McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory 4 Theory of Media and Society Media, society and culture: connections and confl icts 80 Mass communication as a society-wide process: the mediation of social relations and experience 82 A frame of reference for connecting media with society 85 Theme I: power and inequality 87 Theme II: social integration and identity 89 Theme III: social change and development 91 Theme IV: space and time 93 Media–society theory I: the mass society 94 Media–society theory II: Marxism and political economy 95 Media–society theory III: functionalism 98 Media–society theory IV: social constructionism 100 Media–society theory V: communication technology determinism 101 Media–society theory VI: the information society 104 Conclusion 107 80 Theories In this chapter, we look more closely at ideas about the relation between mass media and society, reserving the cultural implications for Chapter 5, even though society and also implies a primacy for society that is questionable, since the media and what they produceculture are can inseparable also be considered and the one as cannotpart of exist ‘culture’. without In fact the mostother. media Treating theory society relates first to both ‘society’ and ‘culture’ together and has to be explained in relation to both. For present purposes, the domain of ‘society’ refers to the material base (economic and political resources and power), to social relationships (in national societies, communi- ties, families, etc.) and to social roles and occupations that are socially regulated (for- mally or informally). The domain of ‘culture’ refers primarily to other essential aspects of social life, especially to symbolic expression, meanings and practices (social customs, institutional ways of doing things and also personal habits). Most of the chapter is concerned with explaining the main theories or theoretical perspectives that have been developed for understanding the way media work and accounting for the typical cultural production that they engage in. Most of these theo- ries do make the assumption that material and social circumstances are a primary ideas and culture can have in their turn on material conditions. Before the theories of mediadeterminant, and society but there are considered, is also scope the for main recognizing issues or broadthe independent themes that influence have framed that inquiry into mass communication are described. A general frame of reference for look- ing at the connections between media and society is also proposed. First of all, we return in more detail to the conundrum of the relation between culture and society. Media, Society and Culture: Connections and Conflicts Mass communication can be considered as both a ‘societal’ and a ‘cultural’ phenom- enon. The mass media institution is part of the structure of society, and its techno- logical infrastructure is part of the economic and power base, while the ideas, images and information disseminated by the media are evidently an important aspect of our culture (in the sense defined above). In discussing this problem, Rosengren (1981b) offered a simple typology which arecross-tabulates available for two describing opposed the propositions: relation between ‘social mass structure media influences and society, culture’; as shown and inits Figurereverse, 4.1. ‘culture influences social structure’. This yields four main options that If we consider mass media as an aspect of society (base or structure), then the option of materialism is presented. There is a considerable body of theory that views culture as dependent on the economic and power structure of a society. It is assumed that whoever owns or controls the media can choose, or set limits to, what they do. This is the essence of the Marxist position. If we consider the media primarily in the light of their contents (thus more as culture), then the option of idealism is indicated. The media are assumed to have a Theory of Media and Society 81 Social structure influences culture Yes No Interdependence Idealism Yes (two-way (strong media influence) influence) Culture influences social structure Materialism Autonomy No (media are (no casual dependent) connection) Figure 4.1 Four types of relation between culture (media content) and society by the media (in their content) which are seen as the primary causes of social change, potential for significant influence, but it is the particular ideas and values conveyed- vidual motivations and actions. This view leads to a strong belief in various potential irrespective of who owns and controls. The influence is thought to work through indi valuesmedia effectsand behaviour, for good and or ofill. enlightenmentExamples include or the the secularization promotion by and the modernizationmedia of peace and international understanding (or having the opposite effect), of pro- or antisocial behind the view that changes in media forms and technology can change our way of gainingof traditional experience societies. in essential A form of ways idealism and evenor ‘mentalism’ our relations concerning with others media (as also in liesthe theories of McLuhan 1962, 1964). The two options remaining – of interdependence and of autonomy – have found less distinctive theoretical development, although there is a good deal of support in common sense and in evidence for both. Interdependence implies that mass media and society are (as cultural industries) respond to the demand from society for information and enter- tainmentcontinually and, interacting at the same and time, influencing stimulate each innovation other (as and are societycontribute and to culture). a changing The social-media ‘technologicalcultural climate, developments which sets off made new newspapersdemands for possible,communication. newspapers The Frenchpromote sociologist the for- mationGabriel ofTarde, broader writing publics, about and 1900, they, byenvisaged broadening a constant the loyalties interweaving of their members, of influences: cre- ate an extensive network of overlapping and shifting groupings’ (Clark, 1969). Today, the conditionvarious influences for the other. are so From bound this together point of that view neither we have mass to conclude communication that the nor media modern may society is conceivable without the other, and each is a necessary, though not a sufficient, equally be considered to mould or to mirror society and social changes. 82 Theories The option of autonomy in the relations between culture and society is not necessar- ily inconsistent with this view, unless interpreted very literally. It is at least very likely that society and mass media can be independent of each other up to a point. Societies autonomy position also supports those who are sceptical about the power of the media that are culturally very similar can sometimes have very different media systems. The- ity, stimulating ‘modernity’ or damaging the cultural identity of poorer or less powerful to influence ideas, values and behaviour – for instance, in allegedly promoting conform the media can have. The debate is especially relevant to the central thesis of ‘interna- tionalization’countries. There or ‘ globalizationare different ’,views which about implies how a convergencemuch autonomy and homogenizationin relation to society of a * worldwide culture, as a result of the media. The autonomy position would suggest that It follows that cultural imperialism is not likely to happen simply by chance or against * theimported will of media the culturally culture ‘colonized’is superficial (see and Chapter need not 10). significantly touch the local culture. An inconclusive outcome As with many of the issues to be discussed, there are more theories than there is solid evidence, and the questions raised by this discussion are much too broad to be settled by evidenceempirical about research. the relationshipAccording to between Rosengren social (1981b: structure, 254), societal surveying values what as mediatedscattered evidenceby the media, he could and opinionsfind, research among gives the public’.only ‘inconclusive, This assessment partly is even just ascontradictory, valid thirty years later, suggesting that no single theory holds under all circumstances. It seems that the media can serve to repress as well as to liberate, to unite as well as to fragment society, to promote as well as to hold back change. What is also striking in the theories to be discussed is the ambiguity of the role assigned to the media. They are as often presented in a ‘progressive’ as in a ‘reactionary’ light, accord- ing to whether the dominant (pluralist) or alternative (critical, radical) perspective is adopted. Despite the uncertainty, there can be little doubt that the media, whether moulders or mirrors of society, are the main messengers about society, and it is around this observation that the alternative theoretical perspectives can best be organized. Mass Communication as a Society-wide Process: the Mediation of Social Relations and Experience media institution is essentially concerned with the production and distribution of knowl- edgeA central in the presupposition, widest sense of relatingthe word. to Such questions knowledge both enablesof society us toand make of culture, some sense is that of ourthe experience of the social world, even if the ‘taking of meaning’ occurs in relatively autono- mous and varied ways. The information, images and ideas made available by the media may, for most people, be the main source of an awareness of a shared past time (history) and of