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Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Retrospective Theses and Dissertations Dissertations

1972 Graphic signage as a means of identifying public areas and services Russell Howard Anderson Iowa State University

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Recommended Citation Anderson, Russell Howard, "Graphic signage as a means of identifying public areas and services" (1972). Retrospective Theses and Dissertations. 16661. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/16661

This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Retrospective Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more , please contact [email protected]. Graphic signage as a means of identifying

public areas and services

by

Russell Howard Anderson

A Thesis Submitted to the

Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of

The Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department: Applied Art Major: Applied Art (Advertising Design)

Signatures have been redacted for privacy

Iowa State University Ames, Iowa

1972 ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II. LITERATURE REVIEW 2

A. History of 2

B. Graphic Identification 5

C. International Graphic Signage 7 1. Road signs 7 2. Olympic signs 11 3. Park signs 14 4. The use of coding for graphic signs at Expo '67 14 5. International Council for Breaking the Barrier 15

III. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROBLEM 17

A. Statement of the Problem 17 B. Objectives 17

C. Definition of Terms 18

IV. PROCEDURE 19

A. Athletic Events, Parks, Coliseums 19

B. Factor of Simplified Realism 19

C. Structural Objectives 20

V. APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 22

VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY 36

VII. BIBLIOGRAPHY 38

VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 41 iii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Descriptive characteristics of individual signs iv

LIST OF PLATES

Page

Plate I. of signs created for athletic activities 28

Plate II. Photographs of signs created for park services 30

Plate III. Photographs of signs created for coliseum services 32 v

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1. Signs introduced at Second International Congress of Automobile Clubs of , 1926 10

Figure 2. Road signs tested by Mass Observation Limited of London, 1968 10

Figure 3. Pedestrian signs tested by Mass Observation Limited of London, 1968 10

Figure 4. Olympic signs depicting a track performer 13

Figure 5. Archery 28

Figure 6. Basketball 28

Figure 7. Billiards 29

Figure 8. Football 29

Figure 9. Golf 29

Figure 10. Tennis 29

Figure 11. Cooking area 30

Figure 12. Litter 30

Figure 13. Men's rest room 30

Figure 14. Parking 31

Figure 15. 31

Figure 16. Water 31

Figure 17. Women's rest room 31

Figure 18. 32

Figure 19. Cloakrooms 32

Figure 20. Elevator 33

Figure 21. Fire extinguisher 33

Figure 22. First aid 33 vi

Page

Figure 23. Locker room 33

Figure 24. Lounge 34

Figure 25. Refreshments 34

Figure 26. Security 34

Figure 27. Smoking area 34

Figure 28. Stairway 35

Figure 29. Telephone 35

Figure 30. Ticket office 35

Figure 31. Water fountain 35 1

I. INTRODUCTION

The word communication comes from the Latin, word "communis" which means common. Communication is therefore the act of two or more people

sharing a common or understanding through a mutually understood system of words or . Communication involves sending a message through

speaking, , , or acting and receiving a message through lis­

tening, , or observing. The symbols used to transmit the message may be words, , actions, , or pictures.

A written language is an efficient method for communicating within a . However, the fact that there are many different languages is a barrier to international or cross cultural communication. A system of graphic symbols can provide a more effective communication technique between individuals in the same culture as well as in different .

The history of graphic communication may be traced from the early hieroglyphics used by Egyptians through the development of the printed· word, engraving, and photography to the technological accomplishments of

the twentieth century: radio, motion pictures, and televisi9n. The basic

function of graphic communication is the same as that of all human communi­ cation: the desire of the sender to influence the receiver-.

The objective of this study is to develop a series of graphic symbols which might be effectively used for the communication of information or concerning selected activities and services in areas of public use. II. LITERATURE REVIEW

A. History of Communication

The early languages of civilizations were developed in a similar

sequence: Babylonians and Assyrians developed cuniform writing, Egyptians

-used hierog1ypKics, the characters of the Chinese language began by using

symbols to represent natural forms. Therefore to communicate the idea of

an object, the people of these cultures drew a picture or a of the

object. This use of a picture or a graphic symbol to express an idea is

called ideography. The earliest known ideo~rams are a group of Syrian 1 cylinder seals which are displayed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The

cylinders date from the second millennium B.C.

A second method for communicating ideas is the oral, or auditory,

channel called syllabication. From the Stone Age through the Greek period

this method of communication predominated for the exchapging of ideas. The youth of these successive cultures learned by listening, watching, and imi-

tating. In fact, Eric Haver1ock, when studying this method of self-educa-

tion practiced by the Greeks before writing reached their culture, termed 2 the oral communication process "the tribal encyclopedia."

Logography is the third method for communicating an idea. It involves

the use of multiple symbols to express words in written form. The charac-

ters which we use today in evolved from the earliest forms of

picture writing or ideographics. An example of logography is the character

1 Edward A. Hamilton, Graphic Design !2£ ~ Computer Age (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1970), p. 9. 2 Ibid., p. 10. 3

"A": which may be traced to the Phoenician "alpha" "ox" and resembling an ox's head. 3

The Phoenicians are credited as the source of our modern for 4 it was they who simplified the cumbersome hieroglyphics of earlier times.

Their contribution, combined with the invention of in China in

105 A.D. and the making of ink in China around 220 A.D., provided the basic tools for recording knowledge and communicating efficiently by means of logography. One message could be recorded by hand lettering and communi- cated to a much larger group of people than ever before.

In Europe, the process of hand lettering was carried out for several centuries until 1448 when Johann Gutenberg of Mainz, Germany, invented by . His process met the need of that time for print­ ing a of copies quickly and easily.//'Among the features of his process were:

1. a system of movable type so that characters could be arranged in any order

2. a type that could be reused

3. a method for holding the type in place for printing 4. a system for making type impressions on paper 5. an ink which could be transferred from type to paper leaving a readable impression. 5

3Rudolf Modley, ~ Challenge £i Symbology, A Report of the Fourth Annual Communications Conference of the Art Directors Club of New York. Prepared and distributed by the Fund for the Advancement of established by the Ford Foundation, 1965, p. 2- 4Russell N. Baird and Arthur T. Turnbull, ~ 2! Communica­ ~ (Chicago: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1966), p. 5.

5!Jl!i., p. 7. 4

The printed page was a revolutionary form of communication during the last half of the 15th century and throughout the 16th century. People became curious about the world and its history and the written word helped to satiate their curiosity. These times were interestingly described by

Edward Hamilton in his observation that, "Literacy was at the same time both the cause and effect of . tt6

Although the invention of the Gutenburg press provided potential for communication, printing was limited to the reproduction of books until 1621 when the first newspapers appeared in Amsterdam. Because the reproduction of pictures was still accomplished by hand-engraving, con- tinued to be limited to books.

The of the mid-eighteenth century augmented the technological advances made in printing by the development in the 1820's~of cylinder presses by Dani1e Treadwell and Issac Adams. During this same time, -in 1826, another inventor, Joseph Weiplein, developed photography as a medium, thus adding another facet to communication in Europe. The basic of photography, coupled with engraving skills, enabled William

Talbot to produce the first photo-engraving in 1852. Newspapers could then be illustrated both with graphics and real photographs, uniting visual and verbal communication for the first time.

Today, Rudolf Mod1ey has described the visual and verbal communication channels as being in a state of competition. He explains his idea by citing the conflict caused when verbal communication is combined with visual aids and is combined with verbal aids. I1lus-

6Hami1ton, --loco cit., p. 11. 5 trating newspapers was the, first combination of verbal communication with 7 visual aids applied to mass communication. Whereas in the early twentieth century, the first visual communication combined with verbal aids appeared in a new medium, the motion picture. G. W. Griffith combined this powerful visual communication with a few short, well-spaced verbal captions to pro- duce the first silent, sub-titled film in 1915 called "The Birth of a

Nation. US Films increased in their complexity as sound was added and three dimensional illusions were developed. At the same time, radio advanced as a verbal communication media while progressed in the field of visual and verbal communication.

B. Graphic Identification

Graphic communication is effective in providing a message for several different audiences if the audience is aware of the experience being illus- trated. Picture identification more clearly and vividly represents an elephant to an Eskimo or a polar bear to an African than does the descrip- tive word. A study of communications done in South America with a low- literacy audience in 1950 revealed the pictorial material used was of no educational value unless illustrations were based on some past experience 9 of the audience.

More effective communication is accomplished if the number of objects' and actions to be perceived are kept at a minimum. All objects and actions

7Hamilton, l2£. £!i., p. 12. SHamilton, loco £!!., p. 12.

9Arthur Krampen, "Signs and Symbols in Graphic Communication," Design Quarterly, LXII (1965), p. 16. 6 should be categorically true. Realistic color can become an attention- getter. Captions may be used to extend the meaning of the pictures rather than explain them. Simplicity and realism are two major factors in effec- tive pictorial communication. Graphics, therefore, should emphasize bold, clear design and realistic silhouettes.

The communicating with a sophisticated urban audience must include both persuasive manipulations and aesthetic enjoyment of his symbols. One of the most interesting, and recent, applications of this use of symbols was the design for a current events project published by Time- 10 Life Books. The examples range from flash bulbs to tropical typhoons.

The Industrial Revolution was the beginning of cross cultural communi- cation which has increased rapidly to the point that, today, business and pleasure are only as far away as the nearest airplane. The various inter- national gatherings such as World's Fair and Olympic Games as well as the

United Nations pose special communication problems. An international pic- ture vocabulary, International System of Typographic Picture Education

(ISOTYPE), was designed by G. Arntz and E. Bernath in Austria in the early

1900's. ISOTYPE was designed to make minimum use of verbal ·symbols. The most important message of the pictorial symbol should be obvious at the first glance with other details or reinforcement of the message communi- cated from repeated cursory views. Some limited educational presentations 11 have used the ISOTYPE vocabulary.

10H am101 ton, -2£.1 £11.,0 p. 22 . 11 Krampen, loco £!!., p. 22. 7

C. International Graphic Signage

As today's society becomes more globally oriented, people are con- fronted with problems when needing to identify services or participate in activities on an international level. Graphic signs may be viewed as a way of reducing complicated foreign messages to easily identifiable essentials.

Their worldwide use is being incorporated as an integral part of road sys- terns, World Fairs, Olympic Games, and more recently the

National Park Service.

The International Council of Graphic Design Associations (ICOGRADA), which has done much of the pioneering work in presenting visual solutions to these worldwide co~unication problems, developed the following guide lines for signs:

1. Be'unambiguous

2. Mean the same thing for all people to whom it is addressed

3. Be read accurately and quickly

4. Be acted upon. 12

1. ~ signs

The invention of the automobile was a technological development which has caused widespread international communication problems. For when the old network of roads became obsolete, new highway signs had to be developed to communicate dangers, regulations, directions, and highway services.

At an International Congress held in Paris in 1909, the Automobile

Clubs of Europe adopted the first four road signs to identify typical road

12 Colin Clipson, "The Uses and Abuses of Signs," Print, XXIII (Novem­ ber/December, 1969), p. 36. 8

13 dangers. The success of these early signs was limited because they were installed by private organizations who cluttered the signs with commercial advertisements of the sponsors. Soon signs with a written message which could only communicate with people familiar with the national language were in abundance along all roadways. At the Second International Congress held in Paris in 1926, two new pictorial road signs, one for curves (Figure la) and the other for uneven pavement (Figure lb), were introduced. In addi- 14 tion, the triangular shape was adopted as a general danger sign.

These early conferences were only concerned with highway sIgn develop- mente However, at the same time, the Traffic Committee of the League of

Nations was developing a set of regulatory signs for city traffic. By

1~3l, a total of 26 international road signs had been adopted to identify the regulations and dangers of both highway and city traffic. The number of such signs increased to 50 in 1949 when the United Nations by necessity adopted a new "Protocol of road signs. 1I15 Three independent sets of road signage were in use by the end of World War II: a European set, an Ameri- can set, and an African set. In order to adopt a worldwide system of road signs, the committee appointed by the United Nations to attend to the prob- lern tested the three existing sets in various countries during 1950 and

1951. Based on the results of this extensive study, a set of international road signs was proposed in 1952. The study suggested that the following should be incorporated into the development of all road signs:

13 Krampen, l2£. .£.!.£.. , p. 19. 14 Kramp en , l2£. .£.!.£.. , p. 19. 15 Krampen, l2£. .£.ll.. , p. 20. 9

1. The color combination of a black symbol on a yellow background was

found to give superior visibility.

2. Angular shapes were found to be more visible than round shapes and,

therefore, a diamond shape was preferred.

3. The use of pictorial symbols without verbal messages.

The international road sign system has been well accepted by people in 16 the field of design. Nevertheless, signs that are confusing to the trav- e1er or are not easily identified do not fulfill their objective even if they are well designed. For example, in 1968, a sample of 2,000 motorists and pedestrians were questioned by Mass Observation Limited of London about the message communicated by a group of the international road signs. The study indicated that only 37 percent of the drivers could identify the mes- sage "All motor vehicles prohibitedtt (Figure 2a) and only 65 percent could identify "No overtaking" (Figure 2b). The pedestrian population of the study indicated only 50 percent could identify the sign ttCrossroads"

(Figure 3a) and 61 percent knew the sign for "Pedes trial Crossing Ahead"

(Figure 3b).17

A study in 1969 by Lewis and Cook reported the difference in interpre- tation of the message in the sign "Falling Rocks." In a survey of 50 motorists, 23 thought the sign was a warning for falling rocks and 27 thought it was a warning for fallen rocks. The group of 23 said they would

l6 O 1 . Cl1pson, oc.~., p. 37 .

l7Cl1pson,· -2£. 1 £li., . p. 37 . 10

a. b.

Figure 1. Signs introduced at Second International Congress of Automobile Clubs of Europe, 1926

a. Curve

b. Uneven pavement

a.

Figure 2. Road signs tested by Mass Observation Limited of London, 1968

a. All motor vehicles prohibi-ted

b. No overtaking

a. b.

Figure 3. Pedestrian signs tested by Mass Observation Limited of London, 1968

a. Crossroads

b. Pedes trial crossing ahead 11 accelerate if they saw the sign while the group of 27 said they would slow 18 down.

The success of any sign system cannot be known until the signs are put

into use. Although some of the existing 50 road signs are confusing, they continue to be recognized as the most currently effective system for com- municating, on an international basis, road conditions. For imagine how

confusing the verbal sign "Men Working" would be to a driver unfamiliar with the language. A graphic description of a figure with a shovel would be more universally understood.

2. Olympic signs

International gatherings such as the Olympic Games attract a large number of people from various language groups. A large percentage of such

an audience may be unfamiliar with the language of the host country, there­ l9 fore, graphic symbols are appropriate to identify activities and services.

The first use of graphic identification signs for the Olympic Games occurred in 1964 in Tokyo. The sports signs for this program represented

the significant actions of athletes in each event. In most cases, a styl-

ized form of the entire human figure was shown (Figure 4a). Some designers have criticized this set of signs as being over-stylized, not appealing to

the common experience of all visitors, and including either too much or too' 20 little detai1.

l8Cll.pson," .!2£. .£.!!.. , p. 39 . 19 Krampen, lac. £ll.. , p. 23. 20 Krampen, loco .£!!. , p. 23. 12

For the 1968 Mexico Olympics, Lance Wyman used the typical athletic equipment to represent each event (Figure 4b). For the events that required no equipment, such as swimming and wrestling, the human figure in action was used. In conjunction with Wyman's athletic signs, Peter Murdock designed a group of signs to identify such services as , rest rooms, wastebaskets, and mailboxes. Wyman and Murdock hoped to eliminate the language barrier by using pure graphic elements. An example is a sil- houette walking through a door to represent an entrance, a row of seated silhouettes to represent a row in an auditorium, and a single seated sil- 21 houette to identify a specific seat and number.

The 1972 Olympic Games in Munich will introduce a third, and new, set of athletic signs, as well as directional signs for traffic in and around

Munich and identification signs for objects, buildings, and services. The athletic signs by Ot1 Aicher, a German designer, are based on the Tokyo

Olympic signs. Even though the Tokyo signs were designed unsystematically, there will be a constancy to the elements used for the Munich signs: this 22 could be described as a "body alphabet." This may be understood by visu- a1izing a grid and four possible directions on it (Figure 4c): horizontal, vertical, and two diagonals. The silhouette of a stylized human form engaging in the specified athletic event to be communicated to the viewer will conform to the grid directions (Figure 4d). Whenever sports equipment

21 Arthur Solin, "Graphics for the XIX Olympiad," Print, XVII (May/June, 1968), p. 28.

22Jacob Heiner and Masaru Katzumie, "Sign Systems for International Events,tt Print, XXIII (November/December, 1969), p. 40. 13

a b.

c. d.

Figure 4. Olympic signs depicting a track performer

a. Tokyo sign 1964

b. Mexico slgn - 1968

c. Munich grid - 1972

d. Munich sign - 1972 Grid would not be included in the sign 14

is appropriate and involved, it will be included as part of the stylized

figure.

3. ~ signs

The United States National Park Service has developed a series of graphic signs which were first introduced on a national level in 1971.

This system of signage was installed on an experimental basis in four national par~s: Herbert Hoover National Historic Site in Iowa, Yosemite

National Park in , Minute Man National Historic Park in Connecti-

cut, and Colonial National Historic Park in Virginia.

The signs were developed by U.S. designers, after consultation with

the United Nations connnunication experts, so that the signs could be inter- nationally understood. A total of 77 pictorial signs were selected by the

Park Service from the designs submitted.

The message of each sign is connnunicated through a white symbol on a background of brown, gray-blue, or green. The background color for a sign

is determined by its blend or contrast with the natural of an area.

The signs tell the visitor where activities and sports are allowed or

prohibited. For instance, the silhouette of a tent identifies camping

areas. A red diagonal slash across this sign means camping is prohibited.

4. ~ ~ of color coding i2!. graphic signs !! Expo t 67

A strong emphasis on color coding was the basis for a signage system 23 designed by Paul Arthur for the 1967 World Exhibition in Montreal. Four

23 Paul Arthur, "An Account of the Development and Execution of On-Site Graphics for Expo," Print, XXI (March/April, 1967), p. 20. 15 colors--yellow, orange, violet, and green--were used to color code the four emplacement areas of Expo. The significance of the color code was empha- sized to the spectators by its repetition at entrances, parking lots, and in guide books. In addition to these four colors, red was used to identify signs and equipment for fire protection and blue was used as the key to information and service equipment such as washrooms, trains, and boats.

5. International Council £2£ Breaking ~ Language Barrier

The International Council for Breaking the Language Barrier (ICBLB) was founded in New York in 1962 for the promotion of pictorial signs as an international language. This organization gathered information about sym- boIs which were in use at that time for science, industry, and traffic con- trol.

In 1965, the International Council for Breaking the Language Barrier conducted a worldwide survey to establish a list of expressions in need of graphic representation. Among these were:

Toilet Gasoline station Gate-Platform Men Hotel Tickets Women Restaurant Baggage-Check Exit Pharmacy Baggage-Claim Emergency exit Wet paint Passport control Entrance Airport Customs Elevator Seaport Fasten seat belt Information Railway station Telephone First aid Bus Post Police Taxi Telegram 24 Danger Currency exchange Travel agent Don't smoke Arrival Don't enter Departure

24Soichi Kato, "Toward an International Symbol Language,tI Print, XXI (March/April, 1967), p. 42. 16

Designers throughout the world submitted graphic symbols which in their estimation communicated these needed expressions.

In addition to the above mentioned pictorial identification signage for roads, Olympics, National Parks, World Fairs, and the International

Council for Breaking the Language Barrier, pictorial symbols have also been used recently by the International Air Transportation Association, the Air

Transportation Association of America, and the International Union of Rai1- ways in their attempt to develop graphic signage systems.

The international sign systems reviewed here have followed a five- stage rhythm expressed by Martin Krampen, University of Waterloo, as fol- lows:

1. Environmental problems arise, produced by technological or other developments.

2. Signs and symbols are created, sometimes anonymously and ten­ tatively, to communicate about these problems.

3. These signs or symbols are modified or corrected by collec­ tive experience.

4. Modified versions are finally conventionalized.

5. As new problems appear the sign code is further amplified, modified, corrected, and so on. 25

25 Krampen, lac. £!!., p. 19. 17

III. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROBLEM

A. Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this study is to produce a series of representative graphic symbols which substitute for descriptive words and phrases in iden­ tifying activities and services involving cross cultural and international participation. The use of symbols surmounts the identification problems caused by unfamiliar languages and makes it possible for everyone to iden­ tify the activity or service.

This study is based upon signage developed through earlier by national and international organizations and agencies to encourage partici­ pation in worldwide travel and events. The graphic signs produced for these earlier studies used stylized figures and objects. When figures were used, their features were stylized, such as a circle to represent the head with other geometric elements to represent the body. Many objects used to identify an area or service were presented as silhouettes in stylized • shapes.

Therefore, implications from these early studies serve as catalysts for the development of a series of signs based on figures and objects in realistic silhouetted form which rely on the basic factors of simplified realism.

B. Objectives

1. To review the literature concerning the use of graphics.

2. To explore the possibilities of graphics as a communication medium. 18

3. To design a series of symbols or signs identifying specific ath­

letic endeavors, public events, and public places.

4. To explore the credibility of future graphic innovations.

c. Definition of Terms

For the purposes of this study, the major terms will be operationally defined as follows:

Symbol a graphic representation identifying an activity or service

or providing information

Sign -- pictorial symbol posted for the purpose of identifying an

activity or service

Signage -- a system of signs for an area or event encompassing a num­

ber of activities,or services

Stylization -- graphic designs based on an exaggeration or distortion

of some characteristic of an object 19

IV. PROCEDURE

A. Athletic Events, Parks, Coliseums

Three groups of signs were produced for this study to identify the activities and services connected with three functions involving interna­ tional participation. The following is a list of the three areas of con­ cern and the activities and services for which signs were produced:

Athletic Events Parks Coliseums

1. Archery 1. Cooking areas 1. Broadcasting

2. Basketball 2. Litter 2. Cloak room

3. Billiards 3. Men's rest room 3. Elevator

4. Football 4. Parking 4. Fire e~tinguisher

5. Golf 5. Telephone 5. First aid

6. Tennis 6. Water 6. Locker room

7. Women's rest room 7. Lounge

B. Refreshments

9. Security

10. Smoking area

11. Stairway

12. Telephone

13. Ticket office

14. Water fountain

B. Factor of Simplified Realism

The pictorial symbols designed for the signs are based on simplified realism. Each sign contains a minimum amount of graphical information to identify an activity or service. 20

A realistic description of the elements involved allows the activity or service to be identified by various language groups sharing common expe­ riences. Limiting the description to basic characteristics of the elements communicates the message to these groups quickly and easily.

C. Structural Objectives

The dimensions of all signs are 15 inches wide by 20 inches high, a constant proportion ratio of 3 to 4. Depending upon the location in which the signs would be used, the size could be increased or decreased provided the 3 to 4 proportion was maintained. The use of a rectangular shape relates these signs to the international signs produced for the Olympic

Games, Expo '67, and the National Parks Service. The corners of the signs have been rounded, decreasing the danger of bending or damage to the cor- ners.

Three basic colors were selected for the signs: blue, green, and brown. White and one of the selected colors in a dark value were used for each sign. This creates strong contrast, thus clearly distinguishing the pictorial symbol against its background. On some signs a light value and/or black waS added to differentiate between two objects or surfaces. A fourth color, red, was reserved for identification of signs connected with fire hazards.

The three groups of signs were unified by using the constant propor- tion ratio and one basic color with white for each sign. Other character­ istics used to unify the presentations of signs within each group were: 21

1. Athletic signs -- Signs developed for six types of athletic activ­

ity have a close-up graphic description of the action occurring

when the activity is performed.

2. ~. signs -- Signs developed for six areas within a park involve

graphics describing services rather than activities. A white sym­

bol used on either a blue, green, or brown background lets the

sign and its message be recognized from a distance.

3. Coliseum signs -- Signs developed to identify 13 areas within a

coliseum use the same design presentation as the park signs.

Since both types of public areas often involve common services, it

waS desirable to produce identification signs which could be eas­

ily adapted to either area.

A partial band of color as used in the first aid sign or a total band of color as used in the elevator sign were added to the coliseum signs in order to unify and distinguish them as a group. The park and coliseum signs, however, could be interchanged by adding or removing the band of color.

The symbol for telephones is an example of adapting a park sign for use as a coliseum sign. 22

v. APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES

Four factors: activity, symbol, background color, and interpretation of form and color for the 27 signs produced are found in Table 1. All signs have certain similarities and possess the common component of quick interpretation. The sample signs were 'constructed of cardboard for ease of handling and preparation but for commercial installation would be con­ structed of a durable, corrosion proof metal that would be impervious to weather conditions. Mat finish enamel paint was used to apply the color to the cardboard sign and would be appropriate for the metal sign to reduce reflection and glare. The symbols produced for this study were designed to be used in all three areas to identify the same activity or serVice thus assisting the audience to become familiar with the activity and those cer­ tain symbols used to identify it therefore reinforcing the visual message.

The signs would be installed at the location of the activity and at key directional points to assist the public in locating the activity or service. Mounting specifications for the signs are identical for both indoor and outdoor usage if placed against a wall or building. They should be six feet from the floor or ground if against a wall or six and one-half feet from the base of the structure if perpendicular to the wall. For out­ door use only, the signs also could be mounted on one-quarter inch steel breakaway posts with the top of the sign placed seven feet above the ground.

These measurements allow for maximum visibility and avoid the danger of causing a collision between people.

The use of graphic signage can assist people of all cultures to locate activities and places positioned in and around public facilities with ease. Table 1. Descriptive characteristics of individual signs

Service or Background Area activity Symbols color Interpretation

1. Athletic Archery Arrow and Brown The parts of the design are in con­ signs target (dark value) trasts of brown and white to distin­ guish the target from the background and create the illusion of the arrow projecting from the target.

Basketball Basketball and Brown The basketball is described with a hoop with net (dark value) light value of brown and black to define its surfaces and distinguish it from the background. White and ~ black are used to describe the net w and hoop on which the basketball appears to be resting. Billiards Rack of Green The rack of balls and the cue ball billiard balls (dark value) are described in white to contrast and cue ball with the background. One ball within the rack is identified by a dark green color; the six ball. A light value of green surrounds the rack of balls to unite them as a group.

Football Football and Brown The football and football shoe are football shoe (dark value) described with a light value of brown and white to define their surfaces and distinguish them from the back­ ground. The dark brown background is used between the football shoe and the football to project an appearance of subsequent contact. Table 1. (Continued)

Service or Background Area activity Symbols color Interpretation

Golf Golf ball and Green A dark value of green and white are golf club (light value) used to describe the height and depth of the golf club. White is used to contrast the golf ball with the club and background. Black oval outlines describe the golf ball's surface ­ ture. Tennis. Tennis ball Green The tennis ball is described in white

and tennis (dark value) with a black line added to define the N racket division between its surfaces. The ~ racket is described behind the tennis ball with a contrast of white and dark green to define the webbing and a light value of green to define the frame of the racket.

2. Park Cooking Firewood and Brown A white substitution of the parts of signs areas flame (dark value) a campfire, firewood, and a flame are used to contrast with the background. Litter Trash Green White substitution of the surfaces of recepticle (dark value) a trash recepticle in perspective are used to contrast with the background.

Men's Front view of Blue A white description of the hair, rest room a male's head (dark value) ears, and chin line of a male's head are in contrast with the background. Table 1. (Continued)

Service or Background Area activity Symbols color Interpretation

Parking Outlines of Blue A white outline of parking spaces and parking spaces (dark value) a white silhouette of an automobile and an are in contrast with the background. automobile

Telephone Telephone Green A white outline description of a receiver (dark value) telephone receiver is in contrast with the background.

Water Water faucet, Brown A white description of a water fau- N water, and (dark value) cet, a drop of water, and a container In water corttainer of water are in contrast with the background.

Women's Front view of Blue A white description of the hair and rest room a female's head (dark value) chin line of a female's head are in contrast with the background.

3. Coliseum Broadcasting Human facial White A dark brown profile of a human face signs profile and and a dark brown outline of a micro- microphone phone contrast with the background. Circles of a light value are added to describe the surface texture of the microphone.

Cloakroom Coat and hanger Brown White description of the surfaces of (dark value) a coat and coat hanger are in con- trast with the background. Table 1. (Continued)

Service or Background Area activity Symbols color Interpretation

Elevator Elevator doors Blue White descriptions of the surfaces of and floor (dark value) elevator doors are in contrast with numbers the background. Fire Fire Red A white description of the surfaces extinguisher extinguisher of a fire extinguisher is used to contrast with the background. First aid Cross and White A white description of a cross is medical supply used to contrast with the dark blue N container surface of a medical bag. 0\

Locker Front view of White A dark blue substitution of the hair room a male's head and ears of a male's head is used to and shower contrast with the background. A shower with a dark blue shower head and black water droplets, spaced at various distances, appears in front of the figure.

Lounge Chair, table, Green White description of the surfaces of and lamp (dark value) a chair, a lamp, and a table are in contrast with the background.

Refreshments Typical food Brown Contrasts of brown and white are used items purchased (dark value) to describe three typical food items at a concession purchased at concessions. Table 1. (Continued)

Service or Background Area activity Symbols color Interpretation

Security Front view of Blue A silhouette of a male's head and the a male's head (dark value) surfaces of a police hat are and police hat described in white to contrast with the background.

Smoking Smoking pipe White A dark brown description of a pipe areas and brown outlines of smoke are in contrast with the background.

Stairways Stair steps Brown A white description of a series of N

and railing (dark value) stair steps, with a railing above """" them, is in contrast with the back­ ground.

Telephone Telephone White A dark blue outline of a telephone receiver receiver is in contrast with the background.

Ticket Human hand and Brown A white description of a hand holding office ticket (dark value) a ticket is in contrast with the background.

Water Water fountain White A dark blue description of a water fountain and water fountain recepticle is in contrast with the background. Above the recepticle, a water spout pouring water from it is outlined in dark blue. 28

Plate I. Photographs of signs created for athletic activities

Figure 5. Archery Figure 6. Basketball 29

Plate I. (Continued)

Figure 7. Billiards Figure 8. Football

Figure 9. Golf Figure 10. Tennis 30

Plate II. Photographs of signs created for park services

Figure 11. Cooking area

Figure 12. Litter Figure 13. Men's rest room 31

Plate II. (Continued)

Figure 14. Parking Figure 15. Telephone

Figure 16. Water Figure 17. Women's rest room 32

Plate III. Photographs of signs created for coliseum services

Figure 18. Broadcasting Figure 19. Cloakrooms 33 plate III. (Continued)

Figure 20. Elevator Figure 21. Fire extinguisher

...... ••••••••••• ...

Figure 22. First aid Figure 23. Locker room 34

Plate III. (Continued)

Figure 24. Lounge Figu~e 25. Refreshments

Figure 26. Security Figure 27. Smoking area 35

Plate III. (Continued)

Figure 28. Stairway Figures 29. Telephone

Figure 30. Ticket office Figure 31. Water fountain 36

VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY

The growth of graphic signage has been slow and rather spasmodic.

This situation is largely due to the variety of the contributors, the wide range usage, and the lack of uniform regulations and restrictions.

The technological innovations that have made it possible for people to have more money and more leisure time have increased the need to provide international visual signage for the convenience of international travel and international business. This need for international communication underlines the concept stated by Marshall McLuhan, lIthe medium is the mes­ sage. lI

Future innovations in the field of realistic graphics are limitless.

Some of the areas that would very easily lend themselves to applied graphics would be consumer information concerning nutritional labeling; care of textiles; and care plus operational manuals for household equip­ ment, cameras, and cars. Symbols could be developed to assist people in becoming familiar with the metric system. Public service programs of edu­ cational television might find the media of symbols an acceptable visual route to learning. Subway systems and banking operations could improve their services to customers by identifying symbols used for specific activ­ ities within their respective systems. The writing of brochures identify­ ing international symbols could be prepared for and distributed by travel agencies, automobile clubs, and gasoline companies as an educational ser­ vice to their clientele.

Future studies in the area of signage need to be explained to rein­ force and evaluate the acceptance of this form of communication. Some 37 examples of studies to be researched would be: (1) the use of color as a variable with the same symbol form; (2) the use of the symbol form and color with variation in the value and intensity of the color; (3) the acceptance and interpretation of the given symbols within a culture as well as cross culturally. 38

VII. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Bach, Robert O. (ed.). Communication: ~ Art £! Understanding ~ Being Understood. New York: Hastings House, 1963.

Baird, Russell N. and Turnbull, Arthur T. Ih! Graphics £! Communication. Chicago: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966.

Ball, John and Byrnes, Francis. Research, Principles, ~ Practices ~ Visual Communication. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State Univer­ sity Press, 1960.

Bowman, William J. Graphic Communication. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1968.

Constantine, Mildred and Jacobson, Egbert. . New York: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1961.

Crosby, Fletcher Forbes. ! Sign Systems Manual. New York: Praeger, 1970.

Dreyfuss, Henry. Symbol Source Book: All Authoritative Guide ~ Interna­ tional Graphic Symbols. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972.

Eksell, Olle. Corporate Design Programs. Translated by Charles Harrison­ Wallace. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1967.

Fabun, Don. Communication: ~ Transfer £i Meaning. Beverly Hills, Cali- fornia: Glencoe Press, 1960.

Fabun, Don. Three Roads S2 Awareness. Beverly Hills, California: Glencoe Press, 1971.

Fiore, Quentin and McLuhan, Marshall. The Medium ~ ~ Massage: Inventory 2! Effects. New York: Bantam Books, 1967.

Hamilton, Edward A. Graphic Design ~ ~ Computer Age. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1970.

Klapper, James T. ~ Effects £! ~ Communication. Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1960.

Larwood, Jacob and Hotten, John. ~ History 2! Signboards. London: Pic­ cadilly Press, 1866.

McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding Media: ~ Extensions £!~. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964. 39

Murgio, Matthew P. Communications Graphics. New York: Van Nostrand Rein­ hold Co., 1969.

Pilditch, James. Communication ~ Design: ! Study ~ Corporate Identity. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970.

Sutton, James. Signs in Action. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1965.

Whitney, Elwood. Symbology. New York: Hastings House, 1960.

Articles ~ Periodicals

Arthur, Paul. HAn Account of the Development and Execution of On-Site Graphics for Expo." Print, XXI (March/April, 1967), 20-23.

Carr, Richard. "The Legibility of Signs." Print, XXIII (November/December, 1969), 28-31.

Clipson, Colin. "The Uses and Abuses of Signs." Print, XXIII (November/ December, 1969), 36-39.

Fox, Martin. "Expo 67: A Design Laboratory." Print, XXI (March/April, 1967), 15-20.

Heiner, Jacob and Katzumie, Masaru. "Sign Systems for International Events." Print, XXIII (November/December, 1969), 40-49.

Henrion, F. H. K. "About ICOGRADA: The International Council of Graphic Design Associations." Print, XXIII (November/December, 1969), 5-6.

Kato, Soichi. "Toward an International Symbol Language." Print, XXI (March/April, 1967), 39-42.

Knauth, Otto. "New Sign Language for National Parks." 12.!! Moines Sunday Register Picture Magazine, (December 13, 1970), 7.

Kneebone, Peter. "Finding the Right Exit." Print, XXIII (November/Decem­ ber, 1969), 26-27.

Krampen, Arthur. "Signs and Symbols in Graphic Communication." Design Quarterly, LXII (1965), 8-30.

Solin, Arthur. "Graphics for the XIX Olympiad." Print, XVII (May/June, 1968), 21-30.

Vanmalderen, Luc. " and the Graphic Sign. 1t Print, XXIII (Novem­ ber/December, 1969), 56-58. 40

Publications £! Government ~ Learned Society

Department of the Interior. National ~ Service Signs. A report pre­ pared by the National Park Service. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Interior, 1971.

Ministry of Transport. ~ Highway~. London: Water10w and Sons Ltd. for her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1968.

Modley, Rudolf. ~ Challenge of Symbology. A Report of the Fourth Annual Communications Conference of the Art Directors Club of New York. Pre­ pared and distributed by the Fund for the Advancement of Education established by the Ford Foundation, 1965. 41

VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express appreciation to Miss Harriet Adams for her excellent guidance throughout the course of his graduate study and to the faculty of the Departments of Applied Art and and Mass Com­ munication of Iowa State University, with gratitude to Ronald Fenimore for his instruction and evaluation during the designing of the graphic signs.