanization, which began not long ago, manifests itself mostly in the hinterland of Bratislava. Therefore, it is logical that authors have mainly dealt with this territory so far. Most authors analysed only selected aspects in the entire hinterland or in its parts. One of the first comprehensive researches was carried out within a VEGA project (with Slavík as the head of the project). Issues relating to the planning of cities and communes, residential suburbanization, commercial suburbanization and social aspects of suburbanization were addressed in this project. Outcomes of some analyses and researches - that began already before the realization of the VEGA project, but continue also after its conclusion - have so far been presented in professional publica- tions as well as at domestic and international conferences (Fila 2005; Slavík, Čerhitová 2009; Slavík, Grác 2009; Slavík, Chlapovič 2003; Slavík, Kohútová 2008; Slavík et al. 2005; Slavík, Kurta 2007, 2009; Zubriczký 2005), but also in bachelor's and diploma theses (Juríková 2010; Kohútová 2010; Kurta 2007, etc) that were mostly part of the .

Fig. 3. Dynamics of the growth of regional cities of Slovakia in 1950-2010 Source: Slavík et al. (2005), p. 51, supplemented with data for 2010.

42 Vladimír Slavík, Róbert Grác, Michal Klobučník, Katarína Kohútová above-mentioned VEGA project. Demographic, settlement and territorial aspects of suburbanization were studied by Hrdina (2010), Podolák (2007) and Zubriczký (2010), land use changes and construction of housing by Šveda (2010, 2011), social aspects in the peripheral parts of Bratislava by Spišiak and Danihelová (1998). Suburbanization from a viewpoint of rural sociology may be found in works by Gajdoš (2007); Gajdoš, Moravanská (2010); Gajdoš et al. (2009); Falťan (www.landentwicklung.org); Moravan- ská (2007), etc. Recently research on „cross-border suburbanization" has intensified, especially in the selected locations of Bratislava, Hungary and Austria (Baj 2010; Hardi 2010; Hardi et al. 2010; Jagodič 2010, etc). As regards other Slovak cities, the hinterland of Prešov has mostly been analysed until now (Ferťalová, Sedláková 2007; Matlovič, Sedláková 2004; Sedláková 2005a,b,c; Sedláková, Matlovič 2004, etc). Recently, such kind of research has started also for the hinterland of Košice (Dická 2006, 2007; Spišiak, Kulla 2008, etc), Ni- tra (Czaková, 2009, 2010) and Trenčín - on commercial suburbanization (Danielová 2008). However, research on suburbanization is still lacking for the regional cities of Banská Bystrica and Žilina. For the given cities, the authors analysed residential suburbanization using mainly the dynamics of population growth and net migration as indicators. All analyses corroborated a certain time shift in suburbanization. The first manifestations of suburbanization appear as late as the second half of the 1990s with acceleration of development after 2000. On the basis of the intensity of observed indicators in Nitra and Košice, the authors arrived at the identification of the suburban zone. This is usually

W E

City zone

0 5 10 15 Km Suburban zone

Fig. 4. Suburban zone of Kosice Source: Dicka (2007), p. 22, modified by the Authors (Figs. 4,5,6,8,9)..

Development of Suburbanization of Slovakia... 43

Kapince Hruboòovo Malé Zálužie

Nové Sady Výèapy - Opatovce Horné Lefantovce Šurianky Lukáèovce Èab Dolné Lefantovce ¼udovítová Bádice Jelšovce Jelenec Rišòovce Žirany ZbehyÈakajovce Podhorany Alekšince

Rumanová Štitáre Kolíòany Lužianky Nitrianske Hrnèiarovce 0 10 km PohraniceHosová Ve¾ké Zálužie Lehota Báb Malý Lapáš Èe¾adice Nitra Dolné Obdokovce Malé Chyndice Ve¾ký Lapáš Jarok BabindolVe¾ké Chyndice Nová Ves nad Žitavou

Golianovo Klasov Èechynce Cabaj - È?por Tajná Ivanka pri Nitre Malý Cetín Vráble Svätoplukovo Paòa Èif?re Ve¾ký Cetín Telince Branè Mojmírovce Lúènica nad Þitavou

Štefanovièov? Melek Ve¾ká Dolina Vinodol Žitavce Po¾ný Kesov

Suburban zone of Nitra Communes outside the suburban zone Cities Fig. 5. Suburban zone of Nitra in 1998-2006 Source: Czaková (2009), p. 40.

formed by only a narrow or mosaic ring of communes in the immediate hinterland (Košice - Fig. 4, Nitra - Fig. 5). For further analyses we recommend to define more categories of suburban communes. Recently, research focusing on the share of immigrants coming from the centre to respective communes emerged, too (Prešov, Nitra - Fig. 6). This indicator belongs to the most significant ones within the analyses of residential suburbanization. Commercial suburbanization in the hinterlands of Prešov and Trenčín was analysed by Sedláková (2005c) and Danielová (2008), respectively. The first attempt to earmark present categories of suburban communes in Slo- vakia is represented by the work of Gajdoš, Moravanská (2010), solved within the VEGA project 2/0116/08. On the basis of four indicators in the period from 2003 to 2008 (the share of migrants, migration balance, the share of new flats and the number of new flats), the authors identified 451 potential suburban communes.

43 Vladimír Slavík, Róbert Grác, Michal Klobučník, Katarína Kohútová

Kapince Hruboòovo Malé Zálužie

Nové Sady Výèapy - Opatovce Horné Lefantovce Šurianky Lukáèovce Èab Dolné Lefantovce ¼udovítová Bádice Jelšovce Jelenec Rišòovce Žirany ZbehyÈakajovce Podhorany Alekšince

Golianovo Klasov Èechynce Cabaj - È?por Tajná Share of immigrants from Nitra Ivanka pri Nitre Malý Cetín to the total number of immigrants Vráble from rural settlements (%) Svätoplukovo Paòa Èif?re Ve¾ký Cetín Telince 1 - 16 Branè Mojmírovce Lúènica nad Þitavou 17 - 32 Štefanovièov? Melek Ve¾ká Dolina Vinodol 33 - 49 Žitavce 50 - 65 Po¾ný Kesov 66 - 81

Cities

Fig. 6. Proportion of immigrants from Nitra in communes of the Nitra district in 1998-2006 Source: Czaková (2009), p. 38.

Comparative analyses of the selected biggest cities of Slovakia provide interesting material. Matznetter (2004), in a comparative analysis, studied the urban regions of Vienna and Bratislava evaluating the dynamics of population growth during the five decades of development (in 1950-2001). His results unequivocally demonstrate a time shift in urbanization processes in the given regions. Sedlakova, Lukacova com- pared the development (Sedlakova 2005b) and degree (Lukacova 2011) of suburbanization in Presov and Olomouc.

4. Development of suburbanization in the region of Bratislava

At first it is necessary to explain that we present only results of our own research in this part. We analysed the process of suburbanization and its manifestations in the

Development of Suburbanization of Slovakia… 45 city of Bratislava as such as well as in its 17 administrative parts, because we consider the peripheral isolated urban areas to be part of the suburban zone. In a narrower sense, the region under study - the hinterland of Bratislava - consisted of the communes of the Bratislava Region (72 units). In a broader sense, it comprised the communes in the functional urban region of Bratislava (108 units). We observed changes in the studied region which occurred in 1990-2009. For better time identification of development in selected indicators, we divided the 20-year period into four equal 5-year periods (1990-1994, 1995-1999, 2000-2004, 2005-2009). In this contribution, we present results of an analysis of residential suburbanization in the hinterland of Bratislava using the following indicators: changed in the number of inhabitants, existence of land-use plans of communes, indices of population growth, net migration, and directions of migration. As regards the process of suburbanization in the Slovak Republic, it is most evident in the hinterland of the capital city - Bratislava. The first symptom of suburbanization is stagnation or decline in the number of inhabitants of the city and population growth in its hinterland. The rise in the number of inhabitants of Bratislava continued during the initial years of transformation up to 1996 (452,288 residents); the turn came in 1997. Since then, we have witnessed a trend of population decrease (approximately 1,000 persons a year) as one of the fundamental manifestations of suburbanization. A marked drop in the city's population in 2001 (by almost 20,000 persons) was caused by (unregistered) migration losses between two censuses. How- ever, recently, population increases have again been recorded in Bratislava. This may be explained by renewed housing construction in some city parts and particularly by the increases of populations in isolated suburban areas of the city (Záhorská Bystrica, Devín, Rusovce, Čunovo, Jarovce). Increase in the number of inhabitants in the hinterland of Bratislava has been of a more continuous character than in the city itself. This number has basically grown since 1992 (Fig. 7) - only modestly in the first decade, but more intensively in the second one. In 1990-1999, the population increased in the communes of the Bratislava Region as well as in the functional urban region of Bratislava by a mere 2,000 persons. In 2000- 2009, the population increase amounted to 22,000 persons (10,000 persons in the last three years) in the communes of the Bratislava Region and 27,000 persons in the communes of the functional urban region. Taking also the dynamically growing isolated urban areas of Bratislava into account, the increases would be even higher. The intensity of suburbanization is to a large extent dependent on prepared- ness for this process. An inevitable prerequisite is the existence of land-use plans in cities and communes of the suburban hinterland. At present, the land-use plan of a city or a commune with a population over 2,000 inhabitants is among the obligatory documents of local self-government in the Slovak Republic. The existence of land- use plans in smaller communes depends on the initiative of their representatives and financial possibilities of local self-government (Slavík, Čerhitová 2009). The most

46 Vladimír Slavík, Róbert Grác, Michal Klobučník, Katarína Kohútová

Fig. 7. Changes in the number of inhabitants in the city of Bratislava and the hinterland of Bratislava in 1990-2009 Source: Population in communes of Slovakia in 1990-2009. Statistical Office of the Slovak Republik.

significant manifestation of suburbanization in the hinterlands of cities is the construction of single-family houses - not only in the current "intravillan" (i.e. the official surface designed for building) of satellite cities and communes, but especially in new areas requiring extension. It is therefore necessary to elaborate land-use planning documentation for this purpose. For this reason, we analysed the situation in the creation of land-use plans and other planning or development documents in the hinterland of Bratislava for the period 1990-2008. Out of 72 communes of the Bratislava Region in total, only seven did not have land-use plans at the end of the given period (Fig. 8). In comparison with 1990, when 47 communes had no land-use plans, it is a considerable increase. During the first transformation decade (1990-1999), altogether 25 land-use plans of communes were elaborated (most in the Senec district - 14); the majority of them only in the 2nd half of the mentioned decade. After 2000, the creation of land-use plans of communes in the hinterland of Bratislava has been markedly intensified. New land-use plans were worked out for as many as 46 communes. Thus, the absence of these documents pri- marily in the first decade was a serious obstacle and - as a matter of fact - delayed the beginning of suburbanization in several communes in the hinterland of Bratislava. An analysis of population growth indices for the observed decades (1990-1999, 2000-2009) as well as for the 5-year intervals made it possible to identify in detail the basic tendencies of development of the communes in the hinterland of Bratislava. Within the first 5-year period (1990-1994), the stage of socialist urbanization with a modest growth of cities and modest declines of inhabitants in the majority of rural

Development of Suburbanization of Slovakia... 47

Military zone Zahorie

Bratislava

1990 - 1994

1995 - 1999

2000 - 2004

2005 - 2008 0 5 10 Kilometers Communes without Land-use plan

Bratislava and military zone Zahorie

Fig. 8. Land-use plans of communes in the Bratislava Region in 1990-2008 Source: Slavík, Čerhitová (2009), p. 279.

48 Vladimír Slavík, Róbert Grác, Michal Klobučník, Katarína Kohútová

settlements was slowly coming to a close. In the second 5-year period (1995-1999), out of 108 communes in the functional urban region, as many as 81 achieved a modest increase - growth index of 100.1 to 110.0%; only 2 communes showed a growth index of 110.1 to 120.0%. The situation radically changed after 2000, when a group of communes with a higher growth index (over 110.1%) was constantly becoming larger - with 23 communes in 2000-2004 and 26 communes in 2005-2009. In the last 5-year period, we even witness an extreme growth in attractive areas (such as Chorvátsky Grob - 168.5%, Miloslavov - 151%, Hviezdoslavov - 142%, Báč - 142%, Rovinka - 141%, etc). Progressive development in attractive suburban communes was corroborated also by the number of communes with a growth index over 120% in the last decade (2000-2009) - 19 communes in total plus 4 peripheral parts of Bratislava (Fig. 9), of which especially Záhorská Bystrica (growth index of 149%) and Rusovce (growth index of 136%) equalled in their intensity of growth the most attractive areas in the hinterland. The development of 6 satellite cities lying in the hinterland of Brati- slava has been interesting as well. Expected boom and growth dynamics have not materialised; these cities have achieved only modest population increases up to now. As regards growth indices or absolute increases, too, in some cases, attractive areas of suburban communes outstrip the given satellite cities. In terms of migration indicators, the development of net migration is presented in this contribution, indicating absolute increases in communes due to migration and the crude rate of net migration as a relative indicator. We analysed the values of net migra-

Military zone Zahorie Military zone Zahorie MA Legend MA

Growth index of population in functional urban region of Bratislava

less than 90

PK PK <90 - 100)

<100 - 110)

SC <110 - 120) SC

more than 120

- Centre of the district

GA GA - Communal border - District border

BA - Regional border BA

DS DS 0 30 60 km

Fig. 9. Indices of population growth in the communes of the functional urban region of Bratislava and in the city parts of Bratislava in 1990-1999 and 2000-2009 Source: The balance of population in commune of Slovakia in 1990-2009. Statistical Office of the Slovak Republik. Development of Suburbanization of Slovakia... 49 tion in 108 communes of the functional urban region of Bratislava for the entire studied period 1990-2009. The predominance of communes with negative values of net migration was characteristic of the 5-year period 1990-1994 (in 65 communes, i.e. 60% of all communes). Less than 40% of communes reached a positive value of net migration. Three satellite cities had the highest values - Pezinok (1,035), Stupava (253) and Modra (249). In the 2nd observed time interval (1995-1999), the number of communes with a negative value of net migration already markedly diminished to 18 communes, i.e. less than 20%. Again, the satellite cities of Stupava and Malacky recorded the highest positive values - 395 and 332, respectively. In the 3rd time interval (2000-2004), the situation radically changed - the number of communes with positive net migration higher than 200 persons rose substantially. Altogether 15 communes (i.e. 16%) reached such a value. The highest values were seen in the satellite cities of Stupava (618) and Senec (418) as well as the biggest communes in the immediate hinterland of Bratislava (Ivánka pri Dunaji - 545, Bernolákovo - 333). In the last observed 5-year period (2005-2009), the value of net migration over 200 persons was recorded by the highest number of communes - as many as 22. Furthermore, three settlements even achieved an increase over 1,000 persons (Chorvátsky Grob - 1,263, the city of Stupava - 1,183, and Dunajská Lužná - 1,003). They are either satellite cities or attractive suburban areas. The relative indicator - the crude rate of net migration - reflects the migration situation in the hinterland of Bratislava more realistically. In applying this indicator, we limited ourselves only to the decade 2000-2009. The reason is that a more significant increase in the number of inhabitants and immigrants occurred in the majority of communes right after 2000. All 108 communes in the functional urban region of Bratislava and all 17 city parts of Bratislava were evaluated. In the first studied year (2000), 17 communes and 4 city parts demonstrated the crude rate of net migration over 20%, i.e. the migration surplus was higher than 20 persons per 1,000 inhabitants (calculated on a mid-year population basis). The respective numbers of communes and city parts increased each year, culminating in 2008 with 44 communes and in 2009 with 6 peripheral city parts of Bratislava. The most attractive areas had the following values in individual years: 60 to 75% in attractive suburban communes (Miloslavov - 2000, 2005, Limbach - 2001, Zálesie - 2004, 2006, Čenkovce - 2007, Hviezdoslavov - 2008, etc.) and over 40% in city parts of Bratislava (Záhorská Bystrica with 41% - 2000, Devín with 66% - 2002, etc). Out of the satellite cities, only Stupava reached the crude rate of net migration higher than 20% in most examined years, with a maximum in 2009 - 43%. Facts from our analysis were confirmed also by another research on the crude rate of net migration in the hinterlands of 6 selected big cities of Slovakia (Novotný, 2011). According to it, since 2004, all the hinterland of Bratislava has regularly shown the values of the crude rate of net migration over 10%, in 2008 it was even nearly 16%. Of the other studied cities, only Banská Bystrica has approached the given values (with 10 to 12%). It is necessary to emphasize one particularity when analysing migration in the suburban zone of Bratislava. The official numbers of immigrants in communes do not .

50 Vladimír Slavík, Róbert Grác, Michal Klobučník, Katarína Kohútová Development of Suburbanization of Slovakia... 51 give a true picture of the real numbers, because a certain proportion of immigrants is not registered for permanent residence in these communes - although they live there. On the basis of field research and interviews with mayors of the communes and satellite cities concerned (especially of those where the process of suburbanization is taking place most intensively), we estimate that the official numbers of immigrants must be in- 1 creased by roughly /3. In reality, it means hundreds of immigrants in communes, some 1,000 to 2,000 persons in satellite cities (in case of Pezinok we even estimate it at about 3,000 persons) and city parts of Bratislava are also concerned. It results from above- mentioned facts that the actual process of suburbanization in the hinterland of Bratis- lava is more intensive than that depicted by official data. The majority of immigrants unregistered in suburban communes have still their permanent residence in Bratislava. In this way, they artificially raise the number of inhabitants in Bratislava and - on the contrary - diminish the values related to the degree of suburbanization in communes lying in the hinterland of the city. Directions of migration - notably the numbers of immigrants from the centre of the region to suburban communes - belong to the most significant migration indicators used for analyses of the suburbanization process. Most of the current authors demonstrate the course of suburbanization in studied communes through net migration or various migration rates, assuming that immigrants come from the centre. The marked predominance of immigrants from the centre is a clear proof of the continuing process of suburbanization. Databases on the directions of migration for the period 1990-2009 were obtained by field research in the selected communes. We succeeded to summarise the directions of migration in 33 communes for all the given period (11 communes from the Senec district, 10 from the Malacky district, 6 from the Dunajská Streda district, 5 from the Pezinok district and 1 commune from the Galanta district) as well as in other 15 communes for the period 2000-2009 (6 communes from the Senec district, 4 from the Malacky district, 4 from the Pezinok district and 1 commune from the Dunajská Streda district) (Fig. 10). Altogether 48 communes were evaluated on the basis of accessible data from field research conducted in 108 communes in the hinterland of Bratislava. The lowest proportion of immigrants from Bratislava could be found in communes on the pe- riphery of the examined region and in satellite cities (10 to 20%). Then, the most frequent values ranged between 30 and 40%. The highest share of immigrants from Bratislava was recorded in attractive suburban areas. In the first 5-year period, three communes had more than 50% of immigrants originating from Bratislava; the number of such communes in the third 5-year period (2000-2004) increased to eight. Of all communes, it was Malinovo that achieved the absolutely highest value (82%) regardless of the 5-year period. Then, of 33 communes, only that of Rovinka retained a share over 50% of immigrants in the entire studied period, while four other attractive communes (Dunajská Lužná, Chorvátsky Grob, Malinovo and Záhorská Ves) retained this share during three 5-year periods. A specific group of suburban communes has been formed by those lying in the hinterlands of satellite cities of Bratislava. This position influences also the . 52 Vladimír Slavík, Róbert Grác, Michal Klobučník, Katarína Kohútová migration behaviour of population - it consists of a significant proportion of immigrants not only from Bratislava, but also from a satellite city. In some cases, the proportion of immigrants from the respective satellite city even modestly exceeds that from Bratislava. Recently, an important particularity of suburbanization in the region of Bratis- lava is cross-border suburbanization. The city of Bratislava directly neighbours with two states - Hungary and Austria - which are members of the European Union as well as the Schengen Area. Therefore, there is no obstacle to extend the suburban region of Bratislava beyond the boundaries with both states, especially under such favourable conditions as were created for suburbanization in recent years. In stud- ies dealing with cross-border forms of suburbanization, we also meet the following concepts. According to Van Houtum and Giellis (2006), cross-border residential mo- bility denotes migration movements taking place in border areas that are divided by the boundaries between two or more states. Then, elastic migration: its elasticity is a consequence of constant interactions between centrifugal forces (i.e. moving to a new country) and centripetal forces (i.e. maintaining functional and/or emotional bonds with a country of origin). Border communes attract immigrants especially by their proximity to Bratis- lava, good accessibility by car and considerably lower prices of real estates. The city of Bratislava has even established public bus lines to the nearest foreign communes of Rajka (25 km) and Wolfstahl (10 km). In Hungary, the suburbanization of Bratislava was first manifested in Rajka and spread in the last years also to other adjacent settlements in the country (Bezenye - 28 km, Dunakiliti, the city of Mosonmagyaróvár - 40 km, etc.). Manifestations of the suburbanization of Bratislava in Austria are currently the most intensive mainly in Wolfstahl, but they are gradually spreading to other settlements (Kitssee - 13 km, the city of Hainburg - 15 km). According to some estimates, 3 to 5 thousand Slovak citizens had moved to the l Hungarian border area by autumn 2008. The Slovaks should constitute as many as /3 of inhabitants in the commune of Rajka at present. Modern immigrants from Slova- kia were coming to Rajka in several waves. Wealthier persons were the first. In 2009 people of the middle class formed the next wave of immigrants. Of all Slovak immigrants, former residents of Petržalka (as the biggest neighbourhood in Slovakia) still prevail in Rajka, but young persons solving their first housing problem for the period of 5-6 years have recently increased (Kremský, Rojko 2008). Then, the Austrian commune of Wolfstahl had a population of 1,050 in 2006 of whom almost 50 were Slovak. They came mostly from Bratislava's neighbourhood of Petržalka and bought there long-desired single-family houses for the money earned for the sale of their prefabri- cated flats. Former residents of Petržalka (still the biggest neighbourhood in Slovakia) now prevail in Rajka, but younger persons buying their first habitation for the period of 5-6 years have recently increased (Ibidem). Then, the Austrian commune of Wolfstahl had a population of 1,050 in 2006 of whom almost 50 were Slovak. Development of Suburbanization of Slovakia... 53

At the beginning of growing interest in 2004, the prices of real estate in the Ra- jka commune in Hungary were lower, on the average, by 35% than those in Bratislava. The given difference has now decreased to 25-30%. According to the mayor of Rajka in 2008, 4 local families from Rajka and 304 families from Slovakia applied for 50 new building plots (Jagodič 2010). This means that a model of the behaviour of residential immigrants - i.e. that the majority of them are not registered for permanent residence - repeats itself in Rajka, too. In 2008, 70 Slovak families bought building plots or houses in this commune. Most of the families came from Bratislava.

Conclusion

The process of suburbanization in the Slovak Republic is taking place mainly in the hinterlands of the biggest cities. Its beginning dates back to the 2nd half of the first decade of the transformation stage (i.e. 1995-1999). At that time, the number of inhabitants living in cities began to stagnate or decline, while the population of communes in urban hinterlands started to grow. Until now, this phenomenon has been examined more in detail in the hinterlands of Bratislava, Prešov, Košice and Nitra. In the first years, residential suburbanization in the region of Bratislava had lower intensity and was of a mosaic character; it manifested itself mostly in attractive areas along major transportation routes. The process was considerably intensified after 2000 and increasingly changed its character from mosaic to full-area. Thanks to favourable conditions, suburbanization has also acquired a cross-border dimension (Hungary, Austria). For the moment, expectations regarding the dynamic growth of satellite cities around Bratislava have not been fulfilled. The greatest dynamics of suburbanization in Slovakia is expected in the coming years. More planned or already accomplished projects focused on the construction of single-family houses. Several attractive areas in the hinterland of Bratislava can confirm the previous statement. After completing some projects the number of inhabitants in suburban communes (such as Chorvátsky Grob, Dunajská Lužná, etc.) is expected to rise significantly. As a consequence, the populations size of these communes would become higher than those of current satellite cities.

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