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3. Analysis and Proposition Recording, evaluating and documenting a range of visual and verbal structures, and identities 054 055 3. Analysis and Proposition

Problem/Idea Research and Design

Gen ...... s e Research methods can be defined as ways of The adoption of a rigorous methodology e r ...... lv a ...... approaching design problems or investigating ...... that addresses the specific requirements of the o t contexts within which to work. This chapter focuses brief and sets a series of boundaries within which S e ...... s ...... on thematic approaches to and ...... to work on a broader investigation can help the ...... the construction of rational and logical systems ...... designer to focus a project and define the exact Research Research ...... of design thinking. By improving their knowledge ...... problem, or series of problems, to address. Breaking Outcome Question

...... of existing visual conventions, together with the ...... the project down into a set of intentions, each with

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effective use of their perceptions and discoveries, the designer, makes the task more achievable and n

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e and to work practically and creatively with the goals of each stage of the process more explicit. F ...... s ...... reference to a wider cultural context. Systematic ...... Each of these areas will be explained in detail ...... research methods encourage designers to develop ...... within this chapter, showing the developmental ...... a personal and critical point of view through the ...... process of a strategic design methodology ...... recording, documenting and evaluating of visual ...... relevant to the context of the brief. Examples ...... and verbal structures, languages and identities in ...... of work illustrating key from both the ...... the wider environment, and then applying those ...... professional and academic fields are included Research ...... findings within their own work...... to guide you through each stage of the process. Methodology

Research a process of observation, discovery and in tandem to inform the overall It instead becomes an outcome in 02 The Design Cycle >> Pure Research The outcomes of pure research are Empirical Research A critical investigation or a search and recording. In the context of approach to a project. its own right, informing a designer’s Design is an iterative process. The investigation of graphic and propositional and offer potential Investigation into a field of study or enquiry to discover new facts and , research provides or design group’s approach, and While much design may be geared visual languages in a propositional visual solutions to as yet undefined that is based on direct observation information or to collect and collate the foundations of the design In recent years, graphic design has generates a way of developing new toward finding an optimum sense, rather than those which questions – in some cases, they of phenomena. old data in order to evaluate and process of problem solving and grown to accommodate a wide ideas and techniques of thinking and solution for a given problem, this have a predetermined commercial define the problem yet to be solved. test hypotheses or design proposals. visual . The research variety of approaches and intentions. making. The act of designing can in process in itself raises further application. Although this form of Deductive Research This would encompass the study of component of a graphic design brief Significantly, for a number of itself then lead to new discoveries questions and contexts through research may not lead to ‘real world’ Applied Research Research which starts from the a subject, employing the analysis of can take a singular form in some designers, research is a central and and insights into the subject under which to develop alternative and practical solutions, this does not Applied research is the investigation position of a general conclusion, and quantitative and/or qualitative data. projects, such as the collation of defining activity in their work. In investigation. innovative outcomes. obviate the need for a thorough of a practical problem, usually with then searches for data to support it. audience feedback to a proposal, these cases, research is more than analysis of the context of the work the underlying intention of creating Research employs methods and or it can operate in a number of an activity used to define effective in relation to potential audience and potential practical solutions. schemes of testing to interpret forms simultaneously, each body of visual solutions to a client’s brief or the stated project intentions. events, facts or information, and is research findings working together design problem. 056 057 3. Analysis and Proposition

Research and Design Field of Study ...... These examples will also help to define each specific ...... but the breaking down of the proposal into separate ...... area of investigation explored and undertaken by the ...... areas of investigation and the definition of a project ...... individual designer concerned...... rationale is a useful preliminary exercise. Any ...... The first task for the designer is to identify ...... design brief can be broken down into three areas for ...... what he or she is attempting to achieve with the ...... specific interrogation: a field of study or context of ...... project – a broad intention or set of intentions. Within ...... the project, a project focus (often described as the ...... commercial practice, this might be described in the ...... research question) and a research methodology...... brief as the message to be communicated, or the ...... The field of study (where will the work be ...... target market that a commercial enterprise wishes to ...... situated, what already exists in relation to the problem ...... engage with. In this instance, the work undertaken ...... being investigated, and what function will the end ...... is a form of applied research. Alternatively, in an ...... result fulfil?) describes the context for the work. This ...... academic context the aim might be broader; such as ...... could be the field of wayfinding and signage within Focus ...... the proposal of a , or an idea for the student ...... , or an audience-specific magazine ...... to visually investigate and respond to. In this case, ...... . First, the designer must research their ...... the work undertaken is a form of pure research. In ...... field of study, to acquire knowledge of what already either...... case, the terminology may vary (see ...... exists in that area, and the range of visual languages page...... 61), and the distinctions between different ...... that can be directly associated with the specific target stages...... of the process may be more or less defined, ...... audience or market for the design.

Practical Problems research problem. The outcomes This then helps to define the project appropriate visual vocabulary for a A practical problem originates in the of applied research are tangible focus of the research and provides a specific theoretical context. real world and is related to pragmatic and offer real world or commercial specific question to be explored. issues, and conditions such as cost, solutions to already existing needs. 03 Design Process Stages >> production and technology. It may The research, investigation and Design requires the adoption of also be influenced by its context, Research Problems development – the body of appropriate methods as a response for example, the need to explore A research problem is typically knowledge and understanding to a defined question or hypothesis. legibility and typographic form in developed in response to a subject gained through research – is then The gradual ‘narrowing down’ Methodology relation to public signage for the or theme that the designer does applied to a practical situation or of the field of operation, and the visually impaired. This is an applied not know or fully understand. A problem. Sometimes this is referred refinement of a specific question, area of research and investigation, research problem may arise from, or to as pure research and its outcomes allows the designer to adopt an in that the solution itself may lie be motivated by, a practical problem are frequently conceptual, for effective working rationale. in constructing or posing a specific to be resolved – a field of study. instance in the development of an 058 059 3. Analysis and Proposition

Research and Design Field of Study Focus Methodology

...... This would normally be done through a visual audit or By building a relationship with a particular client and ...... Context-Definition Context-Experiment ...... survey of the proposed design context...... their audience, the designer can learn which forms of ...... The designer needs to consider both the ...... communication are likely to be more (or less) effective. external position of their intended work (the explicit Field of study research then becomes more intuitive, Context: Field of Study Context: Field of Study ...... aim of the communication itself) and its internal ...... based on prior experience, accumulated knowledge ...... position (the relationship between this particular piece ...... and learning, and the designer can move more quickly ...... of and others within the same ...... toward an appropriate project focus and methodology...... context). This is very important, as contemporary ...... cultures are saturated with advertising, information ...... Choosing a Research Model ...... , site-specific visual identities and ...... Field of study research takes a variety of forms, Focus: Research Question ...... related to entertainment or decoration. If a piece ...... dependent on the intention of the proposed work...... of graphic communication is to be displayed within ...... Market research methods, such as intensive visual ...... this arena, the designer needs to be aware of how it ...... audits of existing material, might be appropriate to ...... relates to competing messages, and how the problems ...... some briefs, whereby the designer seeks out other Focus: Research Question ...... of saturation or information overload might ...... work in the same field and analyses and compares the ...... be resolved in order to communicate effectively. Of ...... visual forms of communication relevant and readable ...... course, the designer will become more familiar with a ...... to a specific audience...... specific field of study through professional experience......

Types of Research researchers interpret the significance Experimental Research 04 Research Project Models >> Context-Definition research is usually beneficial at this Context-Experiment particularly through the definition There are several approaches to of time and place in ways that inform Attempts to account for the influence Design methodologies may involve Initial work in this model usually stage, in the form of direct surveys Initial work in this model usually of what the designer, and the research often undertaken in relation contemporary decision making or put of a factor in a given situation. the broad ‘scoping’ and definition involves a thorough analysis of target audiences and visual involves looser mapping of the client where appropriate, wishes to to a graphic design brief. Some current practices into perspective. Experimental research defines of a problem prior to design action, of a broad range of secondary experimentation to test appropriate territory to be investigated, an achieve. Distinct visual experiments simple definitions by Meredith relationships of cause and effect by or alternatively the evaluation and research, mapping the territory to visual languages. analysis of the range of work which to test appropriate visual Davis include: Analytical Research changing the factor to be studied in refinement of a question through be investigated and determining has already been done within languages and strategies are then Generates quantitative data that a controlled situation. physical interventions within the the range of work that has already The results of these preliminary the same context, and a specified conducted in order to determine Descriptive Research requires statistical assistance to field of study. been done within the field. Once a visual and contextual experiments intention for the work within any a range of potential solutions. It Observes and describes phenomena. extract meaning. Analytical research Meredith Davis solid understanding of the context can then help to define the specific revised context. is important that an overarching requires testing and estimation ‘What’s so Important about has been reached, the focus and project intention, together with strategy is employed by which to Historical Research and is particularly concerned with Research?’ Statements, American research question for the project an appropriate methodology that The focus for the project needs critically evaluate and reflect upon Seeks to reveal meaning in the relationships and correlations in an Center for Design (ACD), Vol.6, No.1 can be determined, and a working allows the testing of a range of to be determined earlier than in the relationship between each events of the past. Historical attempt to predict outcomes. (Fall 1990) methodology defined. Primary potential outcomes. the context-definition model, individual experiment. 060 061 3. Analysis and Proposition Analysis Synthesis

Field of Study Focus Methodology Reflection Research and Design

Claim Evidence Test Exhibition ...... This could mean a review of comparative products ...... materials available – and, importantly, affordable – to ...... or visual systems, working with a client to establish ...... them, and the implications of those decisions upon ...... their position in the marketplace or their aspirations ...... the design itself. If the budget can only cover the ...... to communicate with a particular audience. In most ...... cost of two-colour , for instance, then those ...... cases, sophisticated visual languages already exist ...... restrictions need to be put in place in advance and ...... that attempt to engage those audiences, and the ...... then turned to the designer’s advantage in seeking Craft Tools Process Product ...... designer should become familiar with their vocabulary, ...... innovative responses to the range of techniques and ...... even if his or her intention is to create a new form of ...... materials available...... communication that sets itself in opposition to that ...... which already exists (i.e. what might be called an ...... The Project Focus ...... innovative or creative solution)...... Once the field of study has been defined and broadly Cost implications are also important to analysed, the next stage in the design process is to ...... Intention Theory Context Message ...... consider at this stage of the project. The costs of ...... specify a project focus (what will the specific context ...... materials, print reproduction or other media (web ...... and function of the work be within the wider field ...... design, digital storage and so on.), labour and ...... of study already defined?) and research question (a ...... overheads all need to be taken into account against ...... refinement or redefinition of the original intention, or ...... the intended budget for the project. The designer ...... a hypothesis or proposition to test). and client need to have a strong idea of the range of ...... Question Discourse Audience Thesis

Topography Typology 05 Process Terminology >> A detailed description of spatial The study and interpretation of There are many ways to describe configuration. The word could be types – for instance, a person, thing the design process from inception employed to describe a process of or event that serves as an to solution, dependent on the mapping, documenting or recording, or is symbolic or characteristic of wider cultural or professional often with particular reference to something. The phrase also relates context of the work. Idea Experiment Production Artefact what is occurring below the surface. to the organization of types and Useful in graphic design research to their classification for the purposes describe an underlying approach to a of analysis. project or a working method or process.

Problem Investigation Comparison Solution 062 063 3. Analysis and Proposition

Research and Design

...... Once the designer has become familiar with the ...... models for the designer to use in order to ascertain the intentions,...... and to work through their experiments in ...... (how will the designer research and develop the ...... broader intentions of the brief, a specific project ...... context of their work and define a particular research a...... systematic way. The context experiment model will ...... project in response to the context and intention?). A ...... research question is needed to demarcate the exact ...... question are set out diagrammatically on page 59. inevitably...... lead to a number of ‘failed’ experimental ...... research methodology is simply a set of self-imposed ...... intentions of the work to be undertaken. At this stage, ...... The first research model, which we will outcomes,...... as each small ‘test’ is an attempt to gain ...... rules by which the designer will approach or engage ...... the designer should be able to describe the message ...... term the ‘context-definition’ model, emphasizes the feedback...... in the definition of the project focus. In fact, ...... with a project or brief. Once the intention of the ...... that is to be communicated to a specific audience, or ...... investigation of a field of study. In this model, the if...... an experimental piece of visual communication is ...... work has been clearly stated, together with a detailed ...... within a specific context, and the aims and objectives ...... designer attempts to become more expert within the unsuccessful...... when tested with a target audience or ...... mapping of the field of study and the definition of a ...... of that communication. For instance, to persuade the ...... field of the brief and the project focus is defined in in...... a specific context, then this should still be seen as ...... focus and research question, the designer needs to ...... receivers of the message to act in a particular way ...... response to an identifiable need within that area. a...... positive exercise in gathering information on the ...... outline exactly how he or she intends to go about ...... (e.g. buy this product, go to this event, turn left at the ...... The second model, termed ‘context-experiment’, still project...... focus and identifying directions with less ...... developing the project and testing ideas in order to ...... next junction), or to clearly communicate a particular ...... requires the designer to undertake a broad preliminary potential...... for further development. By determining ...... create an effective solution to the brief – a plan of ...... emotion or identify with a subcultural group...... analysis of the field of study, but the practical work what...... does not work, as well as what potentially does, ...... action...... The focus and specific research question may ...... on the brief itself begins earlier in the process. Usually the...... designer is in a far better position to arrive at a ...... The intention here is to develop systematic ...... change during the lifespan of a project, becoming ...... this is done through a series of tests or experiments, more...... successful resolution...... ways of working that lead progressively to a more ...... broader and then being redefined in an ongoing ...... which can be evaluated within the field of study, ...... successful outcome, based on experiments and visual ...... process of critical reflection and reappraisal. There are ...... leading to a redefinition of the research question A...... Plan of Action ...... testing, materials investigation and audience feedback, ...... a number of ways in which the narrowing down and ...... dependent on the results gathered. It is important here Once...... the problem has been identified, the next step ...... and the goal is to produce a piece of graphic design ...... refining of a project focus might take place. Two useful ...... for the designer to not lose sight of the original project concerns...... the choice of appropriate research methods ...... which is effective, useful or engaging.

Analysis be described as occupying the arena of background material and the artefact. Again, these terms vary Analytical appropriate visual and the by some form of material evidence. way of presenting the information. The stages of a graphic design of pure research, the analytical stage establishment of the key themes and depending on the background of Adjective relating to analysis requirements of the client. Within graphic design, this means project that involve the collection of the project might be described as intentions of the brief. the project and the position of the (n.) – the division of a physical or the definition and testing of a range Different graphic design projects and collation of data and the the broad investigation of a field of designer, but ‘synthesis’ in each case abstract whole into its constituent Propositional of alternative potential solutions. may involve each of these areas analysis or interrogation of existing study and the further specification Synthesis implies the use of knowledge gained parts in order to examine their Adjective relating to proposition of research to a greater or lesser properties and conventions therein. of a project focus. Once a clear context and content through research and the testing interrelationships. (n.) – a proposal for consideration, Design involves both aspects of extent. The range and application There are many ways to describe of the design brief have been of alternative production methods The New Collins Dictionary and plan, method or suggestion. research. Designers need to be of appropriate research methods is this aspect of a design project, In models of applied research, established, the designer is able in the planning and formation Thesaurus – HarperCollins (1992) The New Collins Dictionary and aware of the context within which dependent on the brief or research dependent on the specific area of these terms could be supplanted to bring together secondary and of creative and inventive design Thesaurus – HarperCollins (1992) their work will be read, and the question, the specific qualities of the design profession within which with ‘problem’ and ‘investigation’ contextual research findings with a resolutions. As a design method, this involves possibilities offered by audience the message to be communicated, the work is being undertaken. or ‘idea’ and ‘experiment’ – in range of experimental and practical the designer becoming more This usually takes the form of a familiarity, materials and budget project budget and timescale, and For instance, within an academic each case, this stage of the methods of production in order familiar with the specific message or hypothesis or what might be termed constraints. The solution also needs the relationship between client, environment, where a project might project involves the gathering to develop the final outcome or intention of the brief, the audience, a qualified assumption, supported to be innovative – offering a new designer and audience.

064 065 3. Analysis and Proposition

ClaimQualificationEvidence

06 The Design Cycle >> successful argument, it is important be supported by relevant and valid when presenting the work to the Central to any design research to be explicit in two key factors; evidence. This evidence should be client, give greater credence to the ‘Pure’ information exists for the designer only in abstraction. As soon as he activity is the relationship between the claim that is being made by introduced in stages; in some cases visual vocabulary adopted, and begins to give it concrete shape, to bring it within the range of experience, the viability of the research the person putting forward the it should be treated as if it were a lead to a more thoroughly tested question and the methodology argument, and the evidence that sub-claim and may itself need to be and therefore, probably, more the process of rhetorical infiltration begins. employed in the exploration of the he or she provides to support their supported by further evidence. successful outcome. subject under examination. claim (the qualification of the validity of the argument). The qualification of the design It is useful to consider this notion proposal – the evidence to support as if one was constructing an The assertion – the claim that the the claim – helps to fulfil a number argument. The rhetorical aspect of designer is making – should be of requirements in a successful graphic design is a central defining both substantive and contestable. design. It can help substantiate Gui Bonsiepe feature of the discipline. To create a The contention proposed should the choices made by the designer Visual/Verbal Rhetoric – Ulm 14/15/16 (1965)