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The Typographic Contribution to Language: 1987 Towards a Model of Typographic Genres and Their Underlying Structures

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The Typographic Contribution to Language: 1987 Towards a Model of Typographic Genres and Their Underlying Structures The typographic contribution to language: 1987 towards a model of typographic genres and their underlying structures Robert Waller A note about this edition After completing my PhD thesis in 1987, I left the research career that had led up to it, and went into practice as an information designer, although some ideas from the thesis were published (Waller 1990, 1999). For the next twenty years, my main focus was commercial survival, and I gave it little thought until Judy Delin and John Bateman got in touch. Their AHRC-funded GeM project looked at the role of layout in written text, and took a genre-based approach. I was delighted when they used my model as a starting point for their own richer and more robust version (Allen, Bateman and Delin 1999, Delin, Bateman and Allen 2002). At their suggestion I created a digital version, by converting the original WriteNow file into an early version of Word, and upwards through newer Word versions. The GeM project made this available online, and I have also placed it on my own website in recent years. However, many illustrations were missing, and others were scanned from photocopies. Recently I imported the Word file into InDesign, and I located and re-scanned most of the images. What you have here is the original text, although pages numbers have inevitably changed, and I have also corrected a number of typos. One or two exemplar documents are not the originals but make the same points. I am mindful that this thesis is over twenty-five years old and was written before the internet, and in the very early days of electronic documents and hypertext. And since 1987 much has been published on genre theory by scholars such as John Swales, Douglas Biber and Vijay Bhatia. I am also very aware of a huge deficiency in the thesis, because at the time of writing it I had not encountered Christopher Alexander’s powerful concept of pattern language (Alexander, Ishikawa & Silverstein 1977). I am certain Thesis submitted for the degree of that this would have featured significantly in my discussion of how genre Doctor of Philosophy, Department of Typography & Graphic rules are articulated, and how functional imperatives evolve into genre Communication, August 1987. conventions (Waller, Delin & Thomas 2012). Contact information If you are interested in studying the issues raised in this thesis, I suggest [email protected] you start with John Bateman’s (2008) excellent survey of the field. www.simplificationcentre.org.uk www.robwaller.org RW January 2014. Contents Abstract 4 Acknowledgements 5 Introduction 6 1 Typography and language: a selective literature review 11 Typographers on typography 11 Applied psychologists and typographic research 25 The ‘language element’ in graphic communication 37 Some linguists who have noticed graphic aspects of language 44 Conclusion 55 2 Theoretical knowledge in the world of practice 57 The myth of the two cultures 57 Pure and applied research 60 Paradigms 64 Guidelines and slogans 67 Explicit and tacit knowledge 70 Holistic thinking 72 The specialization of scholarship 73 3 Arbitrariness and linearity: de Saussure’s ‘basic principles’ 76 The criteria for languageness: arbitrary, segmented, systemic and linear 76 Language or paralanguage? 77 Arbitrariness 80 Levels of analysis: letters, words, paragraphs 83 The segmentation problem 86 The problem of linearity 96 4 Writer-syntagm and reader-syntagm 105 Methods of configuration: linear vs non-linear 105 Reading strategy: receptive vs self-organized 108 Eye movements: foveal vs peripheral 112 Reading comprehension: bottom-up vs top-down 113 Oral vs silent reading 115 Punctuation theory: dramatic vs grammatical 117 Resolving the dichotomy 125 Robert Waller • The typographic contribution to language • PhD Thesis 1987 2 5 Communication models 128 Coding and decoding 131 Conversational models 134 A genre model of typographic communication 139 Interaction of the structures 143 Genre and textuality 148 6 Topic structure 152 Visual and spatial metaphor 154 Topic diagrams as writing plans 168 7 Artefact structure 173 Levels of graphic segmentation 174 The Procrustean page 182 Grid systems 186 Editorial intervention and artefact structure 191 Medium and message 194 8 Access structure 200 Designing for different purposes 200 Numbering systems 202 Page layout as access structure 205 Co-operative and uncooperative media 208 Grice’s Co-operative Principle 209 Van Dijk’s relevance cues 211 Turn-taking 214 Context 219 9 Genre structure 223 Genres in literature 223 Text types 225 Genres as ordinary-language categories 227 Genre markers and genre rules 229 Genre rules and error detection 234 Genre and design method 236 Conclusion 239 References 242 Robert Waller • The typographic contribution to language • PhD Thesis 1987 3 Abstract This thesis presents a model that accounts for variations in typographic form in terms of four underlying sources of structure. The first three relate to the three parts of the writer-text-reader relationship: topic structure, representing the expressive intentions of the writer; artefact structure, resulting from the physical constraints of the medium; and access structure, anticipating the needs of the self-organized reader. Few texts exhibit such structures in pure form. Instead, they are evidenced in typographic genres – ordinary language categories such as ‘leaflet’, ‘magazine’, ‘manual’, and so on – which may be defined in terms of their normal (or historical) combination of topic, access and artefact structure. The model attempts to articulate the tacit knowledge of expert practitioners, and to relate it to current multi-disciplinary approaches to discourse. Aspects of typography are tested against a range of ‘design features’ of language (eg, arbitrariness, segmentation and linearity). A dichotomy emerges between a linear model of written language in which a relatively discreet typography ‘scores’ or notates the reading process for compliant readers, and a diagrammatic typography in which some concept relations are mapped more or less directly on the page for access by self-directed readers. Typographically complex pages are seen as hybrid forms in which control over the syntagm (used here to mean the temporal sequence of linguistic events encountered by the reader) switches between the reader (in the case of more diagrammatic forms) and the writer (in the case of conventional prose). Typography is thus most easily accounted for in terms of reader-writer relations, with an added complication imposed by the physical nature of the text as artefact: line, column and page boundaries are mostly arbitrary in linear texts but often meaningful in diagrammatic ones. Robert Waller • The typographic contribution to language • PhD Thesis 1987 4 Acknowledgements Finishing a thesis is a cause for personal celebration, but until one has achieved a critical distance from one’s own work it is hard to know how much it will please other people to be associated with it through an acknowledgement. I am happily not in the position of one writer, who would have liked to acknowledge his friends but no one helped him, 1 nor, at the other extreme, of another whose debt to a friend was so great that ‘he alone is to be blamed for any shortcomings this book may have’.2 I owe an enormous debt to my supervisor Michael Twyman, to the late Ernest Hoch, also my supervisor at the time I started work on this project, and to colleagues at the Open University, especially Michael Macdonald-Ross, Peter Whalley, and the late Brian Lewis. I have knowingly and unknowingly absorbed an untold amount of information and insight from these colleagues over many years. One never knows whether ideas that seem original are actually half-remembered from conversations with others. I would also like to thank David Hawkridge, Director of the Institute of Educational Technology, for giving me the time and encouragement to finish. Others whose encouragement and comments I have greatly valued include Pat Costigan-Eaves, Paul Stiff, Jane Wolfson, David Wolfson and Jenny Waller, who had to put up with the traditional eccentricities and bouts of despair of the thesis-writer. RW August 1987 1 The preface to Jan V White’s Graphic idea notebook (1980) reads ‘It is customary to thank the people who have been helpful in the process of book-making, How I wish I could have palmed off some of the labors onto someone else! Alas…I was stuck with doing it all.’ 2 Talbot Taylor, Linguistic theory and structural stylistics, Pergamon Press, Oxford 1981. Robert Waller • The typographic contribution to language • PhD Thesis 1987 5 Introduction A reasonable common-sense definition of typography with which to start might be ‘the visual attributes of written, and especially printed, language’. Like all appeals to commonsense, mine embodies certain assumptions, preoccupations and interests that will bias the way this enquiry develops. For one thing, letterforms and layouts are not of interest to this study in a formal sense but only in so far as they exhibit that quality of difference, which is at the heart of language. Although at a certain level of analysis a spoken sentence may be said to be the same as its written equivalent, it is never exactly the same in substance or effect. It has been diminished in some respect, but it has also been enhanced: writing has only a crude and unreliable version of vocal pitch, gesture and tone, but it can contribute spatial organization and graphic emphasis. Through the technology used to write, whether a biro or a computer display, written language gives its own particular clues about its origin. It is typography that has both diminished and enhanced the subtlety of the message. There are other visual attributes of written language that have no spoken equivalent: a table, for example, contains the potential for a large number of interactions between row and column headings.
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