CONSERVATION

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES A Guide for Apartment Owners and Managers

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Office of Policy Development and Research

CONSERVATION

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES A GUIDE FOR APARTMENT OWNERS AND MANAGERS

PREPARED FOR:

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Office of Policy Development and Research Washington, D.C.

PREPARED BY:

Water Resources Engineering, Inc. San Francisco, CA

IN COLLABORATION WITH:

Public Affairs Management Allan Dietemann Jack Goodman Tony Gregg John Nelson

MAY 2002

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This guide was prepared by Water Resources Engineering, Inc. (WRE), San Francisco, California, for the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). It was written by Gustavo Arboleda with assistance from Melinda Goldman. Dana Bress of HUD provided technical review. Julie Ortiz and Sony Atmadjaja with Public Affairs Management edited and created the design and layout of the guide. Special thanks go to Allan Dietemann, Program Manager for the Water Conservation Office of the city of Seattle’s Public Utilities; Jack Goodman of Hartrey Advisors; Tony Gregg, Manager of the Water Conservation Program, City of Austin, Texas; and John Nelson of Water Resources Management for their assistance and guidance throughout this project.

Disclaimer

While the information in this guide is believed to be accurate, neither the authors, reviewers, nor HUD make any warranty, guarantee, or representation, expressed or implied, with respect to the accuracy, effectiveness, or use­ fulness of any information, method, or material in this document, or assume any liability for the use of any infor­ mation, methods, or materials disclosed herein, or for damages arising from such use. The U.S. Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers names appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the object of this project.

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ...... 1 RETROFIT STRATEGIES...... 5 SELECTING RETROFIT STRATEGIES ...... 13 RETROFIT SAVINGS AND COST ...... 21 REFERENCES ...... 23 APPENDICES

A. HOW MUCH WATER IS USED INDOORS? ...... 27

B. WATER CONSERVATION INCENTIVES ...... 29

C. SUBMETERING REGULATIONS ...... 36

D. GRAY WATER REGULATIONS ...... 40

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES

INTRODUCTION

Close to a fifth of the United States popula­ This guidebook refers to hardware measures tion lives in multi-family rental housing. as retrofit strategies. Retrofit Most of these residents do not pay a water To provide with parts, Where tenant incentive to conserve water bill. Water charges are embedded in their rent devices, or equipment may be lacking, owners/managers of multi­ and residents are usually free to use as much not in existence or avail­ family properties must rely on retrofit strate­ water as they wish without additional charge. able at time of original gies to reduce water consumption and manufacture. To install Water represents a significant amount of the associated operating costs. or fit a device for use in cost involved in operating multi-family hous­ Lowering water use in older multi-family an existing structure, ing. In addition to the actual cost of water are properties presents some challenges. especially an older associated costs for the treatment of waste­ Extensive renovation may not be economi­ dwelling. water and the energy required to heat the wa­ cally viable for the many properties whose ter. These expenses are likely to increase as housing units have obsolete, non-conserving groundwater and surface water reserves dwin­ water fixtures and appliances. Retrofit strate­ dle, energy costs rise, and treatment require­ gies, on the other hand, are less invasive and ments become more stringent. may be better suited for older structures. This guidebook is intended to help owners Retrofit strategies include the repair/and or and managers of multi-family properties ad­ replacement of showerheads, faucets, toilets, dress these challenges through water conser­ clothes washers, water meters, irrigation sys­ vation. A companion guidebook directed to tems, and other features. Specific measures engineers, contractors, and others responsi­ may range in complexity from simply screw­ ble for the actual design and implementation ing an aerator on a faucet to installing gray of water conservation retrofit strategies is water systems that require storage tanks, fil­ also available from HUD. ters, pumps, and pipes. Two types of water conservation strategies are generally recognized: WHY CONSERVE WATER? ■ Behavioral changes to educate and moti­ vate people to become conservation-con­ As the world’s population grows and water scious and engage in conserving practices demand increases, many regions across the ■ Hardware measures to modify, repair, or United States will face the hard realities of remove/replace water-using fixtures or groundwater depletion, chronic drought, appliances. dried-up rivers, poor water quality, mount-

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 1 INTRODUCTION

CONSERVATION

ing infrastructure costs, and diminishing al­ ■ Type, age, and condition of water-using ternatives for additional supplies. Water fixtures treatment facilities are quickly approaching ■ Climate their treatment capacity due to the increases ■ Price of water where the residents pay di­ in water demand. These constraints are plac­ rectly for water used. ing limits on how much water will be avail­ Outdoor water use is highly site-specific and able and affordable in the future. depends on the square footage of landscaped Water conservation can: areas and the efficiency of irrigation systems Water ■ and procedures. The type of water-using Conservation Make more water available during droughts or periods of limited supply recreational facilities will also impact the is defined as any action ■ Delay the expansion of existing treat­ volume of water used outdoors. that reduces the amount ment facilities and the construction of of water withdrawn from new ones INDOOR USE water supply sources, re­ ■ Lower energy consumption by reducing duces consumptive use, water heating and treatment needs The volume of water used in a typical non- reduces the loss or waste ■ Lower water and energy bills through conserving housing unit can range from of water, improves the around 80 gallons per day to 150 gallons or efficiency of water use, more efficient use of water both indoors more, depending on the variables noted increases recycling and and in common and outdoor areas above. Two adults living in an apartment reuse of water, or pre­ ■ Increase property values through the vents pollution of water. modernization of water-using fixtures, with non-conserving fixtures/appliances may appliances, and equipment. use about 56 gallons per person each day. New Mexico Office of the The distribution of water uses shown in State Engineer,1997 WATER USE IN MULTI-FAMILY Figure 1 is based on apartments with one toilet, one showerhead, two faucets, and HOUSING standard efficiency clothes and dish washers. An apartment building typically has both in­ It is also based on a number of assumptions door and outdoor water uses. Indoor water regarding how often each fixture or appli­ use is primarily by the occupants of the ance is used. See Appendix A for a complete housing units, through the use of toilets, listing of the assumptions. showers, bathroom and kitchen faucets, and in some cases clothes and dishwashers. INDOOR CONSERVATION Outdoor water is for areas that may include POTENTIAL landscaping and recreational facilities such as swimming pools, spas, fountains, and Indoor water use can be significantly reduced ponds. In some apartment buildings out­ by repairing leaks and installing low water door uses may include washing cars on the use fixtures and appliances. If the non-con­ premises. serving apartment whose water use is illus­ trated in Figure 1 were retrofitted with faucet Several factors affect indoor water use: aerators, a low flow showerhead, an ultra-low ■ Number, age, and income level of occu­ flush volume toilet (ULFT) and high effi­ pants in a housing unit ciency clothes and dish washers, the total wa­

2 INTRODUCTION

ter use per day may come down to about 33 Figure 1 illustrates the volumes of water gallons per person per day, or roughly 66 gal­ used in a typical water-conserving apart­ lons per day for the two-occupant apart­ ment. The assumptions made on types of ment. This represents a savings of 46 gallons fixtures and frequency of use are listed in per day for one apartment, or about 40 per­ Appendix A. cent of the non-conserving water use.

Figure 1. Typical Water Use in Apartment Units

NON-CONSERVING CONSERVING Fixture GPCD Fixture GPCD Toilet 8.0 Toilet 14.0 Note Faucets 14.0 Faucets 10.5 Approximate volumes of Shower 6.8 Shower 11.3 water used in gallons per Clothes Washer 12.0 Clothes Washer 7.5 capita per day or “gpcd” Dishwasher 1.0 Dishwasher 0.5 Leaks 3.4 Total 55.7 Total 33.3

15 14.0 14.0

12.0 12 11.3 10.5

9 8.0 7.5 6.8 6 ER USE (GPCD)

WAT 3.4 3 1.0 0.5 0 0.0 TOILET FAUCET SHOWER CLOTHES DISHWASHER LEAKS WASHER

NON-CONSERVING CONSERVING

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 3 INTRODUCTION

CONSERVATION

OUTDOOR USE multi-family housing sites, based on analysis of 32 properties across three states (Florida, The volume of water used outdoors varies California, and Texas). from one property to another, depending on Lawns are popular in many regions of the the amenities offered and the square footage country and generally use considerable of landscaping and turf areas. Outdoor wa­ amounts of water. The actual volume of wa­ ter use in properties with extensive landscap­ ter used depends on factors such as the ing and lawns may represent more than 20 amount and frequency of rainfall, extent and percent of the total water consumption, root depth of turf grass, soil type, consump­ while outdoor water uses may account for tive use requirements, efficiency of applica­ less than 5 percent of total consumption in tion methods, and maintenance practices. properties with little or no landscaping. A Annual water use for lawns reaches peak de­ 1999 study prepared for the National mand during hot summer months and low Apartment Association and the National or no demand in cold weather months. Multi Housing Council found that common usage (primarily outdoor water use not at­ OUTDOOR CONSERVATION tributable to apartment residents) averages from 14 to 18 percent of total water use at POTENTIAL

Multi-family properties with extensive out­ door water use can save water reducing lawn areas, eliminating narrow strips of turf, us­ ing efficient irrigation methods, metering outdoor water use separately, and using na­ tive plants with low water consumption in landscaped areas. Limiting outdoor uses such as car washing can also contribute sig­ nificantly to water savings. Using efficient irrigation practices and limit­ ing outdoor water use could reduce outdoor water consumption by a third or more. Actual water savings will differ from one property to another and must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.

As a point of reference: one inch of irrigation over a landscaped area of 1,000 square feet requires 624 gallons of water. How big is an area of 1,000 square feet? Roughly the size of half a singles tennis court.

4 RETROFIT STRATEGIES

Indoor Retrofit Strategies A variety of water conservation retrofit strategies are available to multi-family prop­ Quick payback strategies erty owners. Traditional retrofit strategies in­ ¥ Low-flow faucet aerators clude a number of indoor and outdoor • Low-flow showerheads measures. Less traditional strategies are also • Toilet inserts available that involve the use of gray water • Leak detection and repair for toilet flushing and/or irrigation. Utility financed strategies • Toilets through direct-install programs INDOOR WATER USE • Install devices available free of charge in From a multi-family property owner’s per­ water conservation kits spective, the most advantageous water con­ Strategies involving utility rebates servation retrofit strategies are those with Strategies involving manufacturer discounts quick investment paybacks or those paid for Submetering by local water utilities. Utility financed alter­ natives, of course, are only available to prop­ Outdoor Retrofit Strategies erty owners within the service areas of Eliminate narrow strips of turf utilities that offer such programs. Appendix B lists some of the water utilities across the Reduce lawn areas United States that offer economic incentives Use separate water meters for implementing water conservation meas­ Install soil moisture or rain sensors ures. Property owners in other areas should Install special hose bibs consult with their local utilities about the Replace sprinklers with drip irrigation systems feasibility of obtaining financial incentives or Landscape with native plants credits for installing water-conserving fix­ tures and appliances. Gray Water Use Strategies Quick Payback Strategies Install rainwater collection systems Recycle water for landscape Retrofit strategies that involve relatively mod­ Install hybrid rainwater collection and recycling est investments and quick paybacks from sav­ systems ings on water and sewer bills include:

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 5 RETROFIT STRATEGIES

CONSERVATION

■ Low-Flow Faucet Aerators install. They may save between 2 to 4 gal­ lons per day per retrofitted toilet. Screw-on aerators for bathroom and kitchen faucets are generally available in hardware The water level in the toilet tank can be ad­ stores for under $2. Property managers or justed to use less water per flush. Water level residents can install the aerators with mini­ adjustments can best be accomplished using mum effort. Aerators may save from half a a dual-flush adapter, a device that provides gallon to over 4.5 gallons per faucet per day. for short or long flushes. Adapters may cost between $8 and $20 and take about 20 min­ ■ Low-Flow Showerheads utes to install. Water level adjustments may save from 1 to 3 gallons per toilet per day. Low-flow showerheads (flow rate of 2.5 gal­ lons per minute or lower) are available for as ■ Leak Detection and Repair little as $2, although some of the fancier mod­ els can cost upward of $20. Their installation Toilet, faucet, and showerhead leaks are easy involves unscrewing the old showerhead and to detect and repair. The repair of faucets replacing it with the low-flow model. The re­ and showerheads generally involves a gasket placement of non-conserving showerheads replacement (costs under one dollar), which a handyman can perform in under 15 min­ Courtesy of with low-flow fixtures may save between 3 Niagara Conservation and 6 gallons per showerhead per day. utes. Toilets usually leak because of defective flapper valves; flapper valves can be installed ■ Toilet Inserts for $10 or less in under 20 minutes (the ap­ propriate flapper for the toilet model should Three types of toilet inserts can be imple­ be used or leaking may continue). The water mented at relatively low cost. savings from leak repairs can be significant. Displacement devices (blocks or bottles Severe leaks, more common in toilets than placed inside the toilet tank to take up space in other fixtures, can drain over 100 gallons formerly occupied by water) can be pur­ per day. Even modest leaks can lose 3 to 7 chased for under one dollar; installation re­ gallons per day per toilet and about a gallon quires only the lifting of the toilet tank lid per day per faucet or showerhead. and the placement of the device inside the Utility-Financed Strategies tank. Displacement devices may save from 1 to 3 gallons per toilet per day; they should ■ Toilets Through Direct-Install only be used in toilets with large tanks (5 Programs Courtesy of gallons or more). Niagara Conservation The flapper valve inside the toilet tank (the Many water utilities across the country have device that lifts up to allow water from the recognized the water savings potential of tank into the bowl) can be replaced with a ultra-low flush toilets (ULFT) and offer in­ quick-closing flapper designed to clamp centives to replace old toilets with water- down before the tank is emptied. Flapper conserving fixtures. ULFTs are toilets valves cost between $2 and $10 and take a designed to use 1.6 gallons per flush or less, plumber or handyman under 20 minutes to compared to the 3.5 gallons per flush or

6 RETROFIT STRATEGIES

higher in toilets manufactured before 1992. ample, the East Bay Municipal Utility The design of ULFTs, and the levels of user District (Oakland, California), the City of satisfaction, have consistently improved Seattle (Washington), and the City of Tampa since 1992, when the Energy Policy Act es­ (Florida) offer up to $100; the City of tablished the national manufacturing stan­ Albuquerque (New Mexico) and the dard of 1.6 gallons per flush for most toilets. Metropolitan Water District of Southern ULFT direct-install program details change California offer $75. Property owners need from one location to the next (see Appendix to check with their local utilities even in the B). Owners are sometimes given a choice of locations quoted, because program details model. A contractor retained by the utility change constantly and their availability may usually installs the toilets, although some di- be discontinued. rect-install programs call for installation by Rebates for the installation of high efficiency the property owner with rebates offered for clothes washers currently ranges between $75 each confirmed installation. ULFTs can save and $150 per in-unit washer, and from $50 between 10 to 20 gallons per toilet per day. to $250 for commercial washers in common

■ Devices Through Water Conservation laundry areas. For example, the East Bay Kits Municipal Utility District (Oakland, California) offers rebates of $150/$50; the Many water utilities in the United States of­ City of Seattle (Washington) offers rebates of fer water conservation kits to customers in $75 for in-unit washers and from $150 to their service areas (see Appendix B). The kits $250 for coin-operated machines; and the generally include two or three faucet aera­ City of Austin, Texas, offers rebates of up to tors, a low-flow showerhead, toilet displace­ $250 on high-efficiency washers. ment devices, leak detection tablets for Discounts toilets, and informational materials. Property owners should undertake installation of the Property owners may be able to obtain high water conserving devices with their own per­ volume discounts on the purchase of ULFTs sonnel, rather than leave it up to the resi­ and high efficiency clothes washers. They dents to obtain the full water savings from may also be able to obtain discounts from the free devices. contractors on multiple installations. Rebates Manufacturers or their local representatives should be contacted for information on high A number of utilities promote the use of ul­ volume discounts. tra-low flush toilets and high efficiency Submetering clothes washers through rebate programs. The details of each program vary from one Submetering refers to the installation of wa­ location to the next (see Appendix B). ter meters on the water supply lines to each In ULFT rebate programs the property apartment. The meters track the water con­ owner is typically responsible for the toilet sumption of each unit, and the residents are installation costs. Rebates currently offered responsible for their own water bills. Water Courtesy of range from $40 to $100 per toilet. For ex­ is thus billed according to the amount Neptune Meters

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 7 RETROFIT STRATEGIES

CONSERVATION

consumed — the same fashion that electric­ month per unit. Some states, such as Texas, ity and gas have been billed for years. do not allow the operation and maintenance costs to be passed on to the residents. Texas There may be regulations on local or state also requires either direct utility metering or water codes that prohibit sub-metering. The submetering for all apartment units con­ states of Massachusetts and New Jersey, for structed after January 1, 2003. example, explicitly prohibit submetering; reg­ ulations are pending in North Carolina. The volume of water saved by the imple­ Some municipalities do not allow submeter­ mentation of a submetering system, if any, ing even if their state water codes do: the city will depend on the cost of water and socioe­ of Augusta does not allow submetering, al­ conomic and demographic factors (location, though the state of Georgia does. The regula­ income level, age of residents, etc.). The wa­ tory environment is summarized in Appendix ter savings may vary considerably from one C. Property owners are urged to verify cur­ location to another. One realty company rent regulations at the local and state level, that owns over 75,000 apartment units because they will change over time. throughout the country reported average water savings between 20 and 30 percent of Property owners have several options when total use. A submetering study in Seattle did considering a submetering system: not record any savings. Reports of minimal ■ Hire a large company with offices na­ savings may be due to the limited conserva­ tionwide tion options available to residents: fuller ■ Hire a local contractor specialized in sub- loads in dishwasher, shorter showers, better metering services leak reporting. More reliable data may soon ■ Implement the systems on their own, as be available from an ongoing (2002) na­ some of the larger property owners have done tional submetering study sponsored by sev­ eral water utilities. ■ Request direct utility metering at apart­ ment units OUTDOOR WATER USE ■ Use a combination of the above. The cost of implementing a submeter­ Outdoor retrofit strategies involve improv­ ing system may vary among regions of ing irrigation efficiency and limiting outside the country and even from one prop­ water uses. Seven effective means of reduc­ erty to the next. The way water piping ing water consumption are described below. is laid out in a building can impact Eliminate Narrow Turf Strips costs. The total cost must also include the billing and collection processes, The volume of water saved by eliminating handling of customer complaints, in­ narrow strips of turf will depend on the size creased maintenance requirements, of the area in question and the material that and interaction with the local water replaces the lawn: paving/gravel (no water utility. Based on limited data, imple­ use), or plants/shrubs (some water use). mentation costs may range between $225 Water savings and costs must be estimated and $500 per unit. Operation and mainte­ on a case-by-case basis. nance costs may fall between $2 and $3 per

8 RETROFIT STRATEGIES

A study conducted in Novato, California, cost about $50 per month. If waste­ showed narrow strips of turf required about water charges are based on indoor wa­ four times the amount of water per square ter use, separate meters will have a very foot applied on larger turf areas. Actual wa­ quick payback. ter savings will vary in different parts of the country. Property owners should consult Install Soil Moisture or landscaping and gardening professionals to Rain Sensors assess water conservation potential. The Handbook for Water Use and Reduce Lawn Areas Conservation (Vickers, 2001) estimates that use of soil moisture sensors/probes or Smaller lawns save water and may reduce rain sensors can save 5 to 10 percent of water maintenance costs. This is particularly true used outdoors, provided the oisture/rainfall in arid and semi-arid areas where the volume data are used to adjust irrigation schedules. of water used in irrigation can represent a This estimate must be applied on a case-by­ significant proportion of the total water case basis in multi-family properties. consumption. The cost of implementing moisture or rain The water savings and costs associated with sensors will vary depending on the type and reducing lawn areas depend on the size of quality of devices used. Rain sensors typi­ the area in question and the material that re­ cally cost around $25; installation may take places the lawn: paving/gravel, or plants/ an hour of plumber time and maintenance shrubs. Water savings from a reduction in costs are minimal. Moisture sensors can turf areas would only accrue during the pe­ range from $10 for a simple resistance probe riod the lawn is irrigated. to $75 or more for a tensiometer, a device Use Separate Water Meters that measures soil moisture tension by quan­ tifying the amount of water a plant can draw While the meters themselves do not save wa­ from the soil. ter, property owner/manager appreciation of Install Special Hose Bibs the amounts of water used for common ar­ eas may prompt them to implement one or Hose bibs or outdoor faucets may be retro­ more measures to improve outdoor water fitted with attachments that require a special use efficiency. Reductions in water use of 5 key to use the outlet. The retrofit costs un­ to 10 percent from the use of separate me­ der $10 and may be installed in a few min­ ters are feasible, although actual savings utes by a plumber or handyman. need to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. The volume of water saved by restricting use The cost of installing separate meters de­ of outdoor faucets/hose bibs will be site spe­ pends on the size of the meters. Installation cific. Properties where tenants frequently charges may be around $100. The water wash cars on the premises would benefit utility generally charges a monthly fee per most from implementation of this strategy. meter; a 2-inch meter may cost between $10 Water use can be reduced by 50 percent or and $20 per month; a 4-inch meter may more at each retrofitted hose bib.

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 9 RETROFIT STRATEGIES

CONSERVATION

Replace Sprinklers with Drip ■ The California Native Plant Society Irrigation quotes plant costs between $2.25 and $96 Drip irrigation systems can save 25 to ■ Florida Native Plants.com offers plants 75 percent of the water that a sprinkler between $5 and $45 system would use. Actual savings must ■ The New England Wildflower Society be determined on a case-by-case basis, sells flowers, shrubs and trees from $5 to and depend on the type of sprinklers $75 per unit replaced and the characteristics of the An approximate cost of $2 per square foot irrigated area. The cost of replacing of area to be planted may be used as a rough sprinklers with a drip system depends “rule of thumb” estimate. Operation and on the size of the area to be irrigated maintenance costs should actually decrease and the type of system installed. The with the native plants, as they are better Handbook of Water Use and adapted to local conditions than less water- Conservation estimates the cost of installing efficient plants. a drip system at $1 to $1.50 per square foot. Drip systems do require periodic mainte­ GRAY WATER USE RETROFIT nance for efficient operation. STRATEGIES Landscape with Native Plants The least traditional retrofit strategy for wa­ The volume of water saved by using low-wa­ ter conservation in a multi-family setting is ter use and native plants in place of conven­ the installation of gray water systems. tional landscaping needs to be evaluated on Gray water systems may consist of: a case-by-case basis. Studies conducted in ■ Rainwater collection Arizona, California, and Texas found that re­ ■ placing conventional landscapes with low- Gray water recycling water use and native plants reduced outdoor ■ Hybrid rainwater collection and recy­ water use from 19 percent (North Marin, cling systems California) to 43 percent (Austin, Texas). In terms of cost effectiveness, hybrid systems These studies were conducted in single-fam­ rank higher than the other two alternatives. ily homes; savings in multi-family properties Gray water recycling tends to be more cost may differ depending on maintenance and effective than rainwater collection. The three irrigation system efficiency. types of gray water systems are described The cost of replacing high-water-use plants below. and lawns with low-water use and native Rainwater Collection plants has to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. The New Mexico Office of the State Rainwater collection or rainwater harvesting Engineer’s Xeriscape 101 pamphlet quotes technology has been around for centuries as installation costs at $1 to $4 per square foot. a means to use seasonal precipitation that The cost of the native plants can vary from would otherwise be lost. A rainwater harvest­ $2 to nearly $100 per plant: ing system concentrates and collects rain

10 RETROFIT STRATEGIES

Desert House rainwater collection system in Phoenix, Arizona (Courtesy of Desert Botanical Garden, Phoenix Arizona)

falling on roofs and grounds for direct use ally charge between $2 and $4 per gallon of and storage; water may be collected or har­ storage for the installation of a complete vested from concrete patios, driveways and rainwater harvesting system including under­ other paved areas. The water is typically used ground concrete tank, pump, valves, piping, for landscape irrigation and/or toilet flushing. and catchment appurtenances. Systems with Successful implementation of large-scale above ground storage or with polyethilene or rainwater harvesting systems relies on several fiberglass tanks would be less expensive factors. Most important is a suitable climate (from $0.40 to $1 per gallon of storage). that affords periodic rainfall throughout the Multi-family properties are likely to require year; low rainfall and/or extended dry peri­ in excess of 10,000 gallons of storage. ods limit the reliability and effectiveness of a Rainwater collection systems that provide rainwater harvesting system. The most eco­ water for toilet flushing as well as landscape nomically viable systems are likely to have irrigation will save more water and cost con­ small storage capacities that supplement siderably more. Separate piping has to be rather than replace water supplies from local provided from the storage tank to every toilet utilities. on the property. This requires a significant The costs of rainwater collection systems investment in the re-plumbing of the build­ vary from one location to another and de­ ing. Properties about to be renovated and pend on the situation and life of the system. new properties, however, may be able to add Contractors in New Mexico and Texas gener- the additional piping at a relatively low cost.

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 11 RETROFIT STRATEGIES

CONSERVATION

Gray Water Recycling The costs of gray water systems vary, de­ pending on the size and complexity of the Gray water recycling systems consist of de­ system. Costs may range from $3,000– vices attached to the plumbing system for $5,000 per housing unit for systems that Gray water the sanitary distribution or use of gray water provide enough water to cover irrigation means untreated waste­ (water from bathroom sinks, showers, and needs. Property owners should consult de­ water which has not clothes washers). These systems require sign professionals to define the size and been contaminated by pipes separate from the potable water pip­ complexity of recycling systems that meet any toilet discharge, ing, as well as valves, filters, pumps, and their needs, and to assess the return period has not been affected treatment facilities. by infectious, contami­ of their potential investment in gray water nated, or unhealthy Permits are required in most states for the recycling systems. bodily wastes, and implementation of gray water systems, usu­ Hybrid Systems which does not present ally from local or county authorities. The a threat from contami­ primary concern of regulators and health of­ Hybrid systems use both rainwater and ef­ nation by unhealthful ficials is that gray water may result in water fluent from bathroom sinks, showers, and processing, manufactur­ quality problems that pose a threat to public clothes washers as their source of water. The ing, or operating health. Regulations invariably prohibit gray source water is typically treated and then wastes. water systems from being connected to distributed to irrigation systems and/or toi­ The California Water potable water systems and typically preclude lets. Hybrid systems discharge excess water Code (Section 14875­ the use of water containing hazardous wastes to the sewer. 14877.3) or water that comes from the soiling of dia­ As with simple recycling systems, the hybrid pers or similar garments. systems require permits from local health authorities. Many states allow only under­ ground irrigation with gray water to prevent human contact with the water. Hybrid systems can be more cost effective than simple recycling or rainwater collection systems. Once the treatment facilities and related equipment needed for recycling is in place, the rainwater collection portion of the system can be added at a relatively low cost. Property owners should consult design pro­ fessionals to evaluate the desirability of in­ stalling a hybrid gray water system in their facilities.

Typical gray water system used for irrigation (Courtesy of Carl Lindstrom)

12 SELECTING RETROFIT STRATEGIES

A variety of reasons may motivate property WATER USE ASSESSMENT owners/managers to conserve water: ■ Contribute to the protection of a valued Is your multi-family property conserving or natural resource non-conserving in terms of water use? If you ■ Avoid potential water shortages in the don’t know for certain, the property is most future likely non-conserving. The determining fac­ ■ Save money. tor is the water bill. An examination of wa­ ter bills and a few simple calculations can Retrofit strategies also may select themselves. settle the issue. If toilets in a multi-family building are over 20 years old and managers are constantly receiv­ Water and sewer bills come in many sizes Useful Water ing complaints about malfunctions and leaks and formats. To assess water use it is impor­ Units the time may be right to replace them. Or tant to determine: 1 cubic foot (cf) = clothes washers in the laundry room may be ■ Number of days in billing cycle: Most 7.48 gallons out of order and beyond repair. Perhaps low utilities bill either monthly or bi­ water pressure in the building points to the monthly; assume 30 days in the billing 1 ccf (commonly used need for a major overhaul of the water piping. cycle if billed monthly, 60 days if billed by water utilities as bi-monthly. “one unit”) = 100 cf = Reacting to a clear need to upgrade water- ■ Volume of water used per billing cycle: 748 gallons using fixtures and appliances is as valid a Water utilities use either hundreds of cu­ 1 liter = 0.26 gallons reason as any to retrofit and conserve water. bic feet (ccf) or thousands of gallons as In some instances, however, retrofitting may the units of measurement to record vol­ present clear advantages even without the ume of water used. pressing need to upgrade. ■ Is there a separate meter for outdoor water use? Separate meters may be billed This section outlines a proactive approach to separately. If two or more meters are in­ retrofitting for water conservation. It pres­ cluded in one bill the water use from ents simple guidelines for a property each meter is likely to be prominently owner/manager to assess water use patterns, displayed. select retrofit strategies, estimate conserva­ tion potential, and determine approximate With information from the water bills and a costs and how quickly they can be recovered few facts about occupancy, you can approxi­ from savings in water/sewer bills. mate water use per person. Winter and sum­ mer water use can be compared for a rough

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 13 SELECTING RETROFIT STRATEGIES

CONSERVATION

approximation of outdoor water use, assum­ ence in per capita water usage between win­ ing the property is not irrigated during win­ ter and summer months may be attributed ter months (not always the case in southern to outdoor uses for purposes of obtaining a states). rough estimate of water use. More accurate calculations require knowl­ Resident-related (indoor) water use may be edge of the number of building residents qualified as shown in Table 1, below. (water users) in a given time period. If these Use of water for landscape irrigation is more figures are not available, the average number difficult to qualify, as it depends not only on of residents over the past few years may be the efficiency of irrigation systems but also used to approximate per capita water usage. on the extent of the facilities. A property Following are some basic calculations to with extensive lawns and gardens may use help assess specific properties. significant volumes of water even if irrigated Daily water use for the property = (Number very efficiently. of ccf in water bill) x 748 / (Number of days Property owners should consult with their in billing cycle) water utility regarding outdoor water audits, Daily per capita use = Daily water use for or contact a landscaping professional in their the property / Number of residents area. Many utilities offer audit services free of charge. The audit involves the physical The per capita water usage should be calcu­ inspection of the facilities by a utility repre­ lated for several billing cycles, including sentative who can identify areas in need of summer and winter periods. The per capita water-efficiency improvements, recommend usage in winter months is likely to reflect in­ changes to landscaping, and review irriga­ door water usage. Buildings with no land­ tion practices and procedures. scaping or significant outdoor water uses should show similar per capita volumes year- NDOOR ATER SES round. Buildings with significant outdoor I W U water uses should show higher water use Strategies may be selected on the basis of during summer months (except, as previ­ property owner preference, conditions spe­ ously noted, in southern states). The differ- cific to the property (for example, toilets need replacement anyway), availability of re­ Table 1—Indoor Water Use Assessment bates from water utilities, or availability of special discounts on high volume purchases. GPCD WATER USE ASSESSMENT The right retrofit strategies may also become (Gallons per capita per day) apparent from an analysis of the fixtures in Under 30 Highly efficient water use, no place and the ones that may potentially re­ conservation potential place them. 30-50 Efficient water use, some con­ A simplified analysis can be conducted by servation potential if closer to filling out Table 2 on the following page. 50 gpcd Over 50 Non-conserving water use, defi­ The payback periods on Line 13 should be nite conservation potential evaluated in light of the longevity of the wa­

14 SELECTING RETROFIT STRATEGIES

Table 2—Estimate of Indoor Water Conservation Potential, Costs, and Payback

ITEM TOILET FAUCETS SHOWERHEADS CLOTHES WASHER

1. Flush volume in gallons per flush (gpf) _____ gpf _____ gpm _____ gpm _____ g/load for existing toilets; flow rate in gallons per minute (gpm) for existing faucets and showerheads; average water use per load for existing clothes washers

2. Flush volume, flow rate, or use per load _____ gpf _____ gpm _____ gpm _____ g/load for water conserving replacements or toilet inserts

3. Potential reduction in water use _____ gpf _____ gpm _____ gpm _____ g/load (Subtract Line 2 from Line 1)

4. Daily use for each device (number of _____ flushes _____ min _____ min _____ loads flushes for toilets; number of minutes for faucets and showerheads; loads per day for washers)

5. Water savings in g/day/device (Multiply ______Lines 3 and 4)

6. Total number of devices in property ______

7. Total ccf of water saved per year* ______(Multiply Line 5 by Line 6 by 0.488)

8. Cost of water per ccf (from water bill)* ______

9. Dollars saved per year (Multiple Lines 7 ______and 8)

10. Cost of retrofits/replacements ______

11. Rebate amounts, if any ______

12. Net costs (Subtract Line 11 from ______Line 10)

13. Payback period in years (Divide Line 12 ______by Line 9)

* Make appropriate corrections if water bill is in thousands of gallons.

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 15 SELECTING RETROFIT STRATEGIES

CONSERVATION

ter savings obtained from the various conser­ place and recording the lowest depth of wa­ vation measures. New toilets may be ex­ ter during the flushing process. The differ­ pected to have a useful life of about 20 ence between the full and near-empty tank years; toilet inserts, however, may last five depths is the height of the water column. years or less. Faucet aerators and low-flow To determine flush volume: showerheads may have a useful life of about ten years. Clothes washers may last 12 years Multiply the height of the water column (in-unit) or less (laundry areas). by the tank width and length (all in inches), and then by 0.0043 to convert The table may yield some results that require the result to gallons per flush. additional investigation, and the following guidelines are provided to facilitate this re­ This measured flush volume is not exact, as search process. Property owners may be able it does not take into account the water that to obtain some of the required data from a enters the tank as the toilet is being flushed. water audit conducted by their water utility. The measurement is sufficiently accurate, however, for purposes of estimating conser­ Toilet Flush Volumes vation potential, particularly in light of the fact that several other approximations have Existing toilets are most likely of the gravity- to be made. flush type, that is, they have a tank that dis­ charges water into a bowl after a handle is Ideally all toilets on the property are alike pulled down. Other types include toilets and one measurement of flush volume will with pressure-assisted flush and units with suffice. If there are different makes and flushometer valves, such as the ones found models of toilets, more than one measure­ in airports or commercial buildings. ment may be required. An average flush vol­ ume for all toilets in the building should be Some gravity flush toilets use over 5 gallons entered in Table 2. of water per flush, others use less. The ultra- low flush type (ULFTs), use 1.6 gallons per The flush volume after retrofits should be flush or less. If the property already has verified with the manufacturers of the vari­ ULFTs there is no need to consider any toi­ ous devices. The following values serve as let retrofit strategy. If older toilets with general guidelines: larger flush volumes are in place, their flush ■ Use 1.6 gallons per flush for new toilets volumes should be determined. ■ Reduce initial flush volume by 0.3 gal­ lons for a displacement device, unless One of the simplest ways to determine flush manufacturer specifies a higher number volume is to measure it. After lifting the toi­ (use displacement devices only in high let tank lid, a tape measure can be used to flush volume toilets) determine width and length of the tank. The ■ Reduce initial flush volume by 0.5 gal­ height of the water column used for flushing lons for installation of a quick-closing can be determined by measuring the depth flapper valve or water level adjustment, of water before flushing, then flushing the unless manufacturers specify different toilet while holding the tape measure in numbers.

16 SELECTING RETROFIT STRATEGIES

Faucet and Showerhead Flow Clothes Washer Loads Rates The gallons per load (also termed “per cy­ Flow rates depend not only on the capacity cle”) used by a washing machine are gener­ of the fixture but also on the available water ally included in the literature that comes pressure. The same model fixture will have a with the appliance. If the manuals are not higher flow rate in a building with 80 available, the volumes may be obtained di­ pounds per square inch (psi) of pressure than rectly from the manufacturer. in a building with 40 psi pressure. If a prop­ Older, standard efficiency clothes washers erty has several buildings with different water use from 33 to over 40 gallons of water per pressures, the fixtures in each building load (the 33 gallons per load figure is from a should be treated separately. 1999 study of multi-family common laun­ Flow rates may be measured using a stop­ dry areas in Toronto, Canada; a study per­ watch and a specially designed flow-measur­ formed for Southern California Edison in ing bag available in hardware stores or from 2000 found 38 gallons per load; studies in water utilities. The flow rate is measured by Seattle found over 40 gallons per load). setting the bag to receive all flow from the Newer, high performance or high efficiency fixture, opening the faucet or showerhead to clothes washers use considerably less water. its normal operating range, and allowing flow The 2000 Southern California Edison study into the bag for a pre-determined number of (conducted by Battelle Pacific Northwest seconds (specified on the bag, usually five Laboratories) found that Maytag high per­ seconds). The flow rate can then be read di­ formance washing machines used on the av­ rectly from markings on the side of the bag. erage 15.4 gallons of water per cycle; the Speed Queen brand used 17.0 gallons per The flow rates after retrofits should be veri­ cycle; and Whirlpool high efficiency washers fied with the manufacturers of the various used on the average 27.4 gallons per cycle. devices. The change in flow rate between an old showerhead and a new one, in particular, Daily Fixture/Appliance Use could vary widely from one property to the next. The following values may be used as How many times is a toilet flushed each day? general guidelines: How many minutes does a faucet or a show­ ■ Reduce faucet flow rate by 0.5 gpm for erhead operate each day? How many loads of faucet aerators unless manufacturer speci­ laundry are done in each washer per day? fies otherwise; low flow faucets generally These numbers vary from one household to have flow rates of 2.2 gpm or less. the next. Unfortunately no comprehensive ■ Assume a flow rate reduction of 0.75 study has been conducted at the national gpm for new showerheads if no other in­ level to determine average usage for fixtures formation is available; low flow shower- in a multi-family setting. Based on available heads generally have flow rates of 2.5 data, the following guidelines are provided: gpm or less.

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 17 SELECTING RETROFIT STRATEGIES

CONSERVATION

■ Toilets are flushed roughly 5 times per age number of people per apartment and person per day (Residential End Uses of multiply it by 0.37 (or other number judged Water, a study conducted in 1999 for the appropriate to the site in question) to obtain American Water Works Association, the number of loads per day. If the property found an average of 5.05 flushes per per­ has common area washers, take the number son per day from measurements in close of residents in the entire property and multi­ to 1,200 single-family homes). If an ply it by 0.1 to obtain the number of loads apartment houses two people and has for all common area machines. Then divide one toilet, the toilet would be flushed 10 times per day. that number by the number of machines to obtain the “loads per washer.” ■ Faucet use in apartments may be around 14 minutes per day (from a multi-family study conducted in Seattle in 1993). If OUTDOOR WATER USES an apartment has two faucets, the as­ Outdoor and common area water uses in sumption is that each faucet would be used for 7 minutes a day. multi-family properties can range from vir­ tually none to over 20 percent of the total ■ Showerhead use in apartments may be close to 6 minutes per person per day water consumption. Some properties may be (from the same 1993 multi-family study able to implement all of the seven outdoor in Seattle). retrofit strategies presented in this guide­ ■ Clothes washer use differs markedly be­ book. Others may be limited by the charac­ tween in-unit machines and washers in teristics of their water use to one or two of common laundry areas. them. A 2001 study for the Multi-housing If it were feasible to implement the seven Laundry Association found that the volume retrofit strategies outlined in the previous of water used for laundry per apartment unit section of this guidebook, in what order of was almost four times higher in properties preference should they be considered? that had in-unit clothes washers. Dwellers Again, the analysis may differ from one re­ apparently adjust their laundry habits when gion of the country to another, and property they have to use common area washers. In- owners are urged to consult with landscap­ unit washers possibly handle between 0.3 ing and water conservation professionals in and 0.4 loads per person per day their area. A research paper sponsored by (Residential End Uses of Water found a usage HUD, Retrofit Water Conservation Strategies of 0.37 loads per person per day in single- for Multi Family Housing (available online at family homes). Common area washers may www.pathnet.org/publications/water.pdf) handle about 0.1 loads per person per day suggests the following rankings: (from the Toronto study). So what number 1. Eliminate narrow strips of turf should be entered for number of loads of 2. Reduce lawn areas washing in the fourth row of Table 2? If the 3. Use separate meters for outdoor water property has in-unit washers, take the aver­ uses

18 SELECTING RETROFIT STRATEGIES

4. Install soil moisture or rain sensors GRAY WATER 5. Install specially fitted hose bibs to restrict outdoor water use Gray water systems are becoming increas­ 6. Replace sprinklers with drip irrigation ingly attractive, particularly in areas with se­ systems vere water shortages, limited water and 7. Use low water consumption native plants wastewater treatment facilities, and special environmental concerns (i.e. groundwater Property owners may also consider the ad­ contamination or highly polluted surface vantages of another important common-area waters). water use: laundry facilities. As noted previ­ ously, transitioning from in-unit clothes Rainwater harvesting is gaining acceptance washers to common laundry facilities may in several states (Hawaii, Texas, Arizona, decrease the amount of water used to wash New Mexico) where summer rain is com­ clothes by more than half. mon. In Hawaii County, more than 8,000 homes have rainwater catchment systems. When selecting outdoors retrofit strategies The city of Austin, Texas, offers rebates for property owners should consider that: the installation of rainwater harvesting sys­ ■ Narrow strips of turf use up to four times tems. A demonstration home in Phoenix, as much water for irrigation than a lawn Arizona, illustrates the advantages of rainwa­ of comparable area. ter harvesting. The city of Albuquerque, ■ One inch of water applied to 1,000 New Mexico, offers a booklet titled square feet of lawn amounts to 624 gal­ Rainwater Harvesting, Supply From The Sky lons. In one year a lawn may require 30 that gives system design and construction inches of irrigation, or 18,720 gallons. information. ■ Meters on outdoor water uses do not save any water themselves; they do pro­ Rainwater collection for both landscaping mote conservation by helping property and toilet flushing has been implemented at owners appreciate the volumes of water a number of facilities in the United States, used outdoors. primarily office buildings. Among them: ■ Soil moisture and rain sensors are only ef­ ■ The King Street Center in Seattle, fective if the information derived from Washington, a 327,000 square feet office them is used to adjust watering schedules. building, uses a rainwater collection sys­ ■ Restriction of outdoor uses such as car tem for toilet-flushing water. washing is likely to elicit a negative re­ ■ The Chesapeake Bay Foundation build­ sponse from residents upon its introduc­ ing in Annapolis, Maryland, features tion; some properties have dealt with this rooftop cisterns that capture rainwater issue by offering discount coupons usable for hand washing and fire suppression. at local car washes. ■ The U.S. Navy Energy Showcase build­ ■ Drip irrigation systems significantly re­ ing at the Naval Construction Battalion duce water use, but also increase mainte­ Center in Port Hueneme, California, nance requirements. uses rainwater for irrigation.

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 19 SELECTING RETROFIT STRATEGIES

CONSERVATION

One multi-family property, a triplex owned tem with a 5,000-gallon storage tank could by a builder in Seattle, Washington, has in­ cost about $20,000 and have limited use in stalled a rainwater collection system that locations where rainfall is not distributed provides water for toilet flushing with the evenly throughout the year. For the same intent of evaluating this technology for $20,000 a property owner would be able to wider scale use in new construction. install a hybrid system capable of treating over 100 gallons per day year round. On the Gray water recycling systems have been im­ other hand, a gray water system without plemented in multi-family properties in rainwater collection would cost roughly the Ottawa and North Vancouver, Canada. same as a hybrid system. The incremental Some properties in the United States have costs of collecting rainwater from rooftop installed dual piping upon construction to and driveway catchments are relatively use gray water in the future for toilet flush­ small. ing. The EcoVillage Cohousing Cooperative in Ithaca, New York, is one such property. The cost of installing gray water systems is relatively high when compared to the cost of Hybrid systems using both rainwater collec­ other retrofit strategies. Certain site-specific tion and recycling of gray water for toilet conditions, however, could favor the selec­ flushing have yet to make an appearance in tion of such a system: multi-family housing, although they are more cost effective than systems that have ■ Water is extremely scarce and expensive rainwater collection or gray water recycling ■ There are severe limitations on waste­ alone. The cost effectiveness of such systems water discharges may be enhanced in places where the water ■ The volume of water used for irrigation storage tanks (the most expensive compo­ is over 20 percent of the total water use nent of the system after the separate plumb­ ■ Internal plumbing is such that retro­ ing of toilets) can serve multiple purposes fitting toilet piping is relatively easy such as detention storage to reduce flooding ■ The property is required to store water and erosion from storm water discharges. for flood and erosion control purposes ■ Local utilities offer rebates for the instal­ Which gray water system, if any, is right for lation of gray water systems. a property? A hybrid system that includes both rainwater collection and gray water re­ Property owners are advised to check local cycling is likely to be the most advanta­ health regulations and water codes before geous. A rainwater collection system by itself consideration of gray water systems. A list­ will have limited use and a relatively high ing of applicable statutes is included in cost of up to $4 per gallon of storage. A sys­ Appendix D.

20 RETROFIT SAVINGS AND COST

When properly implemented and main­ proponents of selected retrofit strategies, and tained, the strategies discussed in this guide­ research organizations. Studies of multi­ book are very likely to conserve water and family properties and single-family homes lower water, sewer, and power bills. An ini­ were examined. tial, sometimes significant investment of None of the estimates has universal applica­ time and money is required to obtain the bility, but are included to serve as a guide in water savings. Money spent on retrofits can the preliminary evaluation of the merits of sometimes be recovered within two years retrofit strategies in multi-family properties. and in other cases over a longer time frame. Other important points to note: Quantifying water savings and implementa­ ■ The table includes water savings in gal­ tion costs is difficult. The physical condi­ lons per year. For indoor and outdoor tions affecting retrofit strategies change from water uses involving devices, the savings one property to the next. Labor and material are per device (toilet, faucet, showerhead, costs can also vary markedly from one re­ clothes washer). For outdoor water uses gion to another. These challenges are com­ involving irrigation the savings are per pounded by the lack of studies in multi­ thousand square feet of area irrigated 30 family settings with results that are applica­ inches per year. ble at the national level. ■ Estimated implementation costs include device and labor costs. Labor costs were Difficulties notwithstanding, estimated wa­ estimated assuming plumbers at Full details on how the wa­ ter savings and costs for the retrofit strate­ $60/hour and technicians/laborers at ter savings and costs fig­ gies outlined in this guidebook (other than $36/hour. ures were determined are gray water systems) are presented in Table 3. ■ The “ease of implementation” is a subjec­ available in Retrofit Water Water savings will usually fall within the tive factor indicating relative difficulty. Conservation Strategies for specified ranges but could easily be higher or The strategies easiest to implement were Multi-Family Housing, avail­ lower at some properties. given an “ease” factor of 1.0; the lower able at www.pathnet.org/publica­ The estimates were derived from data avail­ the factor the more difficult to imple­ tions/water.pdf able through multiple sources. Information ment. was gathered with the collaboration of vari­ ■ The “longevity” of a measure is a rough ous water utilities, companies offering retro­ approximation of the useful life of a fit services or devices, supporters and retrofit. Twenty years was used as the base for the longer lasting strategies.

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 21 RETROFIT SAVINGS AND COSTS

CONSERVATION

Table 3. Estimated Water Savings and Costs

WATER SAVINGS PER ESTIMATED INDOOR WATER USE RETROFIT IMPLEMENTATION EASE OF LONGEVITY RETROFIT STRATEGY (GALLONS PER YEAR) COSTS PER RETROFIT IMPLEMENTATION (YEARS)

ULFT installation; high volume/multiple 3,650–7,300 $110-$195 0.7 20 installation discount

Installation of high efficiency clothes 3,650–5,475 $200+ 0.7 12 washers; high volume/multiple installation discount

Implementation of submetering system 2,410–4,820 $225–$500* 0.5 10 ≠ Leak detection and repair—toilets 1,095–2,555 $11–$29 1 2 ≠ Installation of low-flow showerheads 1,095–2,190 $17 1 10 ≠ Installation of low-flow faucet aerators 183–1,643 $2 1 10 ≠ Installation of quick-closing flappers in 730–1,460 $14–$22 1 5 toilets ≠ Installation of toilet displacement devices 365–1,095 $2 1 5 ≠ Installation of toilet water level adjustment 365–1,095 $20–$32 1 5 ≠ Leak detection and repairfaucets 219–438 $7 1 2 ≠ Leak detection and repair—showerheads 219–438 $14–$29 1 4 Elimination of narrow strips of turf 73,500 $600 0.8 20

Reduction of lawn area 18,720 $288 0.8 20

Installation of soil moisture or rain sensors 3,245 $105 1 10

Replacement of sprinklers with drip systems 24,340 $1,000–$1500* 0.7 10

Use of low-water consumption and native 13,990 $3,000–$6,000 0.7 20 plants ≠ Installation of special faucets/hose bibs 6,388 $28 1 10

* Additional maintenance costs involved, estimated as follows: ■ Submetering: $24–$36 per unit per year ■ Drip Systems: $720 per year per thousand square-foot area ≠ Quick pay-back strategies

22 REFERENCES

Ayres Associates. October 1993. The Impact of Water Conserving Plumbing Fixtures on Institutional and Multi-Family Water Use, Case Studies of Two Sites in Tampa, Florida. Report prepared for the City of Tampa Water Department, Water Conservation Section.

Baxter, J. W., Bowen, P. T., Harp, J. F., and Shull, R. D. 1993. Residential Water Use Patterns. American Water Works Association Research Foundation.

California Urban Water Conservation Council. As amended September 21, 2000. Memorandum Of Understanding: Urban Water Conservation in California.

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. 1999. Multi-Residential High Efficiency Clothes Washer Pilot Project: Metro Toronto. Improving Quality and Affordability.

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. April 2000. Water Conservation Case Studies: Quayside Village. Improving Quality and Affordability.

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. August 2000. Water Conservation Case Studies: Conservation Co-op. Improving Quality and Affordability.

Currie, J.W., Hillman, T.C., Parker, G.B., and Sullivan, G.P. December 2000. Southern California Edison High-Performance Clothes Washer Demonstration at Leisure World Laguna Woods. Final Report submitted to Southern California Edison Company by Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory.

Deoreo, W.B., Dietemann, A., Skeel, T., Mayer, P.W., Lewis, D.M., and Smith J. March 2001. Retrofit Realities. Journal of the American Water Works Association.

East Bay Municipal Utility District, Water Conservation Division, Oakland, California. October 2001. Water Conservation Market Penetration Study. Prepared by Water Resources Engineering, Inc., San Francisco, California.

Florida Native Plants. Plant List & Prices. Retrieved December 17, 2001, from http://www.flori­ danativeplants.com/pricelist/pricelist_1.html

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 23 REFERENCES

CONSERVATION

Flory, B.E. and Dietemann, A. 1992. An Analysis of Seattle’s Multifamily Retrofit Pilot Program. Proceedings of the American Water Works Association 1992 Annual Conference, June 18–22, 1992, Vancouver, British Columbia.

Goodman, J. June 1999. Water Conservation from User Charges in Multifamily Rental Housing. Presented at the mid-year meeting of the American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association.

Hill, S. and Skeel, T. Modified June 2000. Evaluation of Savings From Seattle’s Home Water Saver Apartment/Condominium Program. Seattle Public Utilities.

Jenkins, J. July 1999. Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure. Jenkins Publishing Grove City, PA.

Konen, T. and Anderson, D.L. March 1993. The Impact of Water Conserving Plumbing Fixtures on Residential Water Use Characteristics: A Case Study in Tampa, Florida. Report prepared for the City of Tampa Water Department, Water Conservation Section, by Stevens Institute of Technology and Ayres Associates.

Koplow, D. and Lownie, A. June 1999. Submetering, RUBS, and Water Conservation. Report pre­ pared for the National Apartment Association and the National Multi Housing Council by Industrial Economics, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Mayer, P. W., et al. 1999. Residential End Uses of Water. American Water Works Association Research Foundation.

Mayer, P.W. and DeOreo, W.B. 1995. Process Approach for Measuring Residential Water Use and Assessing Conservation Effectiveness. Journal of the American Water Works Association.

Metropolitan Water District of Southern California. December 1999. Ultra-Low-Flush Toilets Customer Satisfaction Survey.

National Multi Housing Council. 2000. Capital Improvements to Apartments - Projections for States and Metro Areas.

National Research Center. March 2001. A National Study of Laundry-Water Use in Multi-Housing.

National Water & Power. September 2001. Current Legal Status of Water and Sewer Submetering, Allocation and Billing For Apartment Properties in the United States. Working Draft Paper.

Native Here Nursery. Project of California Native Plant Society. Retrieved December 17, 2001, from http://www.ebcnps.org/ebRPD/Home.htm

Nelson, J.O. October 1992. Water Audit Encourages Residents to Reduce Consumption. Management and Operations Journal, AWWA.

Nelson, J.O. and Kruta, J.C. June 1994. Water Saved by Single-Family Xeriscapes. American Water Works National Conference.

24 REFERENCES

New England Wild Flower Society Native Here Nursery. Retrieved December 17, 2001, from http://www.newfs.org

New Mexico Office of the State Engineer. July 1999. A Water Conservation Guide for Commercial, Institutional and Industrial Users. Water Use and Conservation Bureau.

New Mexico Office of the State Engineer. March 2001. A Water Conservation Guide For Public Utilities. Water Use and Conservation Bureau.

Tomlinson, J. J. and Rizy, D. T. March 1998. Bern Clothes Washers Study. Prepared by the Energy Division of Oakridge National Laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy.

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. March 2002. Retrofit Water Conservation Strategies for Multi-Family Housing. A Technical Memorandum prepared by Water Resources Engineering, Inc., San Francisco, California.

Vickers, Amy. 2001. Handbook of Water Use and Conservation. Waterplow Press. Amherst, Massachusetts.

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 25

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A. HOW MUCH WATER IS USED INDOORS?

HOW MUCH WATER IS USED Water Usage Assumptions INDOORS? Assumptions were derived from a number of studies listed in Retrofit Water Conservation Indoor water use in multi-family properties Strategies for Multi-Family Housing (HUD depends on a number of sociological, demo­ 2002). Studies of multi-family settings in graphic, and technological factors. No single Tampa, Florida; Oakland, California; and estimate of water use can have universal ap­ Seattle, Washington provided the most rele­ plicability. To gain insight into how water vant information. A comprehensive study of use is distributed, assumptions used in this single-family housing, the Residential End guidebook were based on available data as Uses of Water, was also used as a source of noted below. data. General Assumptions

A typical one-bedroom apartment was as­ sumed, with a single toilet, one showerhead, and two faucets, one in the kitchen and one AVERAGE OCCUPANCY TWO ADULTS PER in the bathroom. The apartment was as­ APARTMENT UNIT sumed to include a clothes washer and a Number of toilets One dishwasher; the distribution of water use Number of showerheads One would differ in the many housing units that do not include these appliances. Number of faucets Two Clothes washer Yes Dishwasher Yes

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 27 APPENDIX A

CONSERVATION

FIXTURE/ NON-CONSERVING CONSERVING ■ Showerhead usage: 0.75 showers per APPLIANCE USAGE USAGE day per person were assumed based on single-family data from Residential End Toilet (gallons per flush) 3.5 1.6 Uses of Water. Shower duration was as­ Showerhead (gallons per 2.5 1.5 sumed at six minutes, from Tampa study minute) (Residential End Uses of Water found a Faucet (gallons per minute) 2.0 1.5 longer duration of 6.8 minutes). Clothes washer (gallons per 40.0 25.0 ■ Faucet usage: 14 minutes per apart­ load or wash cycle) ment per day, or 7 minutes per faucet for Dishwasher (gallons per day 10.0 5.0 a two-faucet apartment, based on 1993 per cycle) Seattle study. This is close to the 8.1 minutes per person per day recorded in Leaks (gallons per person 3.4 0.0 Residential End Uses of Water for single per day family houses. ■ Clothes washer usage: The average clothes washer use in multi-family units The volume of water used by clothes wash­ has not been determined conclusively. ers was approximated from two studies. A Residential End Uses of Water found 2000 study conducted for Southern 0.37 cycles per person per day in single- California Edison showed non-conserving family homes; multi-family units, with usage of 37.9 gallons per cycle. The same generally less people and children per study showed significant differences in water unit can be expected to use less. The usage among three brands of high efficiency Toronto study found 0.10 cycles per per­ son per day in properties with laundry clothes washers: Maytag used 15.4, Speed rooms. A comparison of in-unit and Queen used 17.0, and Whirlpool used 27.4 common area washers (A National Study gallons per cycle. A 1999 study in Toronto, of Laundry Water Use in Multi-Housing, Canada, showed a 15 gallon per cycle differ­ National Research Center, 2001) found ence between non-conserving and high effi­ that in-unit washers used 3.9 times more ciency washers, and this water savings was water than common area washers (imply­ assumed in estimating the distribution of ing 0.39 cycles per person per day if water usage in multi-family housing. combined with the Toronto data). A conservative estimate of 0.3 cycles per Frequency of Use Assumptions person per day was used. ■ Dishwasher usage: Residential End The same sources were used for frequency of Uses of Water found an average usage in use assumptions. The following frequencies single-family homes of 0.1 cycles per per­ were used: son per day. This same value was as­ ■ Toilet usage: Four flushes per person sumed applicable to multi-family per day in non-conserving units, five in housing units. ultra-low flush units, based on 1993 Tampa study.

28 APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B. WATER CONSERVATION INCENTIVES

Below are 27 localities that currently (or recently) offer water conservation incentives. Incentives change over time, so check with your local water utility for the most recent listing.

Albuquerque, New Mexico Atlanta, Georgia Austin, Texas Boston, Massachusetts Cary, North Carolina Columbus, Ohio Corvallis, Oregon El Paso, Texas Eugene, Oregon Greensboro, North Carolina Houston, Texas Los Angeles, California Marin County, California Miami-Dade County, Florida New York City, New York North Miami Beach, Florida Oakland, California Phoenix, Arizona San Antonio, Texas San Diego, California San Jose, California Santa Clara County Water District, California Santa Monica, California Santa Rosa, California Seattle, Washington Tampa Bay, Florida Tempe, Arizona

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 29 APPENDIX B

CONSERVATION

Albuquerque, New Mexico ■ Xeriscape Program: Landscape consult­ ants visit residential sites and make water ■ Ultra-low Flush Toilet (ULFT) Rebate conservation recommendations; Program: Multi-family residential units xeriscape brochures are made available to receive a $75 rebate per toilet. customers. ■ Residential Audit Program: City re­ ■ Low-flow Showerhead Program: A free views water use patterns and billing, low-flow showerhead program is sched­ checks for leaks, and assesses outdoor uled to be in effect by 2004. landscaping and sprinkler systems. Also installs of 2.5 gpm showerheads, high- Austin, Texas efficiency faucet aerators, auto-shut off hose nozzles, and a toilet fill tube diverter ■ Free ULFT’s and $30 installation credit, or displacement device if needed. or rebates from $60 to $100. ■ ■ High-Efficiency Clothes Washer Rebate Free low-flow showerheads to replace Program: $100 for each washer replaced. older models. ■ ■ Landscape Rebate Program: Water bill Information on submetering. credit of $0.25 for every square foot of ■ Clothes Washers: Up to $250 rebate for qualifying landscape, to a maximum re­ replacing standard washers with high ef­ bate of $700. Low-and medium-water­ ficiency washers; this rebate applies to use plants must cover fifty percent of the washers that are installed in common project area at maturity. An inspector area laundry rooms. must approve the application before com­ ■ Wash-Wise Program: Up to $100 re­ mencement of work. bates to apartment and multi-family ■ Rainwater Harvesting: Booklet titled housing that are water customers; rebate Rainwater Harvesting, Supply From The is for in-unit water and energy efficient Sky gives system design and construction front-loading commercial clothes wash­ information. ers. ■ City prohibits landscape watering be­ ■ Rainwater Harvesting Program: Rebate tween 10 a.m. and 6 p.m. April through up to $500 on the cost of installing a October. rainwater harvesting system. ■ A modest summer rate surcharge is added ■ Information on gray water systems. to water rates. ■ Whole System Audit: Free evaluation on all aspects of water consumption. Atlanta, Georgia (DeKalb ■ Irrigation System Rebates: up to $150 County) for certain controllers, rain shutoff de­ ■ Watering Restrictions: No watering be­ vices, pressure reducer value, and certain tween 10 a.m. and 10 p.m. seven days a types of sprinkler heads. week. Outside those hours, odd- ■ Conservation Rate Structure: Base unit numbered addresses may use water water rate is based on peak and off-peak outdoors on odd-numbered days, even- times of year. numbered addresses on even-numbered ■ Revised Plumbing Code will require all days. new apartments to be plumbed for sub- metering.

30 APPENDIX B

■ In 2003, a Texas state law will take effect ■ High Bill Inspection (HBI) Program: requiring all water utilities to directly Indoor and outdoor water audits offered meter or submeter on all new properties. to customers concerned about high bills. ■ Submetering: Information about subme­ Boston, Massachusetts tering systems is made available to cus­ ■ Water conservation kits offered free to tomers on request; implementation is up customers and include a low-flow show­ to the customer. erhead, two faucet aerators, one toilet tank dam, and leak detection dye tablets. Corvallis, Oregon ■ Outdoor Water Use Efficiency: The ■ Perform water audits and give out water Massachusetts Water Resources savings fixtures (showerheads, faucet aera­ Authority offers informational materials tors, toilet flappers, and toilet displace­ to customers. ment devices). ■ Clothes Washer Rebate Program: Offers Cary, North Carolina $50 for the purchase and installation of a ■ Reclaimed Water System: Provides non- high efficiency clothes washer. potable reclaimed water for irrigation ■ ULFT Rebate Program: $25 rebate. systems within the local retail service area. El Paso, Texas ■ Conservation Rate Structure: Charges a ■ Clothes Washer Rebate: $200 for a hori­ higher unit rate to residential customers zontal-axis washing machine. as level of consumption increases. ■ ULFT Rebate: 75 percent rebate up to ■ Watering Restrictions: Odd/even day $100. watering. ■ Turf Rebate Program: Incentive to con­ ■ Water Waste Ordinance: Prohibits vert only turf areas that are already estab­ wasteful outdoor watering that falls di­ lished to water efficient landscape designs rectly onto impervious surfaces. and incorporate low water use plants and ■ Rain Sensor Ordinance: Requires all ir­ common sense horticulture practices that rigation systems to install a rain sensor. save water. Columbus, Ohio Eugene, Oregon

■ Indoor Water Conservation Kit: ■ Free low-flow showerheads and toilet Offered free to customers, kits include flappers to customers. two faucet aerators, one toilet tank dis­ ■ ULFT Rebate Program: $25 for the first placement bag, leak detection tablets, toilet and $10 for each additional toilet and installation instructions. ■ Rebate for the purchase of a high effi­ ■ Outdoor Water Conservation Kit: ciency clothes washer. Offered free to customers, kits include water savings tips and water gages (water Greensboro, North Carolina grass no more than 1 inch per week). ■ Provide free low-flow showerheads and toilet flappers to complexes built prior to 1994.

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 31 APPENDIX B

CONSERVATION

Houston, Texas ■ A Time of Scale Practice is in the works, which will require installation of 1.6 gpf ■ Water Conservation Kits that include toilets before selling property. toilet displacement bag, toilet tank, leak detection dye tablets, flow restrictor. Miami-Dade County, Florida

Los Angeles, California ■ Water conservation kits. ■ ULFT Program: The Metropolitan New York City, New York Water District (MWD) offers a rebate of $60 for replacing non-conserving toilets ■ Free low-flow showerheads and toilet with ULFT’s; the Los Angeles Depart­ flappers in home water savings kits. ment of Water and Power (LADWP) of­ North Miami Beach, Florida fers free ULFTs in exchange for non-ULFTs or $75 rebates for ULFTs. ■ Showerhead Exchange Program: ■ Residential Clothes Washer Program: Provides 2.5 gpm showerheads, 1.5 gpm MWD, in partnership with energy utili­ faucet aerators, and toilet leak detection ties, offers rebates from $85-$150 for in­ tablets. stalling a high efficiency clothes washer; the LADWP offers $150 in rebates for Oakland, California; East Bay in-unit high efficiency washers and $250 Municipal Utility District for common area coin/card operated (EBMUD) high efficiency washers. ■ Free on-site surveys of indoor and out­ ■ LADWP offers free 2.0 gpm shower- door water use. heads and 1.0 gpm faucet aerators. ■ Free showerheads and faucet aerators of­ ■ Conservation Rate Structure: The base fered if existing fixtures are not low-flow unit price for water is higher in the warm models; toilet inserts also offered. (summer) months and lower in the ■ cooler (winter) months. Landscape Program: Must have separate outside meter to qualify for rebate. A Marin County, California representative will perform an audit on ways to enhance savings outdoors. If any ■ ULFT Rebate Program: $75 rebate. of these suggestions are completed the ■ Energy Star Clothes Washer Rebate utility will provide a rebate of 50–100 Program: $75 rebate to customers. percent of the cost, includes rain sensors, ■ Customer Assistance Program: drip systems etc. Consultation of indoor water use; re­ ■ Clothes Washer Rebates: $150 for pur­ places high-water use fixtures (shower­ chasing a residential high-efficiency heads, aerators) free of cost. Energy Star® rated clothes washers for ■ Irrigation System Consultation Check: in-unit facilities. During the summer months the top 20 ■ Commercial Clothes Washer Rebate: percent of water users qualify for a con­ $50 for purchasing a high-efficiency ma­ sultation check. This entails looking for chine that meets Consortium for Energy leaks and/or breaks in the system. Efficiency (CEE) standards for common laundry facilities.

32 APPENDIX B

■ Toilet Replacement Program: ULFT ■ Horizontal-Axis Washing Machine rebates up to $50 per toilet replaced. Vouchers: Vouchers up to $300 off the ■ Direct ULFT Installation Program: cost of new high-efficiency washing ma­ Free installation of ULFT’s to replace chines. The Padre Dam Municipal Water higher-flush toilets. District and San Diego County Water ■ National Submetering Study, Authority offer $125; MWD, in partner­ 2001–2002; managed by Richard ship with energy utilities, offers rebates Bennett of EBMUD and sponsored by of $85-$150; the Helix Water District several water utilities. offers up to $300 off the price of a coin- operated washer. Phoenix, Arizona ■ Residential Water Use Survey Program: The Helix Water District of­ ■ Perform on-site water audits and pro­ fers the services of an expert surveyor vide, when appropriate, free replacement who reviews indoor and outdoor water showerheads. use for the entire complex and offers wa­ ■ Recommend other measures and project ter-saving suggestions; low-flow shower- savings from those measures. heads and faucet aerators are provided San Antonio, Texas free of charge. The Padre Dam Municipal Water District offers a similar ■ ULFT Rebate Program: $75 per toilet service to multi-family accounts with replaced. above average annual water use. ■ Clothes Washer Rebate Program: San ■ Landscape Assistance Program: Multi­ Antonio Water System offers $100 and family properties with at least one acre of the CPS also offers $100 credit rebate for landscaping qualify for an evaluation of a possible total rebate amount of $200. water use. A surveyor will conduct an au­ ■ Xeriscape Program: $0.10 per square dit either by telephone or in person to foot for planning and installing a water determine water conservation opportuni­ saver landscape with a minimum conver­ ties. The same program is offered sion of 1,000 square feet ($100) and a through the Helix Water District, the maximum rebate of $500. If over 50 per­ Padre Dam Municipal Water District, cent of the landscape is planted in turf and the San Diego County Water only half credit will be given. Authority. ■ Public Information Program: A speaker San Diego, California will come out to a meeting with the resi­ ■ ULFT Program: Rebates for replacing a dents and cover water conservation top­ non-conserving toilet with a ULFT ics tailored to their interests. range from $60-$100 in the San Diego area: the Padre Dam Municipal Water San Jose, California District offers a rebate of $75; MWD of­ ■ Water audits offered through San Jose fers a $60 rebate that may be comple­ Water. mented by local water utilities; the Helix ■ $40 cash back per ULFT installed with Water District and the San Diego free delivery. County Water Authority offer $75 and will pick up old toilets free of charge.

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 33 APPENDIX B

CONSERVATION

Santa Clara County Water Santa Rosa, California

District, California ■ Offers free informational publications on ■ ULFT Rebate Program: Customer pays landscape conservation. $15 per toilet, includes installation. ■ Direct-Install Program: Will pay the ■ Survey/Audit Program: Includes irriga­ cost of materials and labor when partici­ tion inspection for sites with less than pating plumbing contractors change toi­ one acre of landscaping; includes let(s), showerheads and faucet aerators to installation of showerheads, faucet aera­ low-flow models. tors, toilet flappers, and/or toilet dis­ ■ “Go Low-Flow” Plumbing Incentive placement devices. Program: Replace a minimum of one ■ Irrigation Technical Assistance high flush-volume toilet with a low-flow Program (ITAP): A large landscape au­ model (1.6 gallons per flush), as well as dit program free for sites with more than change any showerheads and faucet aera­ one acre of landscaping. tors that do not meet the current flow- rate standards. Old toilet(s) need to be ■ Clothes Washer Rebate Program: Amount depends on what city the com­ recycled at Waste Management and re­ plex is in. ceive a rebate. ■ Horizontal-Axis (H-axis) Coin- ■ Free showerheads and faucet aerators can be ordered over the phone or on the Operated Clothes Washing Machine internet. Rebate Program: Rebate of $450 per top-loading coin-operated washing ma­ Santa Monica, California chine that is replaced with water conserv­ ing H-axis models. ■ Direct-Install Program for Toilets: ■ Efficient Landscape Water Direct installation of ULFTs for $35 per Management Rebate Program: toilet. Customers irrigating with city water ■ Tank Type ULFT Rebate Program: through a dedicated irrigation meter can Choose a tank type ultra low flow toilet apply each year. Eligible customers can (1.6 gallons per flush) to install from the earn $500 for each acre-foot (325,851 city’s list of approved water-saving fix­ gallons) of water savings below their tures for a $75 rebate. Efficient Irrigation Goal each year. ■ Flushometer Valve Type ULFT Rebate Program: Rebate of $150 for retrofitting Seattle, Washington flushometer valve (no tank) type toilets. ■ $40 to $100 for replacing water-wasting The bowl must be replaced with a 1.6 toilet with a ULFT, depending on in­ gallons per flush bowl and the valve come and area. retrofitted with a 1.6 gallons per flush ■ retrofit kit. Free showerheads and toilet flappers to customers. ■ Helpful water savings tips. ■ Laundry Wise Program: Rebates be­ ■ Landscape ordinance regulating amount tween $50 and $150 per machine de­ of turf, plant species, and irrigation pending on property location. systems.

34 APPENDIX B

■ $250 rebate per coin-operated laundry ■ Free Low-flow Fixtures: Include a machine. showerhead (2.5 gpm) and faucet ■ Information on submetering aerators ■ Water Efficient Irrigation: Funding for ■ Free rain sensors up to 50 percent of new equipment such ■ Irrigation Evaluation and Rebate as rain sensors and irrigation controllers Program: Surveyor evaluates irrigation ■ Home Water Saver system and suggests ways to improve wa­ Apartment/Condominium Program: ter efficiency; if suggested retrofits are Program aimed at the multi-family resi­ completed, up to $3,500 rebated dential sector, offering installation of ■ According to Florida state law, all new ir­ low-flow showerheads and faucet aera­ rigation systems must include a rain tors; aerators and low-flow showerheads sensor remain available to apartment buildings free of charge upon request Tempe, Arizona Tampa Bay, Florida ■ Water conservation kits that include a low-flow showerhead, 2 faucet aerators, a ■ Toilet Rebate Program: Rebates to cus­ toilet dam, a toilet tummy, toilet tank tomers who replace high flush toilets bank, leak detection tablets, Teflon tape with ULFT’s; up to $100 for first toilet, to install showerhead, and a water dis­ $80 for second, and $60 for third; re­ placement bag bates are per apartment unit ■ Rebates for ultra-low flush toilets ■ Rebates for low water use landscaping

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 35 APPENDIX C

CONSERVATION APPENDIX C. SUBMETERING REGULATIONS

The information in the following table was derived from the working draft of a paper ti­ tled Current Legal Status of Water and Sewer Submetering, Allocation and Billing For Apartment Properties In The United States, being developed by the National Submetering and Utility Allocation Association (NSUAA).

36 Submetering Regulations, Page 1 of 3

I S S UBMETERING A PPLICABLE S TATE I SIT L EGAL TO A DD F EES TO A RE T HERE R ULES THAT G OVERN TATE S L EGAL? R EGULATIONS/REGULATORY A GENCY R ESIDENT’ S W ATER B ILL? S UBMETERING AT THE L OCAL L EVEL?

A LABAMA Yes Public Service Commission does not have author­ No known prohibitions on fees - ity to regulate submetering

A LASKA Yes - - -

A RIZONA Yes Arizona Residential Landlord Tenant Act Recovery of administrative costs allowed -

A RKANSAS Yes Public Service Commission No Permission from the City required in Little Rock

C ALIFORNIA Yes The California Public Utilities Commission has Yes Check local regulations. The cities of Petaluma, not typically regulated owners who provide water San Bruno, Santa Clara, and Vacaville specifi­ to residents cally prohibit resale of water.

C OLORADO Yes Property owners may be subject to regulation by Fees not allowed for gas and electricity, - the Public Utilities Commission not specifically prohibited for water.

C ONNECTICUT Yes Private water companies are regulated by the Through permission from Department of - Department of Public Utility Control Public Utility Control

D ELAWARE Yes Delaware Residential Landlord-Tenant Code Pass-through rule must be complied with Encouraged in Newark

F LORIDA Yes in jurisdictions con­ Public Service Commission has jurisdiction over State does not prohibit fees, some local Check local regulations. The cities of Margate, trolled by Public Service about half the counties in the state authorities do New Smyrna Beach, Pinellas County, and West Commission Palm Beach specifically prohibit submetering.

G EORGIA Yes Code of Georgia Yes if stated in lease Augusta/Richmond County prohibits resale of wa­ ter

H AWAII Yes - - -

I DAHO Not specifically prohibited Public Utilities Commission does not regulate - - submetering

I LLINOIS Yes Illinois Tenant Utility Payment Disclosure Act No Napierville, Springfield, and areas served by the Northern Illinois Service Company prohibit sub- metering

I NDIANA Yes Indiana Utility Regulatory Commission Yes -

I OWA Indirectly allowed Iowa Landlord/Tenant Law - -

K ANSAS No specific laws address Landlord Tenant Act Yes if stated in lease Specifically prohibited in Olathe submetering but legality of submetering is implied

K ENTUCKY Yes Public Utilities Commission Yes -

L OUISIANA Unclear Unclear whether Public Service Commission per­ - Baton Rouge has indicated they will not permit mits submetering submetering

M AINE Yes Maine statutes appear to empower the Public Yes - Utilities Commission to regulate submetering Submetering Regulations, Page 2 of 3

I S S UBMETERING A PPLICABLE S TATE I SIT L EGAL TO A DD F EES TO A RE T HERE R ULES THAT G OVERN S TATE L EGAL? R EGULATIONS/REGULATORY A GENCY R ESIDENT’ S W ATER B ILL? S UBMETERING AT THE L OCAL L EVEL?

M ARYLAND Yes as long as landlord is State of Maryland treats billing companies as Yes - not operating for profit collection agencies

M ASSACHUSETTS No; recently introduced bill Department of Public Health has indicated that No - may allow submetering landlords are required to provide water to tenants at no charge

M ICHIGAN Yes None - City of Coldwater prohibits the resale of water

M INNESOTA Yes None Yes -

M ISSISSIPPI No Public Service Commission - -

M ISSOURI Yes, as long as landlord is Public Utility Commission Yes - not operating for profit

M ONTANA Yes Public Service Commission No -

N EBRASKA Yes Public Utility Commission only regulates private - - water companies

N EVADA Yes Public Utilities Commission - -

N EW H AMPSHIRE Yes, as long as the owner Public Utility Commission Yes - is not supplying water to the general public

N EW J ERSEY Yes Board of Public Utilities Yes if stated in lease -

N EW M EXICO Yes Landlord Tenant Law/ Public Utility Commission Yes -

N EW Y ORK Yes None Yes Specifically prohibited in the Town of Webster, Village of Webster, and Suffolk County

N ORTH C AROLINA Yes Utilities Commission Yes, with $2/month limit Specifically prohibited in Fayetteville, High Point, and Washington.

N ORTH D AKOTA Not specifically prohibited - - -

O HIO Yes Public Utilities Commission Yes if stated in lease -

O KLAHOMA Yes State Water Law Owners may pass 10% of cost per billing - cycle to tenant

O REGON Yes Oregon Water Law Yes Specifically prohibited in Salem

P ENNSYLVANIA Yes Pennsylvania Water Law Yes, as long as the pass-through rule is - followed Submetering Regulations, Page 3 of 3

I S S UBMETERING A PPLICABLE S TATE I SIT L EGAL TO A DD F EES TO A RE T HERE R ULES THAT G OVERN S TATE L EGAL? R EGULATIONS/REGULATORY A GENCY R ESIDENT’ S W ATER B ILL? S UBMETERING AT THE L OCAL L EVEL?

R HODE I SLAND Yes Rhode Island Water Law Yes -

S OUTH C AROLINA Not specifically prohibited Public Service Commission - -

S OUTH D AKOTA Not specifically prohibited - Not specifically prohibited -

T ENNESSEE Not specifically prohibited Tennessee Regulatory Authority Yes Specifically prohibited in Jackson

T EXAS Yes Texas Natural Resources Conservation No A city code in Waco may be interpreted to prohibit Commission submetering

U TAH Yes Division of Public Utilities - -

V ERMONT Yes Landlord-Tenant Law Yes -

V IRGINIA Yes Virginia State Corporation Commission Meter reading fees prohibited, billing Check locally fees limited to $2/month

W ASHINGTON Yes Washington Utilities and Transportation Yes - Commission

W EST V IRGINIA Allowed in certain situa­ Public Service Commission - - tions

W ISCONSIN Unknown - - Specifically prohibited in Kaukauna

W ASHINGTON D.C Yes DC Water and Sewer - -

W YOMING Yes Public Service Commission - - APPENDIX D

CONSERVATION APPENDIX D. GRAY WATER REGULATIONS

Permits are required in most states for the allow flow from one system to enter the implementation of gray water systems, usu­ other). Regulations typically preclude the ally from local or county authorities. Thirty- use of water containing hazardous wastes or six states have explicit gray water water that comes from the soiling of diapers regulations, as noted on the table that fol­ or similar garments. Storage tanks for gray lows. The primary concern of regulators and water usually require a cover. Some regula­ health officials is that gray water may result tions also address maintenance require­ in water quality problems that pose a threat ments. Some of the location-specific to public health. Regulations invariably pro­ limitations/constraints are listed in the table hibit gray water systems from being con­ that follows, compiled from 1999 data in nected to potable water systems; the Humanure Handbook: A Guide to cross-connections are typically avoided with Composting - Appendix 3–State Regulations- air-gaps (a physical opening to the atmos­ Gray Water (Jenkins, 1996). phere between the two systems that does not

40 APPENDIX D

Gray Water Regulations, Page 1 of 4

S TATE A PPLICABLE S TATE/CODE L IMITATIONS/CONSTRAINTS

Alabama State Health Board, Chapter 420-3­ An effluent distribution line of 50 linear feet shall 1; 402-3-1.27 be used to dispose of gray water. Alaska Alaska Administration Code 72.990 None defines gray water Arizona Arizona Department of Gray water may be used only for drip or flood irri­ Environmental Quality Bulletin gation, not for spray irrigation; system requires Number 12; Arizona Administration approval by Arizona Department of Environmental Code Title 18, Chapter 9, Article 7. Quality. Arkansas Department of Health Alternative Case-by-case Systems Manual California California Administration Code Gray water may be used only for subsurface irriga­ (Uniform Plumbing Code), tion; administrative authority must approve Appendix G system. Colorado Department of Public Health, Gray water systems shall meet at least all mini­ Chapter 25, Article 10 mum design and construction standards for septic tank systems based on the amount and character of wastes for the fixtures and the number of persons served. Connecticut Public Health Code Section 19-13­ Shall be constructed with a septic tank and leach­ B103b and f; Technical Standards. ing system at least one-half the capacity specified for the required residential sewage disposal system. Delaware No existing regulations None Florida Title XXIX, of the Florida The minimum effective capacity of the gray water Administrative Code, Public Health retention tank shall be 250 gallons, with such Chapter 381.0065 system receiving not more than 75 gallons of flow per day. Georgia Rules of the Department of Human The minimum effective capacity of the gray water Resources, Public Health, Chapter retention tank shall be 500 gallons. 290-5-26 Hawaii Hawaii Administrative Rules, Design of gray water systems for dwelling units Chapter 11-62 shall be based on a minimum gray water flow of 150 gallons per day per bedroom; gray water tanks, when required, shall be sized with no less than a 600 gallon capacity. Idaho IDAPA 16, Title 01, Chapter 03; Current Idaho rules permit gray water systems Technical Guidance Manual only as experimental systems Section 10

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 41 APPENDIX D

CONSERV ATION

Gray Water Regulations, Page 2 of 4

S TATE A PPLICABLE S TATE/CODE L IMITATIONS/CONSTRAINTS

Illinois No existing regulations Governed under experimental systems. Indiana No existing regulations None Iowa No existing regulations None Kansas Kansas Administrative Regulations County health departments have authority to grant Chapter 25, Article 5 variances for alternative onsite wastewater treat­ ment and disposal systems. Kentucky 902 Administration Regulations Gray water: in Section 2(13) means wastewater 10:085, Section 2(13) generated by water-using fixtures and appliances, excluding the toilet and the garbage disposal. Louisiana No existing regulations None Maine Maine Subsurface Waste Water Gray water includes only separated laundry dis­ Disposal Rules 144A CMR 241 posal systems. Maryland Innovative & Alternative Program Innovative gray water designs are currently al­ lowed on a case-by-case basis. Massachusetts 310 CMR 15.000, Title 5 A filter system specifically approved by the Department can be used instead of a septic tank. Non-traditional gray water systems, such as those which use constructed wetlands or evapotranspi­ ration beds, are approved on a piloting, site-specific basis. Michigan Michigan has one of the oldest ex­ Alternative systems and gray water systems isting guidelines for composting should be tested by the National Sanitation toilets and gray water systems. Foundation (NSF) under Standard 41 testing proto­ However, as there is no statewide col or by an equivalent independent testing agency sanitary code, the 46 local health and procedure. Lacking this testing procedure, the departments define the criteria for local health department should require perform­ onsite sewage disposal and “each ance data prior to approval. county runs its own show.” Minnesota Chapter 7080.9010, Alternative Use of alternative systems is allowed only in areas and Experimental Systems where a standard system cannot be installed or is not the most suitable treatment. Mississippi No existing regulations None Missouri Missouri Laws for On-Site Disposal There are no design recommendations or regula­ Systems, Chapter 701, Section tions governing gray water systems. 701.025

42 APPENDIX D

Gray Water Regulations, Page 3 of 4

S TATE A PPLICABLE S TATE/CODE L IMITATIONS/CONSTRAINTS

Montana Circular WQB 5. Minimum Design Gray water must be disposed of through a septic Standards for On-Site Alternative tank and drainfield system. Sewage Treatment and Disposal Systems Nebraska Title 124, Rules and Regulations Gray water is defined, but no systems are neces­ for Design, Operation and sarily allowed under Title 124. Maintenance of Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems. Nevada Nevada Administrative Code A system that uses gray water for underground ir­ 444.750 rigation may be used only for a single-family dwelling (this 1998 statute may have been modi­ fied, as some of Las Vegas largest hotels use gray water for irrigation). New Chapter Env-WS 1022 deals with Before an innovative/alternative waste treatment Hampshire alternative systems system may be used the technology shall be evalu­ ated and approved in an Innovative Technology Approval New Jersey New Jersey Administrative Code Administrative authority must approve systems. 7:9A New Mexico 20 New Mexico Administrative Code System must run through a septic tank and be 7.3 Subpart 1, Part 107.AF used only for subsurface irrigation. New York Public Health Law 201(1)(1) Gray water systems shall be designed upon a flow Appendix 75-A of 75 gpd/bedroom. North Carolina No existing regulations None North Dakota Chapter 62-03-16-91.6 Gray water systems shall pass through a septic or other approved sedimentation tank prior to its dis­ charge into soil or other system; surface applica­ tion requires special approval. Ohio No existing regulations Director of Health approval required; must be tested to show results of the system are equivalent to those obtained by sewage disposal. Oklahoma Oklahoma Administration Code Department of Environmental Quality approval re­ 252:640 deals with alternative quired. systems Oregon Revised Statute 447.115; Oregon Environmental Quality Commission approval re­ Administration Rules Chapter 340, quired. Division 71

OVERVIEW OF RETROFIT STRATEGIES 43 APPENDIX D

CONSERV ATION

Gray Water Regulations, Page 4 of 4

S TATE A PPLICABLE S TATE/CODE L IMITATIONS/CONSTRAINTS

Pennsylvania Title 25, Chapter 73 Liquid wastes, including kitchen and laundry wastes and water softener backwash, shall be dis­ charged to a treatment tank. Rhode Island Gray water defined under Chapter None 12-120-002 South No existing regulations, gray water A permit applicant could elect to install separate Carolina defined under Chapter 61-56 systems to handle gray water. South Dakota Chapter 74:53:01:10 Design of gray water systems shall be based on a minimum gray water flow of 25 gallons per day per person. Three days retention time shall be pro­ vided for each gray water tank. Tennessee No existing regulations None Texas Subchapter H: 285.80 Comprehensive state rules have not been adopted. Each system has to be approved by the city or county health department Utah No existing regulations, R317-502­ Department of Environmental Quality approval re­ 3 deals with alternative systems quired. Vermont No existing regulations. Innovative Alternative systems are allowed in Vermont only if systems are regulated under a backup, in ground conventional (septic) system Chapter 1 of Environmental is installed. Protection Rules. Virginia No existing regulations None Washington Washington Administration Code Gray water may be used for subsurface irrigation 246-272 Section B only. West Virginia Title 64, Interpretive Rules Board of Those houses served by a gray water disposal sys­ Health, Series 47 tem must have a house sewer of not more than two inches in diameter. Houses served by gray wa­ ter disposal systems shall not have garbage dis­ posal units. Manufactured gray water disposal systems must be approved by the director. Wisconsin No existing regulations None Wyoming No existing regulations None

44 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT FIRST-CLASS MAIL HUD USER POSTAGE & FEES P.O. Box 6091 PAID Rockville, MD 20849 HUD Permit No. G-795

Official Business Penalty for Private Use $300

May 2002