UDC: 572.. 02C22) Title: Insula: international journal of isl..
Cat no: 211537 Date: 08 Apr 2014
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International ournal of Island Affairs
November1999 ISSN 1021-0814 Year8 3 e èque/Ub -
de Fontenoy "Kl w^ IS 07 SP - CE ^FRANÇOIS VELLAS counsm à scruiccs Tourismin thé Maldives:Thé Resort Concept and Tourist-Related Services '"MANFREDDOMROES - SustainableTourism Development for SmallIslands Bibliothèque with particularemphasis on Okinawaby HIROSHI KAKAZU
ï International tourism and air transport in Small islandsb FRANÇOISVEL^S
y Scénarios of Tourism Developmentin Easter Islandsb FRANCESCO01 CASTRI
SustainableTourism in SmallIsland Developing States ''PAOIA DEDA
ISIJ A returnto paradisein AmericanSamoa '" STEPHANIESEARS
j - oin 3 ^ >- i Library SmallIsland. Issues & Actions ^ r^
E-mail : library@unesco. org UNCTAD'swork in favourof SmallIsland Developing States bY PIERRE ENCONTRE Tel.: +33 (0)145 68 03 56/60 ThéDevelopment of Servicesin RéunionIsland: 7. Placede Fontenoy 75007 Paris, France ThéOriginal Evolution of a ServiceEconomy "JEAN-YVES ROCHOUX
_ULCl - , JL . ' 'l ThéTonnara-Mattanza and CulturalIdentity in Favignanaby PHILIP SINGER
Island as GlobalMusic Players blPHILIPPE HEIN AND ZEUKA KOZUL-WRIGHT
«Trinidadde Cuba»and «Vallede los Ingenios»"XAVIER CASANOVAS
Pr Sl_C SustainableEnergies Building thé futureof thé islands )aac J Islandof Hydra.Conférence on Energy and Environment in thé Mediterranean Hôtel Sector_ EuropeanIsland Opet Tourismin thé Régionaland Local Development
^ope uncsco s DQQÇ a. oi oh rcuicLus
in -cina SUDDOFC inc JLC JN J.SCG: MN11 7 7 5, ^rï~nc 5 580 el: (331) 45 56 ax: (3 . ^ insula InternationaljournaloflslandAffaire "buildinga consensualdevelopment
ISSN 1021- 0814 Octoberl999 Year8 3
by FRANÇOISVELIAS EditorialBoard
Editor: Fier Giovannid'Ayala Thé oldcity, «Presque'ile» of Mahdia (Tunis) :)
Guest Editer: ecauseof thégeographical conditions of islands,thé development of international François Vellas tourismand services are linked to air transportconditions. For thisreason thé development
ScientlficAdvisory Committee: of air accessgateways is essentialfor thédevelopment of sectorservices in islands.How- Prof. Salvino Busuttil, Malta ever,new conditions in thé developmentof servicesin islandsrequires a redéfinitionof Dr.Ronald G. Parris, Barbados globaldevelopment policies. This means that it is increasinglyimportant to diversifythé Prof.Nicolas Margaris, Greece servicessector not only on théway of a tourismdiversification but alsoin théway of new Prof.Patrick Nunn, Fiji services sector as culture, music, arts and natural environment. Prof G PrakashReddy, India Prof.Hiroshi Kakazu, Japan Developmentof a newservices sector in islandsneed to developnew advantages: Dr.Henrique Pinto da Costa, Sâo Tome ePnncipe . In termsof internationalgateway for tourism andtrade Prof.Uno Brîguglio,Malta . In termsof efficiency andquality of thé internationalairport infrastructure . In termsof developmentof internationaltraffic trends * In termsof competitivenessof servicespriée and quality Production coordinators: Cipriano Marin Sofar, it is importantto notethat it is necessaryto formulatea long termstrategy for GiuseppeOrlando services in islands which can address to thé following questions: . Could internationaltourism contributeto sustainabledevelopment for islands?
Graphie designer: . Couldail servicesactivities be adapted to islandséconomies within thé constraints of thé Luis Mir Paya currentworld globalisation ? . How could thé services sector be modemised to contribute to thé development new. PublishedbyINSULA, 1heInternational ScientificCouncil forIs- landDevelopment, withthé support ofUNESCO. Thus,this new issueof INSULA focusedon new aspectsof thé developmentof services Articlespublishedthisjournal notnecessarilyreflect théopin- in do in islandséconomies such as tourism, au-transport, culture and music.Thé importantques- ionsof INSULAor of UNESCO. tion of théconcept of resortis describedby ManfredDomroes in thécase of théMaldives. Materialappearingthisjournal cannotbereproducedwithout thé in Photo by Fier Francesco d'Ayala,Builder of théships bound to utopie. Théspécifie problems of airtransport in islandsare developed with a comparisonbetween air priorpermission ofthé Editer. transportand tourism poJicies in someislands in théCaribbean, thé Indian Océan and thé insula théInternational Journalof Island Affairs isdistrib- Mediterranean.Thé question of culturespecifically music is deeplydescnbed by Philippe utedfree to INSULA's individual andinstitutional members. Forsub- Heinin ananalysis of Islandsas global Music players. This explores new possibilities and scriptionsand information, please wnte to: challengesfor thé developmentof diversified servicesin Islands. It will notbe possible to caterfor thédevelopment of servicesin islandswithout looking insula actualcase studies on spécifieislands. Jean-Yves Rochoux examines thé caseof services c/oUNESCO relatedwith La Réunionisland; Di Castrilooks at thé originality of EasterIsland and Père A. l. rueMiollis SalvaTomas présents a dynamic contribution on théBaléares as a newCalifomia. 75732 Paris,FRANCE Serviceshâve to be linked with thé envu-onmentalstrategy. In this perspectivethé contri- Tél.: +33145.68.40.56,Fax: +33 145. 68.58.04 butionon Sustainabletourism development of smallislands by HiroshiKakazu is essential. E-mail: [email protected] Heanalyses thé pre-conditions for sustainablein developmentin servicessectors in islands. He discussesnew possibilities of inter-islandsco-operation, specifically in thécase of thé Asian région. Producedby: TENYDEAS. L. CanaryIslands
International Journal of Island Affairs Inthis global perspective, threemain issues aeedto be critically discussed : . Liberalisation'ofmultinational transport access toislands . Encouragementofcollaboration betweenislands operators andF.D. I. . Developmentandimprovement ofaccess toGDS
Agreater participation fromsmall islands inGDS will allow themtobetter^ oit°sourcemarketandto increase tourism. Airiine computerised réservation Systemsfacilitate thédevelopment oftravel by allowing greater access toreser- vadoninformation provided from airiines and other tourism operators. ^ "Severalpolicies actions hâve tobe formulated andimplemented inthis context withnew mvestments, newlinks between airtransport andthé tourism industry, Trauungwiïlalso beof critical importance. Thèseissues areexaminedextensively byPierreEncontre inthé UNCTAD'sworkmfavourofSmallIslands. Itisvital that accessto andwithin islands be demand-driven. 'Infact.anew vision for islands économies needsto be favoured forimproved diversificationandsuccessful services generally. Itis particularly cmcialfor thé future'ofislands todevelop expertise andspécialisation inservices within thé globalisationprocess.
Bird's-eye view of a typical Maldivian Tourist Resort island with tourist infrastructure and thé surrounding lagoon and reef. Photo: M. Domroes
by MANFREDDOMROES*
SeascapebyCh.Kyparissi «Kiki»,sailing ship built in théisland of Syrosabout 1900.
hanks to their rich tropical TOURISM GROWTH At thé end of l 978 only, thé then newly reef ecosystems and thé abondant Tourismwas initiated by individual elected Govemment of Maldives under biodiversity of their marine environ- private sectorin thé Maldives in 1972 its Président Mr. Maumoon Abdul ment, thé Maldives host a sophisti- and developedinformally in thé be- Gayoom formally launchedtourism as a cated and compétitive international ginning in an unchecked,unplanned national key economy which became tourist industry which has replaced andunregulated manner. Until 1978,at carefully planned and professionally fishing as thé dominantéconomie ac- an infant andpioneer stage with a low monitored. Simultaneously, thé institu- tivity. A rapidly growing number of and only basic standard oftourist serv- tional framework was strengthenedfor tounsts are greatly attracted by thé ices and facilities, thé number of over- administering and monitoring tourism. Maldivesfor sunand sand, enjoying seas visitors gradually increased to a scubadive, snorkelingas well asswim- handsome total of neariy 30,000, most ming or simply leisuring in thé of them divers and snorklers. Visitors Maldivesfor a «getaway from it ail» were attractedby thé thrilling under- and «mustsee» vacation. In thé over- water nature and extravagant beauty seasvisitors' perception, thé Maldives of abondanttropical reef andcoral life keepup with thé imageto be an un- praised as thé richest on earth, after spoilt tropical beachand underwater their discovery by Hans Hass on his paradise. legendary«Xarifa» expédition (1957). ++
SeniorProfessor of Geographyand Ecology at MainzUniversity, Germany. Address:Department of Geography,Mainz University, 55099 Mainz, Germany.
International Journal of Island Affairs uûO To déterminethé course of tourism, thé Government u AWATOU,* atollwithBesortl W^.^y-. îa'lteortfalandspassedin 1983 thé first longrange (10 years) Tourism De- » . distBueeftom idiport y velopment(Master) Plan that declared Mâle Atoll and An (n 0 0 W UObn ...... administmtive boundi ir./ Atoll as national«tourism zones» to be systematically .0 TT4'000000 t^lorid^llZnr") developedwith a tourist service infrastructure atoptimal r4° 72° levelsthat should cater tourists'needs vaca- (n KdttmTHBADHWiM fully thé for s;." . Thé naiiBs of c_ .t iheatoBsareth» don.board, récréation, leisure and entertainment. Nota- D t* « ofBdaladmlni- l sbattw names ô Hârtfmflâ blyto remember that, until 1983, tourism had already im- -^--;:^ 'Ailpfrt .,* SOjmTfll^DHUNMATI pressinglygrown to over75, 000overseas visitors. Subsequently,under a wiselyadministered national fc co ^K>iîmMILAMiUK. '-lADUtU tourismpolicy, both Mâle Atoll andAri Atollprofession- 6° allydeveloped as tourism centers expanding thé accom- l 6" -7/ N modationcapacities upgrading facilities ;. ...:., SOffH. lAIVIVNWiDUlL and thétourist andservices. Gaining a boostingpublicity on thémajor NOKm__..* '.'.; \ ... :'"' ..-.-" MAAyioMMMUJ^ j . \.. .. --^ touristgeneradng markets inEurope, tourism inthé 1980s f2--^\ f. ''~'\ FAAaimxHy constituteda firm consolidationstage, expressed by a -.-.? /,. \*--.^ iioum^. __. .' rapidgrowth oftourists totalling to over 158, 000in 1989 UÎ MAAU-IOSMApJ ..:ï'^ andraising tourism to théleading économie activity in A; thé Maldives,depressing fisheries second. ^. ^Ï . :. In thébooming 1990s, Maldivian tourist industry gained ^' ': '"- professionalismathigh international quality topping in- ternationaltourist arrivais in 1997at a majestictotal of -.../' ^/t^»**^?8'. s " Weinatia-'alMnwf f. '; , ':J^'^V nearly366, 000,thus increasing thé 1989 figure by 132p. c. iM^ti?' (Cap Thé isolated nature of thé Maldivian islandness Photo: M. Domroes within eightyears only. Accommodation capacity came ' .. &iuttllM»MM ABATpy, F. upto nearly 12, 000beds, compared toonly 7, 500 1989. in problemsto thé local islands and thé AU islandsare organized in 26 major located on thé small island of Hulule, i^""'"'" _.^-i.. Mandatoryfor thé systematic development of tounsm, FEuniuNrou.. Maldivians, respectively. Two ques- and minor geographicalatolls mostly off Mâlecapital; thé auport with a 3,500 -^ Governmentof Maldives paid greatest efforts to harmo- . dons are of vital importance: of a large circular shape.Thé striking m-mnway opened in 1981 facilitâtes . -^c^, nize tourism and environment. Due to nature, tounsm re- NORT.HNIAND ". :.."': ;. . Hâve thé Maldives maintained their islandnessof thé Maldives is expressed opérationof any type of aircraft. Mâle sourcesare ambivalentin thé Maldivesas thé unique ^ own and distinct natural and societal by thé fact that ail islandstogetherjust is convenientlyconnected by air with MUIAKU reefand atoll ecosystems are abundant and rich in tropi- î ®w, identity, inspite of thé heavy tourist accountfor only 298sqkm of solidland Europe,Middle East,East- and South- sft%WDHE'. -J callife, but at thé same time highly fragile and vulnérable. J l traffic? that is built of coral sand and gravel on east Asia according to thé main tour- AUtourist activities must therefore be balanced at a mim- ^f'wp''s!. . Are théMaldives readily prepared for a flat surfacehardly above1. 5 m a.s.l. ist-generatingmarkets. International mum risk with thé naturalenvironment. At thé sametime, a future soft development under a and naturally covered by coconut trees. tourists can enter thé Maldives visa- mum. MAEtau- . ^/. thé Maldiviantourism policy stronglyavoids any nega- marine ecotourism concept? Thé serious islandness of thé Maldives freeand without anyhealth restrictions. tive impactof tourismon thé society. 2 ^. f*? is well presentedby a land-to-searatio Underiiningthé gréâtinfrastructural M -1~ Basedon thé high performanceprofile andthé seem- *\^^;y . --
International Journal of Island Affairs Clinic with a doctor on call 24 hours RESORT ENVIRONMENT . thé coral and reef stmcture must not Ail Resortspay gréât concem to thé (D Mâle capitalis accomodatedon an Maldiviansociety from conflicts ofac- and even a décompressionchamber. PROTECTION be destroyed by mining; maintainance and cleaning of thé y islandofits own anddistinct islandness culturation. As a principal rule, Maldivians are forbidden to enter a As transportationto and from thé Under thé distinct tourism policy of . ail coastalworks, suchas jetties and beaches and of thé Resort island as a asit occupiesonly an area of about1.5 u Resort, viceversa no foreigner is al- Resortis conventionallyby boat each thé Govemment of Maldives fhe con- groynes,must be strictly controlled; whole. en sqkm(including some reclaimed sec- Resortis alsosupplied with ajetty and version ofuninhabited islands into reg- . théoriginal flow of currentsmust not On thé Resorts, tourists are advised <0 dons of land), henceleading to a sen- lowed to board or/and vacation on an inhabitée Maldivian island. small harbour. istered Tourist Resorts is strongly con- be alteratedby thé constructionof to follow-up thé guidelinesfor environ- ousoverpopulation of about50, 000 Thé Resort standardfacilities include Ail Resorts offer sightseeing tnps trolled in order to ensure minimum im- piers andjetties; ment protection, for example by saving l persansper sqkm,a fact that créâtes and excursionsby boat,by choiceto a . ail Resorts must hâve incinerators, water and energy and to restrain from strikingly social and physical thétourist bungalows with reasonably plicadonsof tourismon thé marineen- Maldivian fishing island,to Mâle capi- vironment underiining thé Maldivian bottle crushers and compactors in or- coral breaking when diving or § infrastmcturalproblems to Ae people furnished rooms, mostly airconditioned with attached bathroom tal and to other Resort islands on an tradition of living in a sustainablehar- der to bum solid waste, to compact snorkeling.Expert of coralsis strictly î_ undertheir still traditional way of life. E «island hopping» croise. mony and peacewith nature. Under this métal cans and to cmsh bottles be- forbidden. Mâle capitalhouses thé Government and cold and hot (desalinated) water Due to thé smallness of thé Resorts preamble,subsequently a soft envkon- fore disposai; To protect thé totally Muslim popu- and is thé only hub of trade and com- from thé tap.Public facilities include § and their limited resources, on thé one lation of thé Maldives from adverse merce in thé Maldives with an also im- théréception and office, restaurant, bar, mentalmanagement is théprime obliga- . sewagedisposai through soak pits 0 side. and thé environment-consump- don to any Resort based on thé Gov- into thé aquifer is discouraged. cultural impactsof «western»tourists, portantoverseas harbour. Mâle offers kitchen, store rooms and souvenir nudism is law strictly prohibited and also thé best health and éducation serv- shop.A live discoand karaoke bar are tive leisurelifestyle of thé tourists,on emment's enforced laws for thé protec- by thé other, thé Resorts can only carry a ices. Thé Government has however also not to be missed in many cases. don and préservation of thé fragile atoll Last, but not least, architectural tourists are instructed to respect thé socialand religions sensitivities thé startedto decentralizeschool educa- ManyResorts hâve also a coffeeshop limited capacityof visitors that varies, and reef ecosystemsand theu-rich ma- standardsshall préservethé esthethic of in mostcases, between 50 and500 peo- nne environment. shape a Resort island. Thé height local population. When touring and vis- tion andprime health services and to andfinedining restaurant with àlacarte of menueservice. pie, dependingon thé sizeof thé re- To conserving thé environment and of buildings,for example,is restricted iting a Maldivian fishing island or en- set up régional centerson «outer»is- AU thé public facilities joying sight-seeing in Mâle capital, lands. areusually centrally for a shortaccess. spectiveResort. Additionally, asizeable to préservethé culturalidentity, Resort to thé height of thé adult naturalpalm Traffie and transporton thé Resortit- number of staff also needs to be developmentwas principally under a tree végétation. Housesshould hâve tourists shall be properly dressed. self can easily be coveredon foot as accomodated on each Resort. mandatoryratio of one Resort island two stories at thé most with thé use of Paying prime attention to tourism as THE TOURIST RESORT thé Resort island area is small. Though ail Resorts obtain corre- against three uninhabited islands in local building material to be encour- an environment-friendly industry, thé CONCEPT, FACILITIES Due to thé remote site of thé Resorts, spondinglya complètephysical and any given atoll. This stratégierule was aged. rationale for thé future growth strategy social infrastmcturefor vacation and that AND SERVICES ail employéesmust be boardedon thé thé basic standard to control chiefly In terms of thé esthetic shape of a in tourism is claimed in that way leisure thé standard of thé facilities of- Resort,landscaping and gardeningare «Maldiveshas to becomea 'premium' From its beginning,tourism in thé respectiveResorts. Therefore, each thé isolated geographical dissemina- fered leading différent don of Resorts. also well carried out often changing a destination, but with a strong focus on Maldives was developedas a Resort Resort accommodâtes also thé staff may vary to «star»catégories among Resorts To protect environment, Gov- Resortinto a pleasanttropical garden. its ecotourism» (Second Tourism Mas- conceptbuilding Tourist Resorts only quartersand a masquethat commonly thé thé thé including many 5-star and onformerly uninhabited islands chiefly consists only of a praying room. luxury emmentof Maldives,respectively her to curb detrimental social interaction Sportand recreational facilities are clubstyleResorts. To arrive at their Ministry ofTourism,has imposed strict No. ofTouristResorts Maldives No. oftouristsx 1,000 usuallyabundant with scubadiving présenthigh quality standard of estab- régulations and guidelines for Resort between Maldivians and international 400 lished facilities, thé Resorts hâve gone 80 tounsts. (mostlyunder a Europeaninstmctor), construction and opération. Paying 75 73-7 375 Thé Tourism Law of 1979,with its con- windsurfing, sailing, boating and wa- throughupgrading and modernization particular attention towards a soft car- 8 Nuflterd TouristResoite 6970 : 350 programmeswhich hâve built-up a pro- rying capacity of tourists any Resort 70 sequentamendments, serves until ter-skiingas well asbathing, swimming tounsts 6566 64- 325 fessionaltourist industryproudly to be 65 "62 présentas thé principal guideline for thé and snorkelingsafely to be enjoyedin is, as a standard,only alloweda maxi- 60 '{S 300 Tourist Resort establishmentand opera- thélagoon and/or at théreef. Usually, hostedby thé Maldives.For a grcater mum built-up area of 20 p.c. of thé Re- attraction, some Resorts hâve even 55 275 tion in orderto ensureproper facilities thé house reef is close to thé Resort sort island area. Ail guest rooms must face thé beach, and meters thé 50 250 andservice standards. Regular monitor- island and thereforeeasily accessible. changeatheir original island names, for five of exampleFurana «PullMoon Beach», beach hâve to be allocated to each 45 225 ing and supervisionare carriedout by Most Resorts offer also a wide range to and Lankanfinolhu to «Paradise Is- room front it. total, only two 200 thé Ministry of Tourismto ensuread- of indoor and outdoor games,includ- in of In 40 37' land». allo- 175 herence to thé established standardsof ing tennis.Even a fitnesscenter and a thirds of thé beachlength can be 35 32 Expressinga performanceof cated to guest rooms while thé remain- facilities to a registered Resort. fresh-waterswimming pool neednot to high 30 150 tourismmanagement and services, each 25 Until présent(1997), a total of73 reg- be missed on some Resorts. ing onethird mustbe left for public fa- 25 125 Tourist Resort is an autonomous unit. istered Tourist Resorts are developed, Ail Resortsare also well-equipped cilities and as open space.In manag- 100 20 -17 advanced télécommunication fa- With a total Resort island population ing environmental protection and pres- each of which established on a sepa- with 15 75 1, opération ervation, it is also forbidden to remove 11 g- rate small island and equipped with cilities, suchas IDD téléphoneand fax. ofup to 000people, Resort 50 10 7 8'-8-t î andservices must be comprehensively any indigenousvégétation, to disrupt 6 comprehensivefacilities for vacation, TV is alsowidely available.A few Re- 25 5 2~r board, leisure, récréation and entertain- sortsnowadays even offer modemau- managedin orderto caterthé tourists' thémarine ecology and to changethé 0 0 needs for vacation and leisurc by pro- lagoonshape. ment. Any Resort is strictly reserved diovisual convention facilities. Health > ^ y ^ y ^ ^ ^ ^ s^ ^ ^ . <^ for international tourists in order to services on thé Resorts include only vidingail facilitiesand services required Thé Govemment of Maldives also Designby M. Domro / Graphfcby T. Bartech,Dept. 10 International Journal of Island Affairs 11 As ail Resort companiesare sta- ^: families),on thé other,who aredirectly by théUNDP, thé EEC and thé Govem- ter Plan. 1996-2005,vol. l, p. 2). Such tioned in Mâle capital they hâve y andindirectly employedin tourism. mentof Maldives.A key considération Zl optimisticoutlook is based on thé Mas- S e ac h also thé closest access opportu- L. ter Plan's vision that Maldives hâve Tourism industry has provided a of establishinga hôtel school was and Q / nities to thé Govemment and Min- en gréâtnumber of employmentand prac- is to replaceexpatriate workers by suit- «thé most outstanding manne tounsm istry ofTourism and can deal in a '0 tically eradicatedunemployment. As able andqualified Maldivians. environmentin thé world» (ibid.). / most direct way with them as re- tourism industry is very labour-inten- Dueto thérapid growth of tourism, gardsto ail officiai tourismrelated § sive(rating, on average,at 0.9 employ- thé Maldivian carpenter became a e iUy matters. Such advantageis a gréât eesper bed; 1997), it is officially esti- craftsmanvery much in demand.New Owme ECONOMIC BENEFITS operationalbenefit as toimsm in- 8 mated that tourism industry adsorbes skillsin carpentrywere developed, and 0F TOURISM dustry in thé Maldives is strictly theu-narrow économie base,thé directlymore than 10,500people be- constmctiongroups both in carpentry b With administered by thé Govemment sidesan evengreater number of indi- andmasonry became an organized la- ^ Maldives hâve developed tounsm as a \ which only leases thé Resorts to rect employment. bour force. Also boat building and thé highlyvivid niecheeconomy with far Maldivian companies. § demandfor engineeringand mainte- J reachingdirect and indirect benefits to Cruciallyto note,however, that do- jâ ï- Régional tourism concentra- mestic labour force mns short of skilled nancetrades increased employment for d^' thé islanders. Tourism has marked a 'Reei Sû^ as tion on Mâle Atoll and Ari Atoll manyMaldivians contributing thé V/ newepoche in thééconomie history of service staff to thé tourist sector, ag- to 5Le Ij alsobenefited from thé close ac- gravatedby théhard employment and nation'séconomie growth and output. thé Maldives as it has risen to gener- aj cess to Hulule international air- abstinentliving conditionsin tourism, ate 17p. c. of GDP,90 p.c. offoreign Fig. 4. Modelof a standardTourist Resort in thé Maldivesand its facilities port. Touristsare usually shipped thoughwages are comparablyhigh. currencyearnings and 40 p.c. of Gov- by launches and boats to their emmentRevenue (1997). Thèsehigh Touristemployées on thé Resortlive REGIONAL TOURISM DEVELOPMENT went also informally into opération in Thé systemadcallydesigned devel- respective Resorts, and hence thé percentagesare most likely to increase faraway from their families for mostof thé adjoining Ari Atoll with three Re- opmentof a largenumber ofregistered travel time is not unessendal,especially future, rapidgrowth oftour- thé yearonly beingpermitted once a Tourismdevelopment during thé past in withthé sorts established until 1982. Resorts in Mâle Atoll and Ari Atoll after a tiring internationalflight. Auto- ism that is firmly projectedto thé yeara 4-weekleave home. To satisfy 25 years has shown différent Earlydevelopment ofResorts in Mâle pavedthé way for a heavy growth of matically, Resorts in close distance to Maldives.Worth mentioningthat tour- thé demand of labourers, many regionalizationand disséminationpat- Atoll offered operationaladvantages tourism throughthé 1980sand 1990s. Hulule are privileged with better and Srilankanand Bangladeshexpatriâtes terns.In thé pioneerstage and until ism receiptsincreased 30 times during As a result, todate (1997) 43 of ail 73 quicker transfertravel opportunities. launching TourismMaster principally relatedto thé accessoppor- 1980-1997. areemployed as executive and restau- thé First tunities provided by Hulule airport and registeredResorts are in MâleAtoll and Opposite to thé past régional con- Thé économie benefits of tourism are rant staff, respectively. Plan(1982), Mâle Atoll thatis divided Mâle capital. Most of thé pioneerRe- 26 in An Atoll whereasonly four Re- centration ofTourist Resorts (on Mâle As to recmit welltrained, qualified into thé North and South Mâle Atolls, clearly recognizeableto thé nation's sorts are accommodated in other atolls. Atoll andAri Atoll), in future a signifi- waschiefly developed expressing pref- sorts of thé 1970s were developed économiegrowth and modernisation as and motivated Maldivian manpower within a 20 km distance from Hulule and Thé respectivebed spaceaccounts for cantrégional decentralization will take erence a centraliza- a example, regard to and to raise thé standard of services in givento régional whole (for with about 7,400 in Mâle Atoll and 3,700 in tourism was focussed Mâle which correspondsto a maximum place.Under thé SecondTourism Mas- communication and telecommumcation tourismindustry, a Schoolof Hôtel and tion of that 1-hour travel time to thé Resort by boat. An Atoll with théremaining 900 m other terPlan, 1996-2005, totally 20 to 30 new CateringServices was inaugurated in aroundHulule airport and Mâle capi- development),on théone side, and to When thé First Tourism Master Plan atoll Resorts. Resorts will be created wi& an increase tal. Aside, alreadysince 1977tourism manyindividual Maldivians (and their Mâle in 1987. Thé school was financed came into action (1983) tourism devel- Régional tourism developmentun- in bedspaceto20, 500(1997 = 12,000). opment was declared to concentrate on til today shows a striking concentra- In a first stage 14 Resortsare devel- Mâle Atoll and Ari Atoll as préférable tion on thé two most central atolls opedin six atolls adjoiningMâle Atoll No. No.ofTouristResorte An Atoll No. ofbads No. ofTouristResorts Mâle' Atoll ofbeds «tourism zones»; hence tourism dis- operationaland servicepref- andAri Atoll, respectively,clearly un- 9000 offering 45 '. 4444 9000 45 , seminated to more distant islands of erences and advantageswith Mâle derlining a new tourism policy of thé _.4'"'n" 40 8000 40 8 Numbsr of Mâle Atoll and systematicallydevel- capital and Hulule international air- Maldives towards a more balancée re- 38 TouriïtReaxts beda^dty oped in Ari Atoll, yet increasingthé port, both serving as well-function- gional developmentthat will diversify 35 7000 35 iï? Resort distance from Hulule and Mâle ing support nuclei to thé tourism in- and disseminate thé benefits of tour- 30 30 29Hti 6000 capital up to 50 km in case.of-Malé At- dustry. Régional tourism concentra- ism to a greaterpart of thé Maldivian l^k 28282626! oïl and even to 50-100 km in caseofAri tion on Mâle Atoll and An Atoll also archipelago.It is stronglyexpected that 5000 25 f 5000 25 H ^iy 2p] Atoll. Subsequently,thé travel time by benefits greatly from operationalad- tourism will serveas growth pôle and 20 4000 | 20 .^ 4000 conventional boat increased to two and vantages as thé Resort companies catalyst to a général économie progress four hours,respectively. Additional to run their headoffices in Mâle capital to régionsother than thé centralrégion. 15 -Ut 3000 15 thé developmentof new Resortsthé being well-equippedwith ail modem 8l Number a( 2000 10 fonnerResorts progressively expanded télécommunication facilities. As thé 10 9 Tourisi Resoite capacities upgraded fa- center trade, transport and com- TRANSPORT FACILITIES 5 bedcapaoty 1000 5 their and their of 1 1 cilities.Clearly online with théGovem- merce in thé Maldives, Mâle capital Under thé very character of 0 00000 0 ^ 0 ment'srégional planning policy oftour- also serves as an efficient hub of a islandness that includes large interat- ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ism, ail (18) Resortsdeveloped since comprehensive supply of ail food oïl and interinsular distances, modemi- Designby M. Domros / Graphie by T Bartsch.Dept. of Geography,Malnî Untversity. Germany 1998 1987are exclusively accommodated in staff and goods to thé Resortsin thé sation of transportation represents an An Atoll. near Mâle Atoll and An Atoll. urgentneed for a better tourism prod- Fig.3. Thédevelopment ofthé number ofTourist Resorts and bed capacity in Maté Atoll and Ari Atoll, Maldives, 1972-1997 13 12 International Journal of Island Affairs MALDIVES TOURISM UPDATE, 1998 uct,in particularfor a quicktransport of international tourists between Tourismin Maldivescontinued to developaggressively. Thé total number of Hulule and distant Resorts. Though arrivaisin-creased to 396, 000showing an increase of 151% against 1989. Seven launches and boats are still thé most newTourist Resorts came into opération, totalling thé all-Maldivian number of convenient mode of transport in thé Resortsto 80, with a totalbed capacity of 13,810.Thé Resortdécentralisation Maldives,they were largely replaced policyunder thé Govemment ofMaldives was further strengthened, bysix of thé ^ by highspeed motor boats that enable sevennew Resorts opened outside Mâle Atoll and Ari Atoll.In total,10 of ail 80 quickerand more convement transpor- Resortsare in otherthan Mâle and Ari Atollswith thé respective bed capacity of tation to thé more distant Resorts. 1.850out of ail 13,810in théMaldives. Thé development of décentralisationis Interinsulartransportation of goods furtherpaved by otherfive new Resorts that opened in 1999. and domestic passenger services are, however,still predominatedby common diesel-poweredsmall boats and vessels. TOURIST SMALL greateréconomie diversification of tourist revenues and to focus on a Transportis rathertedious, though safe INDUSTRIES has small- sustainable environmental conserva- andwell adoptedto thé dangerousseas Tourism revived many of thé Maldives, becauseof underwater scale(cottage) industries that were al- tion. reefs,and rough waters of manycanals most extinct or oflittle value. Thé pro- between thé atolls. duction of local building materiallike cadjan,coir-rope and matsis in grow- Thé standardsof transportationfa- by HlROSHI KAKAZU" cilides hâvebeen closely regulated and ingdemands as local materials are pre- Acknowledgement and Références monitored by thé Govemmentby in- ferred as far as possible. Traditional handicrafts thé tourist souvenir in- This article is based on thé author's troducingof stringentsafety measures for extensiveresearch expérience and atsea, licenzing of motorvessels, driv- dustry, such as lacquer work, field works in thé Maldives under a TOURISM AS AN usuallysmall-scale and labor-intensive; andmanufacturing) are supposedto be ers, determinating of thé carrymg ca- matweavingand shell souvenirs,were projecton thé Maldiviangéo- and ENGINE 0F GROWTH (4) they are endowedwith marinere- complementingeach other and not nec- pacityof vessels,régulations on night revived and became an important part sources, beaches; essaryto be trade-off as many econo- human- ecologyand its implications Supportedby thé ongoing globali- particularlybeautiful travels and other safety measures. of thé rural economy on fishing is- mists hâve asserted. by tourism. Ail relevantinformation zation process,global peaceprocess, (5) thèse islands are part of or sur- Despitemodemization of transpor- lands,particular for thé employment and data were collected authenti- transport révolution, rising incomes roundedby rich countriessuch as thé Thé case of Okinawa demonstrates tation, evenuntil présentboat andves- ofwomen. and travel industry promotion, intema- United Statesand Japanwith well-or- that one unit of tourist's expenditure sel transportbetween Hulule and thé callyfrom respective experts and thé Ministries Tourism Environ- tional tourismhas grown spectacularly ganizedtransportation networks; (6) actuaUygenerated about 2 unitsofmanu- Resorts is thé main mode of transport of and ment of Maldives. in récentyears. According to théWorld their tropical or semi-tropicalclimatic facturing sales (direct and indirect) that bas obviously privileged thé cen- CONCLUDING REMARKS For more information, référence is Tourism Organization (WTO), 592 mil- and cultural conditions are comple- whichwere met largely through cheaper tralizeddevelopment ofTourist Resorts Due to their gréât diversity of thé made on thé following articles of thé lion peuplestraveled abroad with esti- mentarywith thoserich countries;and importedgoods. This will suggestthat on Mâle Atoll and - with some restnc- tropicalreef ecosystemand thé ma- tourism canbe usedas a pawerful en- rine environment, thé Maldives repre- author: matedtourists' expenditures of $423bil- finally thèseisland communitieshâve tion (due to thé greaterdistance) - Ari lion in 1996. maintainedinternai political stability gine for industrial diversification for Atoll. To save travel time between thé sent a unique tourist attraction. Thé Domroes, M.: Tourism in Maldives: Thé growth of tourism has been par- and warm hospitality to visitors. thèse island économies. In this sensé, Resort and thé airport, Resort devel- Maldivian Government'sconcept of thé potentialof its naturalattraction tourism needs conceptualized as a and its exploitation. Applied Ge- ticularly impressivefor thé Pacifie is- Tourismis usuallyclassified as «serv- to be opmentstarted in closedistance to thé Tourist Resort establishments on for- composite as a serv- ography Development36: 61- lands such as Okinawa, Hawaii, and ice»industry. Therefore tourists' expen- industry not mère airport (andMâle capital)and then ex- merlyuninhabited islands offers a high and 77. 1989. Northern Mariana Islands (NMI). In ditures are recorded as «service re- ice industry.Such re-conceptualization pandedby time andtransport modemi- standard of tourist vacation facilities Domroes, M.: Maldiviantourist resorts thèse island économies, external re- ceipts»in thé balanceofpayments sta- of thé tourism industryin small island zation to more distant islands. under thé preambleof exclusiveness économies will provide a development and their environmental impact. - In: ceipts from tourism accountedfor 20% tisdcs.Tourists' expenditures, however, As a major step to improve tounst and privacy. Subsequently, thé framework diversifyand revitalize thé Wang, RP.(éd. Tourismvs Envi- for Okinawa, 56% for Hawaii and 67% are,quite différent from otherextemal to transportservices, thé Govemmenthas Maldives host a compétitive interna- ): ronment: Thé Case for Coastal Ar- for NMI of their respectivetotal cur- «service receipts» such as sales of diminishinglocal agriculture and manu- licensedhelicopter and water airplane tional tourist industry administeredby eas. Dordrecht: 69-82. 1993 rent external receipts. For NMI, about transportation,insurance, intellectual facturing as well as conserving tounsm services between Hulule and thé Re- clear Governmentpolicies and strate- resources Domroes, M.: Der Strukturwandel 70% ofisland's économie activities de- propertyright and labor.Beside hôtels including marine and histori- sorts.Such services are preferably serv- gies.As a result, thé marine environ- des Fremdenverkehrs auf den pend on tourism (Table l). Thèse small andlodging, a largeportion of tourists cal and cultural assets. ing théResorts far distantfrom Hulule. ment has been conserved as also thé islandstransformed rapidly into tour- expendituresis in théform of localcon- négativeeffects on thé Maldivianso- Malediven. Mainzer Geographische Flight time variesbetween 30 minutes * Vice Président of thé Okinawa Studien 349-360. 1994 ism dépendent économies because (l) sumptionand purchases of local or im- and l hour. However, helicopter and ciety wereminimized. Tourism also 40: Development Finance Corporation. Domroes, M. : Tourism in thé they almost totally lack of natural re- portedproducts as souvenirs (Table 2). waterairplane services rate high travel contributesgreatly to thé nationalrev- :ormally a Professer thé Maldives: resources, spatial or- sourcesto exploit for export earnings; Therefore, «salesto tourists» are directly at fares to thé tourist. Trafficking in thé enuesthough thé benefits are still un- (2) their market sizesare too small to reflectedin local productionor imports Graduate School of International Maldives is, as a whole, very expen- evenlydisseminated and concentrated ganization and environmental developviable manufacturing indus- of goods.In this sensé,tourism and Development, sive, due to thé high cost of imported on Mâle Atoll and An Atoll. Thé Gov- management.Régional Symbiosis try; (3) tourism related industries are goodsproducing sectors (agriculture Nagoya University. fuel andthé expensivemaintenance. ernmentis awareof a gréât needto a (Kanpur,India) 5: 59-83. 1997 15 14 International Journal of Island Affairs en Table1 : COMPARISONS0F THE MAIN ECONOMIC caping from standardized, routine, ur- INDICATORS OKINAWA, HAWAII AND NMI, 1980 AND 1996 ban industrial life. According to Keller, B cultural tourism is thé market segment 1980 1996 b which offersthé greatestgrowth poten- en Unit Okinawa Hawaii NMI Unit Okiuawa Hawaii NMI tial today.As muchas 50% of thé tour- .o Land area k. 457 16705 22264 k. 2.264 16.705 467 ists currently making their roundsfall 17 969 1107 , 000 1.282 1.184 21 Population , 000 ^ into thé category of «consumersof cul- per/k. 368 58 497 per/k. 566 71 458 Population density ture.»(KeUer,1996) GIP US$Mn 137 12226 6893 US$Mn 31.021 33.509 542 i Paradoxically, however, this very u us$ 815 12619 6227 us$ 20.282 28.308 2.533 Per capita GIP trend ofcultural tourism has been erod- !_ Employment by industry % % E ing indigenouscultures and historical ^ Ail industries 100 100 100 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 héritages upon which thé tourism in- Primary 35,0 14,0 7,3 1,4 l dustry thrives. On thé other hand, thèse Secondary 24 37 20 15,3 cultural héritages including historical 8 7 6,4 3,2 Manufacturing monuments and traditional attractions 41 49 72,3 83,3 Tertiary cannot be sustained without tourism Trade 24 27 28,7 25,1 incarneand tourists' appréciation. Thé Services 7 22 30,5 30,9 challenging question is how we can (Hôtels) 7,1 plan and manage tourist resources in- Government 10 7 6,5 20,5 cluding cultural héritagesso that both experts US$Mn 1569 1456 US$Mn 2.410 4.473 154 Merchandise Himeyuri Park (Cactus Park) culture and économie activities are in- % of GIF % 13 21 % 7,8 13,3 32,0 terdependentlynourished. Merchandise imports US$Mn 6239 4604 US$Mn 10.352 14.678 353 termine thé capacity oftoiirists' absorp- ofculturally life-enhancing expériences Impactsoftourism on cultural herit- % of GIF % 51 67 % 33,4 43,8 74,0 don for sustainabledevelopment. rather than conventional sightseeing âgeand changehâve been intensively Trade balance US$Mn -4670 -148 US$Mn -10. 111 -10.205 -199 Thé increasing number of tourists in and relaxation in resorts. Cultural tour- discussedin récent years (see Gusti % 32,6 36,7 Okinawa is what we call «culture vul- ism canbe interpreted as a phenomenon Ngurah Bagus, 1992).Tourism is ail , 000 3.318 6.830 302 Tourist arrivais , 000 3935 1801 ture tourists» who seek thé enjoyment of looking for a meaningto life by es- aboutselling dreams to thosewho wish Tourist incarne US$Mn 2875 796 US$Mn 345 10. 685 318 to escapefrom thé dull anddaily tread- %ofGIP % 24 12 % 11,1 31,9 67,0 mill into more wonderful, exciting and Table2: IMPACTS0F TOURISTS'EXPENDITURE NMI = Nonhern Mariana Islands ON OKINAWA'SINDUSTRIAL SECTORS, 1997 challenging world. Tourism is not so GIP=GrossIsland Products;Secondary industries include transportation and utilities. much about travel, accommodation,and Experts include costs of insurance and transportation. Percent Distribution Impacts of Tourism, Exchangerate: 1$ = 108.8 Yens;- = Not available. destinations, ail thèse are merely thé of Impacts 1997 Sources: Thé State of Hawaii Data Book, Okinawa Economie Outlook and NMI Data Book, various issues. means to another end: it is to do with Sales Employ- Sales Employment thé attractionswhich aredeeply related % ment % YIOOmil. Persans TOURISM AS ate, but also becausethey are regarded In thé caseofNMI, cultural conflicts to cultural identity. «Cultural identity 1261,6 13.300 «CULTURAL CATALYST» as «culturalcatalysts. » Particularlythé broughtabout by tourismis muchmore Hôtels & Lodging 32,6 35,0 is thé expressionof one'splace in thé AND FRICTION latterconcept is becomingincreasingly serionsthan any other island tourists' Bus & Taxi 12,2 18,1 472,1 6.878 world. » ( Schouten, p.42) Both thé host Sales 10,9 3,7 421,8 1.406 An important différence between importantin Okinawawhere «interna- destinations becauseNMI imported al- Retail andthé touristcarry their cultural iden- Restaurants 8,1 8,8 313,5 3.344 commodityexperts and service experts tionalization» is thé major thème of thé most entire workforce in thé tourism in- tity on which they base their communi- 5,9 4,4 228,3 1.672 through touristic activities is that thé Okinawa'sdevelopment objectives. dustrymainly from théPhilippines (see Souvenirs cations to find not only inspirations, 185,8 3.078 fonner are consumed or stocked in im- Despitea welcomeattitude toward Kakazu,1993). Thé Filipino workersare Night Life 4,8 8,1 excitements,but also deep conflicts 4,4 5,7 170,3 2. 166 ported région, while thé later are insepa- tourists,however, there are always deep- not only cheaperthan thé locals, but Sports through which local culture is gradu- 0,9 162,5 342 râblé from thé exportingrégion where rooted fears among Ae island people they are more fitted into thé business Wholesales 4,2 ally erodedand exposed for a constant services are rendered. In this sensé, tour- that theu-fragile environmentsand rich than thé latter who are mostly employed Airline 3,7 1,4 143,2 532 changefor better or worse to thé ex- 2,3 4,2 89,0 1.596 ism is consideredto be a packageof culturemight be erodedor degradedby in thé public sector.NMI's over-ex- Craft Mfg. tent that even thé local peuples no économie as well as non-economic fac- a massive and continuous intmsion of pandedtourism industry through im- OtherMfg. 1,2 0,4 46,4 152 longerremember theu authentic culture. 152 tors. This is where Okinawa has a com- outsiders. There are also constant com- portedforeign labor hasbeen creating TravelAgents 1,0 0,4 38,7 A good casein thé point canbe found 34,8 988 parative advantageover Hawaii and plaintson thé part of Okinawathat ma- varions socio-economicproblems and Pensions (minshuku) 0,9 2,6 in thé Bali dances and other cultural 2. 394 NMI because Okinawa has rich cultural jor tourismbusinesses, including hôtel uncertaintyon thé Ufe of islandersin- Others 7,8 6,3 301,9 performanceswhich hâvebeen modi- transportation, are cludingwater shortage, food insecurity, fied and made into packages of enter- héritagesalmost comparable to that of facilities and airline Total 100,0 100,0 3.870 38.000 Japanproper. In any country,tourists dominatedby mainlandersand a major importedinflation andfamily problems. tainment solely for tourists. They are Therefore, it is an urgent task for tour- Sourcesand Notes:Data for percentagedistribution are basedon a studyof thé quite différent from thé original ones aremostly welcomednot only because portionoftourism incarnes are boomer- OkinawaVisitors Bureau for 1989. ofincome andemployment they gener- angedback to mainland. ism dépendentisland économies to de- Sales include tax. (seeMichel Picard, 1983). 16 International Journal of Island Affairs 17 Wemay call this phenomenon«com- ISSUES 0F OKINAWA'S récent declining trend of per capita Fig. 2: PERCAPITA TOURIST SPENDING: HAWAII & OKINAWA en SUSTAINABLE TOURISM y mercializingculture» in a vulgartenn or consumptionoftourists (Fig.2 ). Com- 2000 «adynamic nature of culture»in a more DEVELOPMENT pared to Hawaii, an average tourist in 1800 fa positiveterm, we defmeculture as an A critical questionl hâve posedin Okinawa spent37 % less than that of if Hawaii($) ^\1748 CD ever-evolving source of inspiration. this paper is whether or not island tour- Hawaii in 1996. «Cheap, Near and 156 '0 1600 -*. «Ever-evolving» means a constant cul- ism is sustainable for thé 21 century. Short» has been a récent catchphrase / 1398 . '". / ^/ 1418 1400 (D tural touch with thé changing world re- Take, for example, thé year 2020, in attracting mainland tourists to ality, bothextemal as well asinternai. Okinawa'srésident population and visi- Okinawa. As a result, despite high ho- 1200 1126 g Therefore, if we frame touhsm as a tor arrivais are estimated by this au- tel-room occupancy rate, per room rev- 1085 0 1000 catalyst of internai socio-cultural-po- thor around l .5 millions and 8 millions enue has declined substantially. Exces- 997 966 !_ E litico-economic-ecological changes respectively. This mean that sive compétition by means of cutting 836 will 800 û0 drivenby extemalfactors such as tour- Okinawa'sde facto populationwill be priéesmay damage quaUty ofOkinawa's OKINAWA($) 600 ist supplyand international political re- around 1.6 million including tourists tourism in thé end. l 431 459 448 lations, our approach is naturally that (70,000) andU. S. military personals.Thé Thé fourth issueis régionaldiversi- 400 441 423 1$=Yen rate ofinter-or trans-disciplinary with a «nor- size of de facto population will be 19% fication of visitors. As we l hâve 270 280 200 mative» connotation. That is to say, larger Aan thé current one. We need to touchedupon previously, diversifica- whetherone caUsmass-tourism or green- examine carefully an absorptive capac- don or globalization of tourists is an 0 tDr^oocnpT -rsico'q-Lncor'. opçnOT-rMo'g-i. ocoi^ tourism or eco-tourism or cultural tour- ity of tourism including infrastmcture essential for sustaining Okinawa's visi- ^ 0^05050)a)050505CTïO)CTiCTïO)0505 HAWAII thèse«beautiful words» fly overthé high sky. 6000 Particularlythé local communitywhich is tempted by cultural toarism development 5000 needsto define its characterand its unique- ^ 2 4000 ness through careful assessment and evalua- tî OKINAWA tions of its cultural héritage.Thé importance 8 3000 v - ofparticular historicalassets must be wellrec- ognizedand thé social designprocess should 2000 lead to human environmentsthat are in tune BALI 1000 with thé geniusloci ratherthan at oddswith it (Afar Safari,1996). Without such a painstak- 0 ing community-rooted process, cultural tour- 10 11 12 ism will merely inflate thé local priée, create 23456789 Month compétition for resources and intrude on resi- Sources: HVCB, OVB, BPS, Statistik Pariwisata dents'private lives, which in turnwill gener- International Journal of Island Affairs 19 ate hostility, apathy and res- ignation toward tourism. Tourism is also cultural, en- vironmental and global phe- nomenon. This is precisely where non-market factors such as préservation of local culture, historical assets,local cottage industries and com- munitydevelopment and inter- national relations need to be explicitly mapped out through thé mechanism of tourism planningand management. To repeat, thé purpose of tourism development at thé by FRANÇOISVELiAS' local community level is to make a community more liv- able for thé résident and then for thé tourist. If we leave thé touristdevelopment entkely to ransport is one of thé es- Thé future oftourism development in thé developmentof international tour- thé sheer market mechanism, sentialfactors of tourismdevelopment small island States dépends to a large ism. Air transportin islandsis domi- thé end results will be a mass- Gyokusendo (Limestone cave) in small island. Islands often hâve con- extent on thé answers to thèse ques- natedby internationaltraffic. even in dismptivetourism which may siderable resources for tourism that tiens. thé case of island made up of archi- destroythé very fabric of thé localcul- participation is intended to avoid such cultural identity. We should also re- cannot be developed because it is dif- pelagos. tural and environmental assets on an ambivalent aspectof thé tourism member thé fact that thé local culture ficult and sometimeseven impossible Most island with high levels of pas- which islands'tourism industry thrives. industry, and to balance thé économie and historical monumentsare largely to gain accessespecially by air to such THE IMPORTANCE 0F sengerair traffic basically hâve inter- Tourism planning and management objectivesoftourismmore closely with maintainedand revitalized by théinter- sites. Tourism development in many AIR TRANSPORT FOR national traffic rather than domestic basedon thé communityinitiative and thé préservation of local values and est of tourists. island régions is therefore in many SUSTAINABLE TOURISM braf&c: casesmore potential than real although. DEVELOPMENT At thé same time. certain areas of some IN ISLANDS ISLANDS TOTAL islandsare sustainingserious environ- Air transport plays an essential rôle AND INTERNATIONAL mentaldamage as a resultof excessive in tourism development for small island AIR TRAFFIC IN 1996 Références concentration of tourism in restricted that is often only possible tour- in it for Country Ail International Dean MacCannell,«Staged Authen- in Small tsland Economies:The ment: Crucial Issues for thé XXI Cen- areas where thé ecosystem is particu- ists to reachholiday locationsby air. servios servios ticity: Arrangements of Social Space Case of Saipan,» Insula: Interna- tury, Paris, 26-27, June 1996. larly fragile. However, thé distance between gener- Trinidad and in Tourist Settings,» American Jour- tional Journal of Island Affairs, Au- Michel Picard, Community Participa- Access by air and infrastmcture for ating countries and tourism destina- Tobago 4.848 4,816 nal of Sociology,Vol. 79, no.3. gust 1993, Year 2, No.1, pp.39-47. tion in Tourist Activity on thé Island land transport are therefore essential tiens in small island makes it necessary Sri Lanka 3,816 3.816 Frans Schouten, «Tourism and Cul- Hiroshi Kakazu, Sustainable Devel- of Bali, Environment, Idéologies conditionsfor thé developmentof tour- to useair transportinstead of or in ad- Mauritius 3,403 3.374 tural Change,» a paper presented opment of Small Island Economies, and Practices, UNESCO/URESTI- ism in small island. However. tourism dition to transportby sea,and for those lceland 2,872 2.800 at thé UNESCO Conférence on Boulder: Westview Press, 1994. CNRS, Paris: 1983. developmentoften bas to tak&theprob- island that are archipelagos, air trans- Brunei Culture, Tourism, Development: Hiroshi Kakazu, «Effects of Tourism Robert Kling and Karin Sable, «His- lem as to where thé first investments port is indispensable. Dar es-Salaam 2,715 2.715 Crucial Issuesfor thé XXI Century, Growth on Development in thé Préservation Institution- toric and should be made in islands Development oftourism and air trans- Cuba 2,649 2.340 Paris, 26-27, June 1996. Asia-Pacific Région: Thé Case of a pre- alist Economies, paper . Should transport infrastructure be port is especiallyclosely linked in small Cyprus 2,561 2.561 Gusti NgurahBagus, «Cultural Tour- Smalt Islands,» a paper presented sented at thé Ninth International developedfirst - openingUp new air island and this gives rise to thé prob- Jamaica 2,131 2.121 ism and Religious Belief Systems at thé UNESCO Conférence on Conférence on Cultural Econom- links with thé main generatingmar- lem of accessby air and thé stratégies Malta 1,878 1,878 in Bali,» in Wiendu Nuryanti éd., Culture, Tourism, Development: ics," Boston, Massachusetts, May kets and settingup land accessto of thé airline companieswhich should Fiji 1,409 1.386 UniversalTourism Enriching or De- Crucial Issuesfor thé XXI Century, 1995. future areas tourismdevelop- answer demands for aim to not only thé of Source: ICAO - Revenue passenger-kilo- grading Culture?, Yogyakarta: Paris, 26-27, June 1996. R Meserli, et al, Socio-economic De- ment? tourism but also, and perhaps espe- mètre in millions Gadjah Mada University Press, Jafar Jafari, "Tourism and Culture: An velopment and Ecological Capac- or cially. Thé needsof many small island 1992, pp.68-74. Inquiry into Paradoxes,» a paper ity in Switzerland, Thé Ethno- * Should tourism infrastmcturebasi- to openup to thé outsideworld. HiroshiKakazu, «Long Term Strategy présentée at thé UNESCO Confer- graphical Society of Zurich, pp.153- cally accommodation facilities. be Air transport in small island in most for WaterResources Management Culture,Tourism, Develop- 167, 1980. ence on createdbefore transport? casesis thé maindetermining factor for * University of Toulouse InternationalJournal of IslandAffairs 21 Thé internai air trafic, as for instance, en offer from thé airlinecompanies. How- For many island destinationsthere Unes,acts as a hub from which flights y between Trinidad and Tobago, be- ever, such adaptation is difficult to is a conflict as to whether to develop leave for thé small islands to thé north tween Mauritius and Rodrigues and achieve because thé interests of air regulartraffic or chartertraffic : and south ôf Puerto Rico. b betweenthé islands of thé Fiji archi- transportand thoseof tourism tend to . Is chartertransport damaging for thé American Airlines invested over one en pelago account for less than 1% of thé differ. Tourism professionalstend to developmentofregular companies be- billion dollars in setting Up its own air- .o international air traffic. Even in thé case call for increasingly low priées for in- causeit competeswith themduring thé port facilities in PuertoRico andin es- en of Cuba,domestic air traffic only repre- creasingly large numbers of tourists. tourism seasonand withdraws from thé tablishing a basefor its subsidiaries. sents l .4% of international traffic in But air carriers need to take into ac- marketduring off-peak seasons? AmericanEagle, in order to offer sev- 8 revenue passenger-kilometre. count production costs which are gen- . Areregular airiines alone capable of eral daily flights to most of thé destina- D Thé internationalair transportflows erally higher in islandsas well as Ae meeting,in termsof phce andavail- dons m thé Caribbean from Puerto Rico. s(_ ofsmallisland States are mainly fortour- requirementswith respectto flight regu- ability, thé requirementsof touhsm This strategyallows American Air- ^ ism. larity andfrequency of thé local island professionalsduring high. médium lines to lead thé market between thé There are therefore certain flows that States islands l populations. and off-peak seasons? United and thé Caribbean predominate with links between North Thus it is especially difficult to de- while Puerto Rico benefits from being Americaand fce Caribbean,Europe and Analysis of thèse différent flows of few sites that are suitable for airport termine a strategyfor air transportfor Thèsequestions need to be seenin thé nerve centre and gatewayfor thé thé islands of thé Indian Océan, and tourism towards islands shows thé im- constmction and which must therefore islands and thére is a risk that thé ob- thé light of an analysisof thé island Caribbean as a whole. Japan and Australia with thé Pacifie is- portance of régional tourism flows be- choosebetween thé option of devel- jectives of sustainabletourism devel- destinations for tourism in thé Carib- In 1997 Puerto Rico was thé main lands. tween industrialised countries which oping air transportand that of protect- opment will not be met. A supply of bean thé Indian Océan and thé Medi- tourism destination in thé Caribbean généraletourism and thé islands receiv- ing their natural resources and main- mass air transport may bring with it terranean in order to establish thé re- with 3.3 million amvals foUowed by thé ing tourism. This leads to gréât con- taining equilibrium for their local thé development of mass tourism spective rôles of charter and regular DominicanRepublic with 2.2 million centrationof demandfor air transport populations. which in turn may disrupt thé fragile companiesand their impact on thé de- and thé Bahamas with 1.6 million. CARIBBEAN along thèse main routes. Thé markets Some islands hâve shown that tour- environmental and social equilibrium velopmentof tourism in islands. Puerto Rico has also become. Thanks Country Numberoftourists %North (thousands) America generating international tourism are ism can, however,be developedwith- existing on islands. Thé choice be- to thèse air facilities, thé main point of Bahamas 1,592 89 often very distantfrom thé island des- out thé needfor constmctinglarge air- tween regular and charter air transport Thé example departureafter Miami for émisesto thé Barbados 472 57 tinations. This is especially thé case ports. An example are thé islands of as well as deregulation of air trans- of Puerto Rico other islands of thé Caribbean. Cuba 1,152 52 for Europeancustomers for islandsin Saint Vincent and thé Grenadineswhich port, are thé major problems for thé Thé case of Puerto Rico can be con- Jamaica 1,103 76 thé Caribbean and thé Indian Océan hâve seenextensive developmentof future of tourism in islands and its sideredan exampleof one of thé main TRENDSIN TOURISM DominicanRepublic 2,209 and for American customers for thé tourism without building interconti- continuance. successes of thé strategy to create a ARRIVALS IN PUERTO RICO* Saint Lucia 250 59 Pacifie islands. This spécial feature nentalairport stmctures.They concen- Analysis of tourist arrivais at island tourism and air travel hub in island re- 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Saint Vincent : and makesair transporteven more impor- trated on top-range tourism and use destinations shows that thé problem gions.Thé airportof SanJuan is thé 2,613 2,659 2,854 3,042 3,131 3,065 3,332 thé Grenadines 59 68 tant for thé developmentof tourism in smallrunways. This is alsothé casefor of distribution between charter and eatrypoint for mostof thémain North thèse islands. Trinidad and Tobago 322 79 thé island of Gomera in thé Canaries regular traffic is still one of thé main Americanairline companies in théCar- (* in thousands) Source: WTO Antigua and Barbuda 231 62 Thé developmentof air transportin which is mainly accessibleby boatand topics involved in thé developmentof ibbean but at thé same time. because Puerto Rico 3,332 71 small islandsmay hâvea considérable which lies given priority to individual, tourism in islands. of thépolicy adoptedby AmericanAir- However, thé growth in tourism ar- impact on their erivironment. Thé crea- discovery tourism aver mass tourism rives is still low with respect to other INDIAN OCEAN don and developmentof air links in- So transportdoes not necessarily island destinations in thé Caribbean Country Numberoftourists %Tourists air fromEurope volves thé constmctionof airports in need to be considered essentialfor tour- and in otherparts of thé world. Comoros 26 54 thé sites which are considered most ism developmentbut usually has an Mauritius 536 52 suitableto meetthé requirements of air importantrôle to play. Thé example Seychelles 130 81 transport especially with respect to of thé Maldives Madagascar 84 75 safety.For this reasonrunways are of- Thé Maldivesoffer anotherexample Sri Lanka 373 65 ten built closed to thé coast and this POLICIES FOR of thé developmentof island tourism Maldives 366 72 may affect thé equilibrium of coastal DEVELOPING AIR and of a strategy for air transport. ecosystemsas m mangrove swamps or TRANSPORT AND However, in thé case of thé Maldives, PACtFIC near natural beaches. been country Number%Touristsfrom TOURISM IN ISLANDS thépolicy for air transportthat has oftourists Japan,Australia In additionto this type of damageis Thé specificity of tourism develop- appliedis completelydifférent to that andNewZealand thatresulting from thé actualopération mentin islandsis broadlylinked to thé of Mauritius. Long-haul air transport FiJi 365 63 ofair lines.mainly noise, C02 émissions question of harmonisation between is providedonly by foreign companies Vanuatu 49 g-l and thé construction of facilities for policies for developing air transport that are free to set up regular or charter Papua and New Guinea 65 77 passengerand freight processing as and those for tourism. For tourism de- air links with thé Maldives. This means Tonga 26 58 well asaccess roads to thé airport.This velopment to be sustainable thé de- that, whereas Mauritius receives less Samoa 74 yg type of nuisanceis particularly prob- mandfor air transportfor tourismpur- than ten airline companies, thé Source:WTO statistics lematicalin thé caseof islandshaving poses must tie in with thé supply on Maldives are currently served by aver 22 InternationalJournal of IslandAffairs 23 en twenty,both charter and regular, includ- companieswhich are likely to be left Such associations between thé large Australia thanks to its company, Air ing Balair, LTU or Lauda Air, compa- behind by thé globalisation stratégies aù-linesnot only make it dif&cultfor small Mauritius. With this network and thé s nies from southern Asia such as Air of thé largeairlines. island to maintain their air services but complementarilywith régionallines to International Journal of Island Affairs 25 GDSscan offer a very gréât advan- références tagefor sellingthé tourismand air travel Airline Business, Economie Indica- productsofislands. Through them tour tors, 1996-1997 and airline operators in small'islands BELLER et Ahi. Sustainable devel- can participate directly in thèse world- opment and environmental man- wide networks with direct access to agement of small islands. MAB travel agenciesand through Internet UNESCO, Paris, 1990 to endconsumers in principle makesit CARRE A., Aéroports et stratégies possible to limit dependence on thé d'entreprise, Presses de l'I.T.A., large tour operator networks and thé Paris, 1990 large au-lines. CCE International, Transport Aérien Analysis of thé rôle of air transport 2010, Un Horizon en Pointillés, in thé tourism development of small is- Paris. Mardi 1998 land gives rise to two main conclusions, European Commission, DG VIII, namely Aat thé airlines stratégiesfor Exhanges d'expériences pour le diversification give a new chancefor développement d'un tourisme du- islands and that co-ordinated strate- râblé en zone littorale, Preparatory giesnow needto be setup betweenair document, Lisbon, July 1998 to thé extentthat they allow for circula- transport,land transport and tourism European Commission, DG XXIII, tion andprocessing of informationthat development. is much more efficient than traditional Tourism and d'e European Union, Practical Guide. 1997 methodswhen each companyhad its Council of Europe, Tourism and En- own Systemor whenprinted timetables by FRANCESCODl CASrRI" vironment, Questions and Answers, or priée lists had to be used. Unlike thé no. 3, November 1997 traditional Systemsof thé airiines,thé UNCTAD, International Trade in Tour- GDSsallow travel agenciesto gain ac- ism-related Services: Issues and cess, from a single terminal and in real time, to ail thé airiines and ail thé serv- Options for Developing Countries, Geneva, June 1998 ice companies that hâve chosen to sell " o other pièce of land in thé ants) has been able to develop such an advancedStone-Age civilization. This Annual report of d'e Council, 1996- their servicesthrough thèse networks. testified not only thé some l .000 giant statues(Moai) found thé island, 1997 world is more isolated in spacethan is by in EasterIsland, distant practically 4. 000 but also by a myriad of petroglyphs, rock paintings and wood sculptures, thé WTO, Statistics on international tour- kilometers from ail other inhabited some300 megalithic shrinesand altars (Ahu), thé sacredvillage (at Orongo)for ism, 1997 lands.No other small population has thé Birdman cuit, thé solar observatories,thé numeroustupa (tower-shaped WTO - Aviation and Tourism Policies, beenmore isolated in time (somel .400 stone structures,destined probably to star watching), thé so many inhabited Baiancing thé benefits, Stefen years)than that ofEaster Island,prac- and human-decorated caves (Ana) and, above ail, thé existence of thé intrigu- Wheaterofi, Madrid, 1994 tically from thé early Polynesiancolo- ing rongo rongo script, thé «talking» woodentablets, whether they represent a WTO - Practical guide for drawing up nization about 300-380 A. D. (600-650 real written languageor simply a very elaboratedmnemonic tool of religious and using indicators for sustainable A.D. accordingto somearcheologists) significance,whether they were ancient works or invented only after thé first tourism. Madrid 1997 up to its discoveryby thé Dutch Jacob contact with Spaniards in 1770. OECD - Thé future of international Roggeveenon EasterSunday of 1722 air transport. What policy should be Cattle grazing near Tongariki and Poike. - in any case more than a millennium adopted to meet worldwide of isolation. No other so isolated and changes? so small population (probably no UNEP - Several codes of conduct for much more than some 5000 inhabit- tourism. Paris. 1995 United Nations, Indicators of Sustain- able Development Framework and Méthodologies,New York, August * Directorof Researchat thé National 1996 ScientificResearch Center of France Vellas François et Becherel Lionel, (CNRS)in Montpellier,France, and International Tourism. An économie leader of thé SCOPE-ICSUinterna- perspective, Ed. MacMillan. Lon- tional project on thé Environmentin don, 1995 a GlobalInformation Society (EGIS). 26 International Journal of Island Affairs 27 Easter Island is considered to be thé From thé point of view of tourism Thé climate of Râpa Nui is an oce- CD Nui was unknown. It emerged when HongoOteo y Insulaby antonomasia,with ail thébest development,Easter Island alsorepre- contacts with other parts of Polynesia anic tropical one.As evidencedby di ABokeno ^ 1960's;'the (_ (creativeness, originality, sensé of be- sents a perfect case study. Concepts increased. Some Tahitian sailors were Ovahe Castriin théearly bioclimatic <3 favorableperiod extendsto ail twelve longing, fascination) and thé worst and actions as those of favoring thé stmck by thé similarities with another Hanga o Hoonu cô (self-destmction, civil warfàre and com- threediversities - of thé environment, island. Râpa (belonging at présent to months,as an average,as regardshu- =0 munity conflicts,dégradation ofAe en- of local people and of tourists - in or- French Polynesia, Austral Islands). 0 manhabitability andplant production. ^ der to avoid thé so common self-de- There are no months too dry, too warm, vironment, peculiar psychoses and at- RâpaNui meanssimply a largerRâpa, (_ titudes like in Sartre's Huit clos) at- stmctivecycle of tourism, and of pro- while thé original Râpa is also called Akivi too cold,or too rainy from a bioclimatic environmental dégradation,particularly world, with thé émergenceof a global not only for localized sites - this is a RâpaNui standsright at thé point of many volcanic hills and thé différent zadon becamemore apparent.When deforestation and total destmction of informationsociety. debatedpoint - it wasTe Pito te Henua, contactor crossroadsamong thé four characteristics of thé three side of thé thé Europeanvoyagers first arrived, woody resources. However, in this rc- Native people call thé island Râpa thé navel of thé world, again a very main tectonic platesof thé South Pa- triangle (thé western,northern and thélandscape was similar to théprésent spect,there is an excessof oversimpli- Nui, andRapanui their language,their symbolic dénomination evoking, as cific: thé Cocosplate at thé North, thé southern coasts), bas facilitated thé one,grassy and not woody,but with a fied statements. For instance, there is culture and themselves. From now on, Father Englert said, an «island at thé Antarctic plate at thé South, thé Nazca differentiation of human settlement in much greaterextension than now of no évidence,as yet, of an overpopula- this will alsobe thé dénominationgiven center of thé worid». plate at thé East and thé Pacifie asmany as 36 family groups(10 clans well-cultivated agricultural lands tion of Easter Island that would hâve in this article. This is by no way thé (Polynesian) plate at thé West. in 16 main settlements, according to (sweet potato, tara, yam, sugarcane, exceededper se thé carrying capacity pristine nameof thé island. Probably, PAST AND PRESENT Thé surfaceof RâpaNui is some166 most students), belonging to two main gourds, bananas). of thé island concerning food re- thé islandremained long unnamedas a 0F RAPA NUI squarekilometers, 16. 600hectares. This confédérations, thé Tu'u Aro (Mim) in More récentagents of environmen- sources,as frequently advocated. whole.Before 1863,thé nameof Râpa Râpa Nui (see map) is a volcanic is- is just thé sizeof a large Chileanhilly thé western side (with a larger propor- tal change are twofold: first, thé land that from thé air may look like thé hacienda.As comparedwith more fa- don of fishers),thé Tu'u Hotu Iti in thé overgrazingwith sévèreérosion (Râpa Ahu Tongariki.the Poike peninsula and Motu Marotiri (thé islet) during a shower. moon, or a more prosaic Emmenthal miliar islands.Râpa Nui is about30% easternside (mostly agriculturists). Nui hasbeen practically for morethan Thé mythical battle between long-ears and short-ears would hâve taken place in Poike. cheese,because ofas manyas 80 cônes smaller than thé Mediterranean Capri, and crater holes.It may be envisagea nine times smaller than Guadeloupe, as a triangle shaped by thé three main almost five times smaller than Madeira, founding volcanoes, Terevaka (thé only 30%larger than thé muchless iso- younger,360. 000 yearsold) at thé top, lated St.-Helena, Napoleon's island, RanoKao (two million years)and Poike more than six times smaller than thé (thé older, 3 million years)at thé base PolynesianTahiti, of about thé same angles.Thé maximum length, at thé base sizeas Raiatea,thé holy island for ail of thétriangle is 22kilometers; thé wid- Polynesia,and only 25%larger than thé est part, at thé height of thé triangle,is trident-like Moorea, thé small island 11 kilometers. Other notable volcanoes facingTahiti. It is almostinconceivable areRano Raraku, thé «nursery»where than an independentadvanced civili- most moai of thé island hâve been zation bas been able to develop in such carved and extracted from (and where a reduced space.Comparing it with 397 moai can still be found in différent some islands where a local civilization stagesof carving), Puna Pao, thé nurs- anda strongcultural identity hâvede- ery of théred topknots ofmoai (pukao), veloped.Râpa Nui is 52 times smaller Thé lake in thé caldera (crater) of Rano Kao, andOrito, thé obsidianquarry that pro- than Crète, 53 times than Corsica and with a diameter of some 1.500 meters. Thé very last toromiro tree 145times than Sardinia. is not at ail wasfound by Thor Heyerdahlin thé slopeof, this volcanoin 1955,and seeds vided most tools and weapons.How- It were collected to insure thé reproduction of thé tree. ever, there are not récent volcanic or thésame order of magnitude. Remuantsof agricultural terracing are found in thé slopes. 28 International Journal of Island Affairs 29 CD 80years, beginning about 1880, a ranch Roa or in thé beach of Anakena, be- Thé phaseof culturalexpansion (A. D. Thé three tiny islets (Motu) Motu Kao Kao, Motu Iti y of Australian Mérinos and Corriedale cause of thé récent introduction of co- 800-1500)is that of thé characteristicgi- and Motu Nui (thé largest one) for wool exploitation with a sheep conyt palms from Tahiti. Thé three (_ ant statues bearing shrines, and of a where thé first egg of thé s population having reachedup to 70.000 lakes in volcano craters (Rano Kao, polidcal organizationbased on a heredi- sooty tern (Sterna fuscata), CD head,a unusuallyhigh Uvestockcharge Oroi and particularly Rano Raraku) taryparamount chief (ariki mau). Thé larg- called Manutara, was caught Ç3 in order to designateeach year of more than four sheepper hectare); recall, at a much smaller size, thé Bo- est moai, still joined to thé volcanic thé Birdman (Tangata Manu), and second, thé afforestation with Eu- livian-Peruvian Titicaca lake with a e substrateat Rano Raraku,has a height as an émanation of thé e calyptus,a fast-growingexotic tree that végétationof totora, a water plant of of 21 metersand an estimatedweight of suprême deity Makemake. is totally inappropriate from environ- gréât social, économie and cultural im- 300tons. Thé largestmoai that hasbeen View from thé clijfs of thé 8 religions village of Orongo mental,aesthetic and cultural points of portance,found in Râpa Nui by thé transported and erected (Moai Paro from and thé sacred rocky precinct E view. In addition,thé exotic guavatree original Polynesiansettlers. Ahu Te Pito Kura) has a height of 10 of Ngarau, where 1.785 ^ with eatablefruits is becominga very It wouldbe totally impossible to give metersand a weight of 85 tons;its large petroglyphs hâve been recorded in an area o/ a few square meters. invasive plant. As regards past and hèrea full accountof thé so complex topknot(pukao) has an estimated weight § future exploitation of Râpa Nui re- historicalphases of RâpaNui and its ofsome 12 tons. sources,it should be noted that gréât people.Only a few chronological steps, Thé next phase of cultural décline différencesexist, within this apparently relevant to understand thé cultural (A.D. 1500-1722and later) wascharac- homogeneousland, asregards soil fer- évolution of RâpaNui, will be men- terizedby socialcollapse, chronic inter- thé terrestrial environment, and aggra- first Europeansarrived, most moai were Nui: kidnappingof islandersby whal- tility andgroundwater availability, and tionedbelow. Dates are approximations tnbal warfare,destmction ofcrops, bum- vatedby a likely shortageoffishes and still standing.After a few décades,ail ers,intense and repeated Pemvian slav- even when rainfall is considered, as regardsthé prehistoricperiod. ing of woodland remnants,and canni- dolphins,it is not impossiblethat can- of them were fallen. ery, spread out ofEuropean-bome, Eu- Terevakabeing for instancemuch more Thé prehistoric period starts balism.Cérémonial platforms (ahu) were nibalism had played at that time more An intriguing theory of Fischer is ropean-carriedand tropical diseases rainy than Hanga Roa. around 300 A. D. (or a few centuries altemately attackedby thé ones or thé than a ritual rôle in order to improve that thé Rapanuiwould hâve invented (smallpox,tuberculosis, syphilis, lep- At présent,Ae landscapeis that of later)with thé colonizationof Râpa others, and moai deliberately thrown thé diet. thé rongo rongo script during this part rosy),exploitation by largefarmers and anextended hilly androlling grassland, Nui by Polynesian settlers coming down. However,thé bloody fight of thé Despitewhat is often written, there of thé historié period, as a kind of Eu- ranchers based in Tahiti, massive mi- sometimes intermpted by dark and low from thé Marquises Islands, or Short-ears(Hanau Momoko) againstthé are no inhérent mysteries about thé ropeaninspiration. Thé Rapanui priests grations of Rapanui people towards stone walls, a landscapethat recalls throughout a southem route from thé Long-ears (Hanau Eepe) in thé Poike prehistoryof RâpaNui, nor asregards would hâveconsidered thé writings ob- Tahiti andother Polynesian islands (as amazingly that of Ireland or Scotland Cook Islands,Mangareva (at présent, ditch is likely to be merely a legend.In thé transport and érection of Moai. serveddunng thé Spanishdaim in 1770 a kind of escape response to thé (or that ofPatagoniain more openand in théGambier Islands ofFrench Poly- addition, from a correct semantic stand- However, debated points still exist on as a way to revive their previous el- gloomy island situation),forced con- dry spaces).Thé tropical Polynesia nesia) and Pitcairn (thé island settled point, thèseRapanui dénominations do whether or not there was only one or evatedrôle, by imbibing manain a lo- centration of thé population from thé with its luxuriant végétationappears later, in 1787, by thé Bounty muti- not refer to thé length of thé ears,but to more waves of Polynesian settlers, cal writing. On thé baseof their exist- overall island in a single place in thé only in wind-protectedsites of Hanga neers). différencesin thé body corpulence.Fi- whether Rapanui people influenced ing rock art as a starting point, thé south-west(Hanga Roa), and eventhé nally, ratherthan a civil war, this period back some other Polynesian islands, Rapanuiwould hâve invented then a ephemeralkingship of a Frenchadven- An unfinishedmoai in a supineposition, and thé lake of thé can be envisageaas a kind of religious and whether and to what extent there glyphic Systemofwriting andincorpo- turer, Jean Baptiste Onésime Dutrou- RanoRaraku crater with totora végétationin thé background. was some contact with SouthAmerica. rated it on wooden tablets. This script Bornier. At that time, stones from ahu In thé slopes of thé Rano Raraku volcano, thé quarry of moai, there are some révolution. With thé collapseof previ- altars removed fences 397 moai, standingor fallen, in différentstages of carvingand partly buried. ous beliefs and thé loss of faith, there Théhistorié penod starts in 1722with would hâve lasted only up to 1862, and were to make could hâve been a kind of popular re- thé discovery by Roggeveen, followed whena Pemvianslavery raid with eight of thé sheep ranch. volt, a rébellionagainst a socialand reli- by short and rather amicablevisits of shipstook place, and some 350 Rapanui, Populationof RâpaNui went down gious order that no longer seemedto voyagers such as thé Spaniard Felipe including ail priests and savants to 111 (or 110)persans in 1877, and they work. Gonzalezy Aedo (1770), thé British (maori), were kidnapped. werewilling to emigrateto Tahiti,ail of This is also thé phaseof thé estab- Captain James Cook (1774) and thé Thé 19thcentury, that of exploitation, them, if an opportunity would hâve lishment or thé strengthening of thé PrenchAdmiralLaPérouse (1786). This was full of disastrous events for Râpa been given to them. This is also thé Birdmancuit, in replacementof thépre- was thé phase of exploration. In spite vious vanishingpolitical order,when a of thé amicableattitude, particularly in new birdmanwas designated every year thé caseof thé threelatter voyagers,it as thé vehicle of god Makemake.This is probable that thé sudden révélation cuit might alsohâve exemplified thé im- to thé Rapanui,after a millennium or portanceof marine birds and eggsas a more of isolation, of a very différent main sourceof food for Rapanui. culture, much more advancedand more During ail thé prehistoricperiod, thé powerful that their own culture from a Thé knife-edged only domesticanimal for Rapanuiwas technologicalviewpoint, would hâve Kari Kari, at thé chicken, and to some extent thé further undermined their fate on their southern coastal side of thé crater Polynesian rat, both carried thé gods and on their mana (a kind of vital by wall of Rano Polynesian colonizers. With such a spiritual force and supematuralpower), Kao. «thé edge of shortageof animalproteins, mostly from thusaccelerating thé décline. When thé thé world». International Journal of Island Affairs 31 CD period of thé Catholic evangelization tion remainedlargely unchanged. From ported to and erected in their respec- Still, there is now a cultural revival, and (up to thé destructionof ail forestry resources),improved use of totora, better of RâpaNui with missionariescoming 1944to 1958,4l Rapanuitried to.es, tive ahu, in prehistoric times, and then many Rapanui people even show an water managementand agricultural setting, plant breedingand crop sélection U fromTahiti (1864), of intense Tahitian capetheir island prison in openfishihg thrown down by Rapanuipeople, only outstanding aptitude to develop a mar- basedon geneticplant diversity;use of obsidiantools, constructionof manavai b influenceon culture,language and land boats in thé direction of Tahiti and thé 49 (some 17%)hâve been recently re- ket economy and to insert them in an (stonewalled, somedmessunken, garden enclosures) to protect plants against û0 use, and finally of thé annexationof Tuamotus.At leasthalf of them disap- stored and re-erected,almost ail ofthem information society. wind effectsand excessive evapo-transpiration, agricultural terracing in thé slopes ^a RâpaNui by Chile on thé 9 September peared at sea. since1955. However, priority is not on It is not known how large was thé ofRanoKao. (0 of 1888. Whether or not this annexa- Only in 1965 (with a law published thé re-erection of new moai, but rather populationof RâpaNui in théperiod of After thé démographiecollapse of thé past century,there has been a graduai tion implied a récognitionfor islanders on March l 1966),Râpa Nui was de- on thé préservation, consolidation and cultural expansion. Most students recovery,and présent population is of about3. 000 persans,2. 000 of them being g to keep their ownershipon lands with claredan administrativedepartment of stabilization of thé already restored evaluateit to 5.000 to 8.000 persans. native Rapanuiand 1.000 Chilean from thé mainland,thé latter being called L) no restriction, this is a debatedpoint Chile with Chileancitizenship for its in- ones. Thé volcanic rock of moai is Others advancehigher figures of 12.000 Continentalesor just Conti. Thé populationrecovered also thanksto an intense ^(_ that has had and will hâve enonnous were habitants, and full civil rights cmmbly andfriable. Without appropri- up to 20.000 persans,but there is no interbreedingof native peoplewith Chilean,Polynesian mostly from Tahiti and (D répercussions on thé life of Rapanui grantedto them.Regular air flights by ate protection, it strongly decays be- évidence supporting them. Thé carry- Tuamotu,and European people. Only a few nativepeople could daim now to be (f) people.According to thé Rapanuiver- LAN Chile startedin 1967.At présent, cause of weather variations. ing capacityof RâpaNui asregards ter- of a solely Rapanuiorigin. Nevertheless,there is still persistencein most native 8 sion,thé king (Arii) Atamu Tekenaex- thé Mataveri airport hasbeen modern- Along ail thé vicissitudesdescribed restrial and marine food resources, es- population of distinctive Polynesiananthropological features, as well as of a emplified his own meaningof thé an- ized and enlarged to such an extent that above, there hâve been sévère cultural dmated in a very cautious and conserva- Polynesianculture. A peculiarpattem in RâpaNui, in sharpcontrast to Polynesian nexation by offering to thé Chilean even thé Concorde aircraft has landed. and social discontinuities, as well as a tive way, could easily support a popula- islandsof comparablesize, is that populationis urban at a level of 97%, being Navy CaptainPolicarpo Toro thé grass It also constitutesan emergencyland- lossofmemory on Rapanuihistory and tion of aver 8.000-10.000 persans. It is concentratedin only one site (HangaRoa andthé adjacentMataveri andTahai), of a clod (thé usufruct of thé island), ing site for thé space shuttles of tradition (more than in any other part probablethat thé causeof thé cultural becauseof thé historical reasonsmentioned above. Migration is still an important but keepingfor him thé earth(thé con- NASA. Finally,thé National Park Râpa of Polynesia),including asregards thé and démographie break-down was not pattem,and some l .000Rapanui live abroad,a largenumber ofthem in théPamatai tinued possession of thé land). Thé Nui has been included in thé World meaning and thé interprétation of thé so much overpopulation, but an inher- quarterof Faaa(Tahiti), still keepingclose contacts with thé homeisland. officiai act ofannexationis very short, Héritage List of UNESCO in 1995. rongo tongo tablets,but not yet a total ent impossibility of importanttechno- and leavesambiguities in this respect. This is also thé period of intensear- mpture. ARapanui culture is still alive, logical innovations,and even more a OURISM IN RAPA NUI Thé modem period covers thé cheologicaland ethnologicalexplora- largely maintainedby thé persistence sévère technological retreat. After de- Tourismactivities initiated in RâpaNui with thé establishmentin 1967of regular présent century. Up to 1953, Râpa Nui tion, starting with Routledge (1914- of thé local language of an forestation, Rapanui lacked thé raw flights from Santiago(Chile), and later on alsofrom Papeete(Tahiti) with connect- continued to be just a sheep ranch 1915), Métraux (1934-1935) and Austronesianand Protopolynesian ori- material (trees) neededto make sailing ing flights fromAustralia,New Zealandand Japan. It startedin a very modestway rentedby thé Chileangovernment to a Heyerdahl(1955). Thé first largemoai gin, while this is seriouslythreatened canoës,and they were accordingly pre- with a few campingtents for tourists, and soon after with a State-ownedhôtel foreigncompany (Williamson, Balfour (Ahu Ature Huki at Anakena) was re- by présenttends. Rapanuipeople seem vented from fishing and hunting dol- (HangaRoa of thé ChileanHonsa chain). Tourismdevelopment is récent.If in and Company), with discontinuous erectedby Heyerdahl,followed by res- to hâvea remarkablepower of adapta- phins offshore. They were also pre- and scarcecommunication by ship, a torations at Akivi and Tahai (both by tion to changeand of recovery from vented from catching marine birds and smallleper-house, a missionaryCatho- Mulloy in 1960and 1966),Orongo, catastropheand disasters.Most early eggsin thé uninhabitedrocky island lie priest,and thé overall Rapanui popu- Anakena,Tongariki (thé largestresto- voyagers, and more recently thé French of Salay Gomez,some 400 kilometers lation cloistered with fences in thé vil- ration of 15 moai, camed out from 1992 sailor and writer Pierre Loti in 1872 and from Râpa Nui. This sailing failure lageof HangaRoa with no right to leave to 1995with Japanese private funding) Alfred Métraux in 1934,predicted an would hâve implied a strong decrease r it without permission. From 1953 to and several other places. Outof thé 288 impending inévitable extinction of thé of thé carrying capacityof thé island. 1965,Râpa Nui wasruled by thé Chil- moai that hâve been success- Rapanui culture and ethnie group. In généralterms, thé problemof car- ean Navy, that administered thé ranch fully trans- rying capacity - and Râpa Nui is par- and thé people, and thé situa- ticularly suited to addressit as a micro- cosm in a unbiased way - should be faced in a non-linear dynamic terms (andnot assimple projections of a pre- vious situation) and considering that technologicalinnovation is thé main adaptivefeature of humanswhen fac- ing démographie and environmental change.For instance,in RâpaNui there Thégiant ancient ahu Vai Uri (Tahai)in théforeground, and thé récentvillage of HangaRoa Ahu Tongariki is a kind of discontinuous time stratifi- and ils J5 moai, in thé background. cation of différent food utilization: thé most important restoration carried coastalshellfish, marine bu-dsand eggs, 1988only 4.058 touristsvisited RapaNui, they werefive timesmore numerous in oui in Râpa Nui, chicken,fishes and dolphinsfrom off- 1998(20. 613),with anincrease of53% oftourists from 1996to 1997,andof28% from 1992 ta , 995, shore, agricultural products.Among from 1997to 1998. with Japanese thé prehistoric technologicalinnova- Even a cause-effect relation cannot be established, it should be singled out a private funding. if In thé background, tions of RâpaNui, mention shouldbe comparableincrease of connectionswith Internetin RâpaNui: therewere 20 thé Poike peninsula. madeof improved sailing techniques Internet connections in 1998, 50 in 1999, and they are likely to raise up to 100 or 32 International Journal of [sland Affairs 33 by Kevin Costnerin 1993and released (fiscal lands of Chile since 1933) and could end to a disaster for thé life con- co as a maximum, a third of thé résident At présent, 68% of tourists are for- Bros. 9 September1994 thé resettlement of thé overall island. dirions of thé islanders and to thé van- y population. This proportion is still eigners and 32% are from Chile. Among by Wamer on (thé anniversaryof thé annexationby This is an understandable and worthy ishing of thé tourist and économiepo- much lower than in other Polynesian foreign tourists,51% arefrom Europe, fa Chile), is partly responsibleof a 50% aspirationof Rapanuipeople, and also tential of Râpa Nui. islands (as for instance Bora Bora). In 27%from théAmericas (mostly US and (n a necessityfrom économie,social, cul- However, in spite of thé large accu- <0 fact, there is no feeling of being Canadian citizens, while thé doser increaseof foreign tourism in 1995. psychologicalpoints mulation knowledge cojicerning crowded Râpa (with exception Admittedly, this movie contains a tural and ofview. of in Nui South-Americans are very few) and (D number of historical inexactitudes. However, due to thé large diversity of Râpa Nui (but most of belongs to thé of Hanga Roa and thé Anakena beech 22% from New Zealand, Australia and it Tourism is then becominga most pe- seulement conditions in thé island, this so-called non-usable knowledge, un- duringthé summer),and one can spend Japan.Among Europeans,French citi- culiar and dynamic économie sector of can only be achievedthrough a wise suitablefor decision-making),it is not § a full day at Terevakawithout meeting zens are about 50%, followed by Ger- thé information society. masterplan orientationand guide, clear who will be responsiblefor, and a single persan, but onlyJiorses. man, Italian, Spanish and British citi- of including urbanization rather capable to elaborate and apply such a b It should be stressed that, while ar- zens. French tourists are thé first in ab- thé of thé ^ THE FUTURE 0F unpleasantand disordered Hanga Roa. master plan for resettlement. In addi- cheology is thé main attraction (ail solutéternis among foreigners, and rep- respect,one should es- tion, opinions on how to achieve such § RâpaNui is a kind of open-air muséum), resent more than 25% of thé total for- RAPA NUI In this not capefrom thé embarrassingconsidera- resettlementvary in anamazingly con- thé island is amazingly beautiful and eign tourism. Many ofthem corne from In exploringthé future of RâpaNui, four main considérations should be tion that, for obvious and inhérent rea- trasted way, even among Rapanui diversified, and that there are many Tahiti and French Polynesia,because mind. sons,thé best lands and placesfor re- groups, représentative organizations otherattractions for tourists:swimming there are especially advantageous air keptin First, tourism representsthé only vi- seulement are, in absolute terms, pre- and individuals. Rapanui folklore dances, with a clear Tahi- in thé sandy beaches or in crater lakes, fares from Papeete and, above ail, be- able économie sector for thé island. A cisely those that hâve been already Fourth, and this is related to thé point tian influence, performed by thé Conjunto diving, fishing, surfing, yachting,vis- causethere is a greaterand doser in- (dance group) Kari Kari. subsistenceeconomy would be out of settled by thé Rapanuipeople in thé above, there is now in Râpa Nui a very iting mysteriouscaves, exploring thé terest in thé Rapanui civilization. For thé current context and far from local past. Thèselands are inevitably very serions decision-making crisis. Thé island by hiking and trekking, horse- instance, one can find many more aspkations. addition.Râpa lacks close to thé best archeological sites Chilean administrative bodies, that more by thé year 2000. Several dozens back riding, renting a mountain bike,a books on Râpa Nui in thé small book- In Nui other resourcesfor an exchangemar- with ahu and moai. Some incompatibil- evenin thémainland tend to be strongly of web sitesdealing with RâpaNui, of motorbike or a four-wheels traction car, shopsofPapeete that in thémuch larger ket economy, as for instance thé blos- ity between a resettlementbased on compartmentalized, representin thé re- arigorously scientific, cultural andbusi- making photo safaris, shopping for ohes of Santiago. soming production of black pearls in real ancestral rights and thé develop- duced and close space of Râpa Nui a ness scope (including a unofficial wooden and stone handicrafts, or A very interestingtrend, with strong French Polynesia, in this case because ment of a cultural tourism (and also of kind of caricature,a magnificationof EasterIsland Home Page, comprehen- watchingnative dances at night. By ail implications, is thé progressive in- of thé absenceof coral reefs in Râpa préservation of monuments) could thé imaginable reality, of sector-iso- sive and well constructed) or with a means, archeology should not become crease of Chilean tourists, in percent- Nui. Only tourism could revitalize thé arise, unless ail this matter is handled lated and ever-conflicting institutions. completelyfanciful approach,can be a monoculture for tourism, and tour- âgeand in absoluteterms. They repre- almost dying agricultural activities in with pragmatism,serenity and wisdom. Mistrust and mutual denigration are thé now retrieved around thé world in dif- ists caneasily exceed thé averagefour- sented only 10% of thé total tourist thé islands, and hopefully help promot- Furthermore, a wild and hasty reset- mostpeculiar features of RâpaNui. This ferent languages, with hundreds of dayspermanence in RâpaNui. Ausual flow in 1991, but Chilean touhsts rosé ing someexpert tropical fmits and tlement,with occupationalso of lands mistmst appliesto thé Chilean bodies pages and photographs available on routinearcheological visit of RâpaNui, to 20% in 1994and they representnow of flowers.By thé way, is only thanksto void of économiepotential, with anur- among them, to thé relations between thé most différent topics. Connection disconnected from thé cultural and 32% of thé total. From 1988 to 1998, it tourism that thé Rapanui culture has banizationthrough ugly bidonville-like Chilean and Rapanui people, as well as via Internetgreatly helps small localen- natural environment, with no sensé of they are ten times more numerous(from shown a revival, after thé previous houseshaving no facilities for electric- to thé relations between différent trepreneurs,ail ofthem native Rapanui, fascination and adventure, could be 662 to 6.660 Chilean tourists), while in stageof résignationand passiveness, ity, potablewater and wastedisposai, Rapanuigroups and individuals. For to promote and accept direct hôtel res- easilyand inexpensively replaced - af- thé sameperiod total tourism has in- and has developedtowards active in- ervations,out of thé channelsof large ter ail - by a virtual visit through creased five times and foreign tourism volvementand entrepreneurialactivi- tourism firms. Internet. 3.8 times. However, a Chilean tourist An Irish-like landscape, with moai (abu Nau Nau), at Anakena. ties. Thé number of available beds for spendsin thé island,as an average,25- Second,main forthcoming obstacles tourists is at présent of 929 in 487 30% lessthan a foreign tourist. to tourism are thé lack of infrastructures rooms, distributed among very small to Finally, thé paramount impact of in- and good services provided by thé medium-sizeResidenciales and larger formationflow andavailability on tour- Rapanui themselves, thé concentration hôtels with an international standard. ism shouldbe stressed,not only as re- of holdingsand capital in a few Rapanui They are ail situatedin thé restricted gardsthé electronically-carriedinfor- hands,thus threatening thé local tradi- areaofHanga Roa, Mataveri and Tahai, mation (as for thé Internet facilities bons socialequality, and thé impend- and are owned and managedéxclu- mentioned above), but also thé cultural of ing émergence of social classes and sively by native Rapanuipeople. Thé and artistic happenings and thé média gapswithin Rapanuipeople, with fore- current trend, mostly determinedby coverage. For instance, thé télévision seeable social disruptions. Thèse Europeantourists, is to givesome pref- sériai lorana, a soap opéra on a love points will be further elaborated in re- erence to Residenciales, due to their story in Râpa Nui, diffused by thé Chil- lation to thé scénariosof tourism de- lowerpriées and to aneasier possibil- ean télévision in March 1998, is largely velopment. ity of contactwith thé Rapanuiculture. at thé ohgin of a larger flow of Chilean Third,thé major task facing now thé Thé above figure on available beds tourists to Râpa Nui thé following Rapanui society is that of thé means that thé total number of tourists months, estimated at a 70% increase. recolonization of thé abandoned lands in any given moment cannot exceed, Sunilarly,thé movie Râpa Nui, produced 34 International Journal of Island Affairs 35 Political daims on CD Chile. Only thé Chileantélévision is received,and there is 3 Modulation and control of thé tourist flow are exerted land property of a part of thé Rapanui no local télévisionnor radio. A local newspaper(Te Râpa by thé prevailingmonopoly of LAN Chile on air flights. s population, Nui, Thé gazetteof EasterIsland) is publishedoccasion- For instance,more advantageousrates are made for thé represented ! ally.Particularly young people, and spiteoftheir claimed résidentsin thé Chileanmainland as compared with for- CD by thé «Consejo in de Ancianos: formai rejection,seem already to be culturally-dependent eignerswho pay abouttwice asmuch for a normalflight V (Council of thé Elders) from Chile.After school,when leaving their class-room where from Santiago. 2, as displayed in also Rapanuiis taught,they interact amongthem almost 4 Thé particularly favorableconditions for Rapanuilocal l March 1998 near exclusivelyin Spanish.Only 5% of schoolchildrenspeak peoplebecause of thé indigenouslaw make, as a per- thé church: l International Journal of Island Affairs 37 (^ ronment.Culture is a dynamic, open, international ers (with someexport potential), high- even more if this is basedonly on an tablishmentof larger storagefacilities Bishop Muséum and to thé East-West tureby nativeowners with » changing,adaptive and spécifiefea- archeological assetnot inserted in a liv- to overcome thé seasonality con- Center of Honolulu. Along this Une, a fmns. quality handicraft,cultural and artistic D ture. Therefore, this scénario does not ing culture.Thé local Polynesianenvi- straints of thèse activities, and thé very successfulinternational congress By thé way, not everything is bad happenings,and commitmentto be a c_ 13 contemplateat ail a kind of stadecopy ronmentprovides ample opportunities launchingofsome small agro-industrial on EasterIsland and East Polynesia has aboutglobal tourism, and some lessons focus and a core of some international (D of what thé Rapanuiculture is likely to for a diversification oftourism. and also manufacturing. beenalready held in RâpaNui in 1984. hâve to be leamed in thé case of Râpa scientific endeavors. V hâvebeen in a distantpast, nor a sim- for thérevival of spécifieagricultural This developmentshould also con- Finally, thé population size of native Nui, as for instance a greater concern Sustainabilityoftourism in RâpaNui pattems E pie imitationof prevailingin activities and thé establishment of oth- sider thé plantationof thé treesmuch Rapanuiis too smallto pemiita dynamic for thépromotion ofinfrastmctures and also implies thé préservationand thé other Polynesian islands. Instead ers. At présent, even most fruits are enhancement of thé archeological her- neededfor woody handicrafts,mako'i évolution of their Polynesian culture in particularlyof thé capacity-building, a § Rapanui,while keeping their cultural importéefrom thé mainland(with ex- (Thespesiapopulnea),miro tahiti (Melia total isoladon, within thé context of thé wider use and acceptanceof crédit itage,thé diversificationof thé présent roots and recoveringthé pride of hav- ception of bananas, and of a limited environmentand landscapesto better azedarach)and miro pupu(Acacia), and présentglobal information society. A cards,thé quality-controland thé priée E ingbeen thé most advanced expression productionofpapayas, pineapples and hopefullythé réintroduction of thésym- doser vision on Hiva, their ancestral normalization of services and products reflect thé Rapanui and Polynesian ^ of thé rich and vast Polynesiancivili- mangos).Traditional agricultural prod- bolic Toromiro tree. This réintroduction homeland, should be developed.There- (includingfor handicraftproducts, with- identity, thé survival and thé further zation,hâve to face thé new emerging l uctsof RâpaNui properto Polynesia, shouldbe favoredby biotechnological fore,many more linkages hâve to be es- out thé présentpainful bargaining),as developmentof thé local Polynesian evoludonaryforces and constraintsin like sweetpotato and tara, tend to dis- manipulations, in order to increase thé tablished with thé other nch Polynesian well as a more professional and ac- languageand culture, as a living cul- an adaptive,'spécifie and innovative appear,and existing manavai are decay- adaptabilityof thé existingplant strains civilizations ofFrench Polynesia(Tahiti, countable attitude vis-à-vis oftourists, turc, and a paramountconcern for in- way. ing. Food for tourists in most restau- that hâvebecome foreign andunfamil- MarquisesIslands, Huahine, Raiatea), a bettermarketing and benchmarking, suring a greater social cohésion, so Thisscénario also considers achange rants and hôtels,with few exceptions, iar with to théprésent island conditions. Hawaii and New Zealand. In spite of and thé préparationof more appealing preventing thé shift towards an in- as re- of thé driving forces mentioned is a completely Chilean-like one and is Culturaldevelopment includes a bet- somedifférences, thé languagehas thé publicity materialon thé island. creased lack of security. gards thé Chilean scénario, with thé also very monotonous, out of several ter training of tourist guidesand inter- same base. With doser contacts with In généralternis, thé maintenance and establishment somepermanent lo- of delicious fishes, seafood and some ex- preters (some of their explanationon thé Polynesiancircle, it would also be CONCLUSIONS thé promotionof a cultural diversity is cal média, a strong promotion of thé pensivelobster. This is in spite of thé Rapanuihistory may be amazinglyfan- possibleto drain towardsRâpa Nui a Cultural tourism is thé only viable thé key factor for permitting thé Rapanuilanguage, thé breaking up of enormouspotential of thé Rapanuien- ciful andunrelated to thérest of Poly- number of international tourists per- économie sector in Râpa Nui, but it sustainabilityoftoimsm. As exemplified thé LAN Chile monopoly(at least vironmentfor tropical agriculture,and nesia),and thé capacitationof thé lo- formingPolynesian tours. shouldlead to a greaterdiversification by thé scénariosfor Râpa Nui, présent throughout more fréquent charter of thé easyavailability of groundwater cal anthropologicalmuséum to enlarge oftourism activities and to a more accu- trends of thé infonnation society can somecontrol and limita- flights), and for irrigation. Even thé food cookedin its pedagogicalscope. This muséumis THE GLOBAL SCENARIO rate and accountablequality control. lead either to a cultural homogenization don of thé migrationfrom thémainland earth ovens is much doser thé South- alreadyin anappropriate building and This scénario contemplâtes thé pos- Tourism should also become thé driv- andunifomuty or to a culturalenhance- search jobs. Somelevel ofsuppler in of Chilean one (thé so-called curanto) in a splendidposition overlookingthé sibility that thé Rapanui tourism be ing forcefor thépromotion of othereco- ment and diversification, according to administrativeautonomy RâpaNui for than to that of thé other Polynesianis- Tahaiarcheological site. It couldplay a alignedto a standardizedand not cul- nomic and cultural activities, such as a thé adaptive response of local is also envisagea this scénario,in in lands.Râpa Nui alsolacks thé flowered rôle of a paramountimportance for thé turally-specific internationaltourism, site-specificagriculture of tropicalfruits, populations.Thé developmentof a cul- line with thé current world trend to- andfragrant ambiance ofFrench Poly- islanders to partly recover thé lost whosemain goals are stigmatizedby thé vegetableand flow- tural tourism implies an incessant con- wards greaterregionalization and de- nesia,in spiteof thé fact that flowering memory of their past, and for tourists symbol SSS(standing for Sun, Sandand frontation between thé roots of a his- centralization. Of course, autonomy plantsgrow extremely well in théisland. to get an accountableview of Rapanui Sex).It alsoimplies thé involvementof torical identity and thé wings of should degenerate emer- not to thé A requisitefor a new agriculturalde- history and culture, if it would be or- thélarge multinational firms for tourism, worldwide transfers of informa- genceof a localMafia, as it hasalready velopment in Râpa Nui, in hands with ganizedalong an itinerary of chrono- as it happensin many other Polynesian tion in real time. happened other islands thé world. in of théland resettlement, is mainly a more logical séquenceof events,from be- islands such as Bora Bora or Moorea. It wouldbe very dangerous for Râpa stablepolicy for a worthypricing and fore thé Polynesiansettlement up to It appears that Râpa Nui is not par- Re-erected and restored Nui to concentrate ail économie activi- distributionof products(including thé récent times, somewhat similar to thé ticularly suited for that. Rainfall can be moai at Anakena (ahu a monoculture, ties on kind of tourism possibilityofexporting surplus), thé es- muséumof thé Polynesiancivilization fréquentand persistentin thé island. Nau Nau), with red in Tahiti.Thé muséum could also pro- There are only three small sandy topknots (pukao) of différent shapes. vide thé framework for more continu- beaches(one of them being thé won- According to local Moai thrown down in ouscultural happenings and for a much derful Ovahewith its pink sand)and, tradition, thé legendary Vaihu, during thé neededforum of interchangeand de- althoughRapanui young personsare first king Hotu Matu'a phase of internecine would hâve landed in bâte. At présent,one of thé main ob- oftenvery attractive,tourism based on warfare, religious thé Anakena beech, révolution and jectives of thé muséum, that of recov- sex has nowhere been sustainable. coming from a cultural décline. ering Rapanui archeological pièces Above ail, thé indigenouslaw mling Polynesian Hiva, In thé foreground, a thé ancestral from foreigncountries, is unlikelyto RâpaNui prevents any foreigner to own pukao of red scoria homeland. be met, because condi- from thé Puna Pao of insufficient landor buildings. volcano. Out of thé tiensof securityand air conditioning. Nevertheless,attempts hâve already 288 moai that hâve As a more ambitiousgoal, a kind of bemade in thélate 1980's to implantan been successfully cultural and research center for South international hôtel at thé Anakena transported to and Polynesiacould be located RâpaNui, beach,not far from abu andmoai. It is erectedin theirrespective ahu, in prehistorictimes, and then thrown down by Rapanui in people,only 49 moai (some 17%) hâve been recently restored and re-erected (almost ail of somewhatcomparable in scope- al- not excluded that some kind of arrange- thein since 1955). though at a much smaller scale - to thé mentor partnershipbe madein thé fu- International Journal of Island Affairs 39 In this context, an integrated and Thé latter document was approved at ^ thé SpécialSession to review thé Pro- Ij balanced approach to tourism devel- D gramme of Action for Small Island De- L. opmentand environmental management 5 is thé key to achieving sustainable de- veloping States,held in New York on (7) velopment in small island states. thé27-28 September 1999. <0 e s_ FROM BARBADOS PROGRESS ACHIEVED TO THE PRESENT Despitethé challenges,many SIDS 8 hâve established initiatives and acti- Thé Earth Summit in Rio was thé first u stepleading to thé adoptionof thé Pro- vatedprojects to bringtourism devel- ^ by PAOÎA DEDA* grammeof Action for thé Sustainable tification and managementof natural opmentinto balancewith their broader Development ofSmall Island Develop- protectedareas. Thé protectionof thé économie, social and environmental § ing States (BPoA), subsequently environment is considered an impor- objectives. Thé strengthening of re- agreedin Barbadosin 1994.This Pro- tant pre-conditionfor thé préservation gional coopération on stratégies, gramme,endorsed by aver 100 coun- of fragile but distinct local cultures. standardsand capacity building for TOURISM AND SMALL nomicdiversification and it contributes sources are thé assetsthat attract tour- tries, called for Island Nations and thé Thé progress in implementingthé tourism has facilitated a number of ini- ISLAND DEVELOPING growth relatedactivities. Thèse to thé of Al- ists.However, thé stressimposed by InternationalCommunity to tackle is- Programmeof Action is underongoing tiatives. include finalization of STATES (SIDS): PROMISE thoughéconomie benefits derived from tounsm activities on those resources land problems in partnership. Thé review.Every yearthé Commissionon thé CartagenaConvention in thé Wider AND ... PROBLEMS. tounsm are diverse, tourism has be- directlyreduces thé carryingcapaci- BPoA remains thé «milestone» docu- Sustainable Development (CSD), Caribbean région, thé création, in part- As thé Charter for Sustainable De- cornea major contributorto grossdo- tiesof smallisland developing states, ment for thé sustainabledevelopment among other activities, monitors and nershipwith OECD,of a technicalcom- velopment'recognises, tourism is dou- mesticproduct in théCaribbean région acceleratingand aggravating thé de- of SIDS, since it cleariy defînes actions reportson thé implementationof sus- mittee on sustainable development in ble-edged,can contribute positively and in thé «it Mediterranean2 . Even in pletion and destruction of natural re- and policies that enhance thé under- tainabledevelopment policies in Small thé Eastern Caribbean région and thé to socio-economic and cultural achieve- régionswhere tourism is still relatively sources.Thé risks andnégative effects standing of sustainable development Island Developing States.A récent re- establishment of a code of conduct for ment,» while at thé same time it can underdeveloped,it has been given in- of masstourism are already évident in issuesand promûtesan integratedap- port preparedby thé De- contribute to thé dégradationof thé creasing importance as a way of attract- manySIDS. Ironically by overioading proach to environmental management. partmentof Economieand environment and thé loss of local iden- ing foreignexchange earnings. Klaus carrying capacity, tounsm not only dra- Thé extension ofthis holistic approach Social Affairs of thé UN tity. SIDSare a goodexample of this Tôpfer, Executive Director of UNEP matically exploits thé environment but to tourism is stronglysupported in thé Secrétariat with thé as- ambiguity.Tourism is animportant and recentlynoted that tourism basically at thé same time reduces thé islands' BPoA, which considers«imperative» sistance of thé World growmgsource of incarneand employ- involves marketing thé environment. attractivenessto tourists,thé very com- thé careful planning of tourism devel- TourismOrganisation and ment for many island states:it offers Indeed,biological and physical re- modity that tourism has to offer opment in relation to compatible land thé United Nations Envi- eco- one of thé few opportunitiesfor uses,water management, coastal zone ronment Programme managementand thé créationof parks (UNEP) évaluâtes and protected areas. progressachieved, iden- ->. (^(t Thé BPoA emphasizes thé need for tifies remainingproblems environmental impact assessmentfor and sets future priorities ail tourism projects and thé continuos in thé field of sustainable t > monitoringofthe envu-onmentalimpact tourism. Thé findings and of tourism acti vides. Thé document recommendations of thé advocatesthé developmentof guide- report hâve been taken Unesand standards for designand con- into considération while struction taking into account energy negotiatingthé «Stateof andwater consumption, thé génération progress and initiatives and disposai of wastes and land deg- for thé future implementa- radation. Eco-tourism is seen as a sus- don of thé Programme of tainable activity when attractionsare Action for thé Sustainable properiy managed and protected, and Developmentof SmallIs- *SIDS Unit uvolves local populations in thé iden- land Developing States». Division for Sustainable Development ' CharterFor SustainableTourism, World Conférenceon SustainableDevelopment, Lanwrote, Canary Islands, Spain, 1995 Department of Economie For example,in 1995tourist receipt as percentageof GDP reached62. 8 in Antiguaand Barbuda,68. 0 in St. Lucia,39. 9 in Barbadosand and Social Affairs in thé MediterraneanS1DS it reached22. 2 in.Malta and 25.7 in Cyprus.For further détailssee: Annex HI in UnitedNations (1999) Progress in thé implementationof thé Programmeof Actionfor thé SustainableDevelopment of SmallIsland Developing States: sustainable tourism United Nations - New York ' ^ developmentin SIDS (DocumentE/CN. 17/1999/6/Add.ll) 4l thé préventionof pollution from small CONSTRAINTS (D POLICIES AND MEASURES ESSENTIAL ships in Caribbean islands. In thé Pa- ENCOUNTERED s FACTORS cific, a joint Tourism Master Plan AND ADVERSE ' Diversification of thé touristproductand largely focused on sustainabledevel- b IMPACTS tourism market ATTRACTIVENESS (of natural and (D opment stratégies and environmental SIDS face environmental, ' Strengthening of linkages to other eco- cultural resources) .o protection addresses ail policies and économie and institutional nomic sectors . ACCESSIBILITY actions on tourism in thé région. CD constraints to thé sustain- ' Increasing of community participation . INFRASTRUCTURALCAPACITi' Major efforts hâve led also to thé rc- able development oftourism. . Encouragement of use of local materi- . INVESMENT CAPITAL introduction of économie instruments g 1_- . ^^^!f Vulnerability to climate aïs in resort construction . HUMAN RESOURCES L) for environmentalprotection such as changeand climate variabil- . Increasing of investments in training lo- . POLITICAL AND OPERATIONAL i_ chargesand userfées. In severalcases ^ ity seriouslyaffects Islands, cal peuple PREPAREDENESS économie instruments hâve been creating widespread dam- . Educational programs ^ adaptedto respondto local needs:in ' 8 âgeand making their future Establishment of standards for approval GOALS thé case Maldives, example, a of for uncertain. Potential sea-level of projects partial moratoriumbas been placed on rise and natural disasters . Use of économie investments to inter- . Conservation of thé main ecosystem tounst accommodations to control thé hâve a strong impact on lo- nalize environmental costs . Préservation of historical-cultural rapid development of thé sector and cal économies and conse- . Use of appropriate user-fees héritage contain thé environmental impact ' Strengthening of thé local économie environmental dimension.Among SouthPacifie hâve designed a tourism quentlydiminish islands' de- . Implementationof a sustainablemar- causedby touhsm. To minimize thé im- many success stones is thé case of sectors developmentstrategy basedon their sirability as tourist destina- keting strategy pact of scubadiving on thé coral reefs Mauritius and some islands in thé ' Support local employment naturalresources. Since manufacturing dons. Thé inadequacy of . Encouragement of voluntary activities thé Bonaire Marine Park in thé Nether- SouthPacifie. In Mauritius,thé growth andexpert activities are very limited thé physical infrastructure, in- landsAntilles has imposedadmission of thé tourism industry,while contrib- strategyis aimedat maximizingbenefits cluding transportation facili- fées for scubadiving to allow for thé uting to thé diversification of thé is- for local communities while maintain- des, road networks, télécommunication links, energy and water importantéconomie acti vides. Further- générationof revenueto support thé land'seconomy and thé création of new ing indigenousactivities and self-sup- supplySystems limit thé developmentof thé sector. more, in thé long mn, a réduction in thé ongoing active management of thé jobs, bas produced sévèreenvironmen- porting local agriculture.This avoids Small islands lack thé human resources to support a number living standards and limited access to park'snatural ecosystems, including tal impacts, especially along thé aver dependence on thé tourism sec- of économie sectors that can benefit from linkages with thé land resources will affect local educationalactivities for divers.A plan coastal areas. To address thé issue, a tor. Sustainable tourism will thus be tourism sector and hâve therefore to rely on imports to populations:pressure will be exerted to introduce a US $90 tax on travelers MasterTourism Plan has been put in achievedthrough thé establishmentof meetthé demandsof tourism.Thé absenceof a signifi- on households and communities by thé in Seychellesis aimedat thé genera- place for thé northern section thé of a balanceamong thé islands' infrastmc- cantlocal entrepreneurialclass limits local investments rise ofland and commodity priées. This tion of revenueto préservethé envi- islandthat includes a sériesof legisla- turcs, values, cultures, resources and in thétourism sector, which is largelyfinanced through is not to mention thé environmental ronment and improve tourism facilities. tive measures for thé environmental natural assets.In this context. sustain- foreign investment. damagecaused by tourism-relatedac- Many smallisland developing states conservation of tourist areas. Thé is- achieved able tourism will also be Régional projections and studiespredict a con- tivities, such as pollution due to waste hâveformulated national action plans land States Niue, Kiribati, Vanuatu, of through thé active involvementof thé tinuousgrowth in internationaltourism. SIDS can disposai,both from land sourcessuch that refer to or include tourism and its thé Cook Islands and Tonga in thé local business sector. certainly benefit from thé global growth of this as hôtels or other facilities and ship- Thé establishment of sector. Rapid development of thé tourism sector, generatedwaste, overexploitation of // ^' frameworks that allow however,can cause significant social dismptions and /f.' thé alreadyscarce inland freshwater re- localcommunities to par- ^ll sources, and loss of valuable marine adverseimpacts when not adaptedto local charac- \ ticipate and hâve a '9MII life and thé destruction of coral reefs k teristics or when exceeding islands' carrying capac- /.SI'1: greater control over tour- ity. Tourism is viewed by many islandersas a fast '"WA ^ often attributable to thé improper con- ism development has route ta social and économie development but its duct of tourists. generated a séries ofim- Janus-likenature can easily and rapidly transform -TT- portant initiatives. This benefitsinto négativesif it is overemphasizedto fl¥l i , i'I=T. includes thé involve- thé détriment of other PRIORITIES AND ment of a locally based POLICY NEEDS NGO in thémanagement Integratinginternational tourism de- of thé Soufrière marine velopmentwith sustainableisland de- management area in St. velopmentrequires thé ability to bring Lucia and thé participa- into play many essentialfactors and don of thé local commu- new chteria, instruments and policies nity in thélocal advisory in a cohérent manner. Thé following committees in thé Jamai- table sums up thé major éléments to be can Blue and John Crow considered while shaping a sustainable national parks. touhsm strategy for SIDS. International Journal of Island Affairs 43 Références United Nations (1994) Barbados Pro- gramme of Action for thé Sustain- . . able Development of Sma!l Island developing States. United Nations (1996) Progress in thé implementation of thé Pro- gramme of Action for thé Sustain- able Development of Small Island Developing States: sustainable tourism development in SIDS (Document E/CN.17/1996/Add.3) United Nations (1999) Progress in thé implementation of thé Pro- gramme of Action for thé Sustain- able Development of Small Island Developing States: sustainable STEPHANIESEARS* A positive interaction between tour- by . Strengtheningcapacity-building in tourism development in SIDS ism and environment, socio-cultural thé tourismsector and thé promotion (Document E/CN. 17/1999/6, and économie factors requires inte- of local community awarenessand Add.11) grated sustainabledevelopment strat- participation; United Nations (1999) Sustainable egies,where measures for copingwith . Establishmentof partnershipsfor Development Success Stories, Vol- théadverse social and cultural impacts sustainable development to conserve urne 3 oftourism arejoinedwith measuresfor and protect natural and cultural re- UNEP/GEF (1999), Our Planet. Issue coping environmentalimpacts and with sourcesand thé further development on Small islands. Volume 10, économievulnerability. ofhuman resourcesat ail levels; Number 3 1999 * Adoption of appropriaterégulations, Charter For Sustainable Tourism, or some of us it might be thé Sustainable development and for thé view that such societies would a voluntary code of conduct and cri- World Conférence on Sustainable sightof dolphinsor thé solitarythnll of ecotourism hâve become key words in revert to sustainability if given a chance, OUTCOME 0F THE 22ND teria for best practices and other in- Development, Lanzarote, Canary helicopterskiing but for meit is théview our new global ecologicalconscious- they may even then be preventedby SPECIAL SESSION ON novative measures; Islands, Spain, 1995 of a tropicalisland which affordsthé in- nessand hopeful leitmotivs in face of thé bitter réaction to their colonial his- TOURISM IN SIDS . Further mobilization of resources to stantjoyand optimism which seems like disappearingwilderness. Theyrelate no tory or by fidelity to custom, or again Thé promotion of sustainabletour- assist islands' transition towards a glimpse of paradise. Possibly, thé longer to a fragmentedvision of thé by socialchange. Thé unlikelihood, fur- ism requiresefforts by SIDS at thé re- sustainable tourism; be nomic promiseof tourism can only pinnacled silhouette of a Polynesian world but imply a planetaryresponsi- thermore, that indigenous societies in- gional and national level with interna- . Théimprovement of SIDScapacity realized Island States and thé inter- if high island conveysthat senséof per- bility for thé préservationof naturein troduced to western ways could or tional supportand coopération. Spe- to implementrelated treaty require- . national community work togetherto fectbliss with greatestintensity. In west- which individual actions -of whatever would, in a purist fervor, reject com- cific actionshâve been identified by ments (ICAO, IMO). orient tounsm activities towards bal- em opinion inspiredby thé enthralled nationality and geographical situation- pletelythé amenities ofmodemity is in- thé décisions of thé CSD at its seventh anced économie, social and environ- descriptions of eighteenth and nine- will hâve an effect on thé whole of our creasedin some casesby rapid popula- session. Furthermore, thé State of Thé connection between sustainable mental development. Wliether as tour- teenth century explorers and sailors, its environment. When therefore, a natu- dongrowth, only relieved by emigration. progress and initiatives for thé future tourism, energy and transportis also ists or islanders, we should ail hâve a seductive charm has lain in thé exotic rai setting under localized control is Irony turns into tragedy when thèse implementationof thé Programmeof consideredof considérableimportance commongoal - to supportefforts to pre- profusion of nature, thé Polynesian's misused or menaces thé planet's ecol- past sustainablesocieties realize that Action for thé SustainableDevelop- in thé light of thé préparationof thé serve thé pristine beauty of small is- sereneenjoyment of life, andmost of ail ogy, it becomesreason for concernto even with thé will to do so and despite mentof SmallIsland Developmg States, agendaon energyand transportof thé lands. perhaps,in his talentfor makinguseful environmentalists. continuity of some traditions, they can- approvedthrough a Résolutionat thé ninth session of thé Commis- thingsout of, say,a coconutfrond or a Someindigenous people may ques- not go backto self-sufficiencybut must United Nations SpécialSession of thé sion on Sustainable Devel- seashell.Today, thé halcyon sweetness tion howeverthé judgementof scien- adapt,willy-nilly, to theu-relentlessinte- GénéralAssembly in September1999, opment. of thèse islands's climate and people tists and environmentalists regarding grationinto a modemeconomy. Thé his- emphasized thé need for: In conclusion, tourism can makes it sometimes hard for westemers their own country andwonder if thèse tory of Polynesiais riddled with such . Establishmentof assessmentpro- play an essential rôle in foster- to believethat head-huntingand canni- views are not biased or artificial. tragedy:thé balmy climate,thé natural grams to evaluate thé implications of ing thé sustainabledevelopment of balismwere oncewidespread through- Thé doctrine ofsustainability increas- luxurianceof high islandssuch as Sa- tourism development and thé im- SmallIslands developing States. How- out thé South Pacifie. Future genera- ingly acceptedas a legitimatedeparture moa, Tahiti or thé Marquesas, thé provement of collection and use of ever, thé eco- tions may find it equally hard to believe from noxious industrialization in thé sparselyclad beauty of théislanders and tourism data; ,» / l / thatSamoa was once a placewhere thé west, can seemironie in parts of thé their hospitality, ail contributed more or less to thé downfall of their cultural and "/ beautyof naturewas effusive and sus- world where adaptation to nature was tained. traditionallyfelicitous. Ifthere is reason économie autonomy. InternationalJournal of IslandAffairs 45 ^ American Samoa typifies thé thé year 2010 for a land surface of 76 If controlled development and im- Polynesiandilemna. Thé group is com- squaremiles. Thé situation ofAmerican E proved infrastmcture are important to "^ Zl posed of thé main island ofTutuila with Samoais howeverby no meansexcep- thé growth of tourism, thé vitality and y(_ thé capital of PagoPago;thé Manu'a tional in thé SouthPacifie where popu- préservation of local culture are even (D group of Ofu, Olosegaand Ta'u, ren- lation growth generallyaverages 2. 3% more so, as stressedat a Washington <0 dered famous by Margaret Mead's which for small land masses is consid- DC conférence.Traditional Polynesian en bookComing of âgein Samoa,thé small érable.This is an unexpecteddeparture culturerelies heavily on its naturalen- island of Aunu'u and thé diminutive from previous tendenciessince first con- vironment.Take thé plants away and tra- § Roséatoll. By 1839thé British andthé tact with thé west, when Polynesian ditional local médecinecannot thrive; Americanshad establishedregular populations in some cases dwindled to depletefallow land and tara plantations tradein Samoa,followed by officiai rcp- near extinction. fc whichneed virgin or nextto virginsoil co resentationof thé British Empirewith a In préparationfor a WashingtonDC mustbe fewer.Damage thé reef andla- consulate in 1847, an American consu- § conférence on travel and tourism in goon, fishing is impaired; destroythé latein 1853 and later in 1861. there was 1995,thé Govemor ofAmerican Samoa forest,wood sculpture,boat andhouse a Hamburg représentation.While thé statedthé économie importance oftour- buildingmust rely on importedmaterial; British withdrcw from Samoain 1900, ism for thé archipelagoand appealed violate thé traditional sacrednessofcer- thé Gennans and thé Americans estab- for théimprovement of existinginfra- tain areasand thé aito or spirits,which lished sovereignty, formerin their thé structures,development and diversifi- are sucha vital part of Samoanculture Western Samoa, thé latter in what be- cation.In addition,emphasis was put hâveno fit placeto congregate. came American Samoa. on thé importantrôle that local cultures Clearly, American Samoa,like its With only 5000inhabitants until ahalf shouldplay in thésuccessful develop- indépendantneighbor and most of thé a century ago,American Samoahas now mentoftourism. rest of Polynesia,is lookingtowards oneof théfastest growing populations Touristsare extraordinarily few on thé tourist industry to boost ils un- théworld a3. 7%yearly increase, in with AmericanSamoa. One source gave 729 healthyeconomy, currently based es- mainly concentratedon Tutuila. In con- tounsts for thé whole of 1994. Indeed as sentiallyon fédéral aid and thé produc- trast.Western Samoa, its culturaltwin, a tourist,l was assailedby mixed feel- don of canned tuna - both sources of thé coast has been disfigured by un- sustainablesociety where in thé past, National Park on land leased from thé but since1961, indépendant neighbor, ingsof delightand uncertainty as my income allowing American Samoato attractive commercial buildings; thé wa- used containersand wrappingscould Samoansfor aperiodoffifty years,will hasa populationgrowth of only 0.5% taxi driver drove along thé shoreroad. supply itself with almost 200 million ters of thé bay of PagoPagoare murky return undetected to thé nature they not favor thé development of mass alarger surface 130square for land of l, In thé balmy darkness, l received con- dollarsworth of importsper year. and pollution has made it dangerous. came from, thé effects ofwestemization tourismand resort complexes. Thé near miles,American Samoa faces thé pros- trasting impressions of untouched In broaddaylight and at first glanée, Even near manicuredvillages such as arefar moreshocking and dreadful. 9000acre National Park is expectedto pect doubling 52,860 of its Polynesianbeauty and of clumsymod- thé whole Samoangroup is a diminu- Vatia on thé northem coast, in Tutuila's Lessobvions aspects ofenvironmen- help promote a more responsible population(statistic 1993)just after and of emdevelopment. Later, leaning aver thé tive picture of Polynesianperfection. NationalPark (of&dally launchedin Sep- tal dégradationoriginate largely from behavior towards thé environment cément ledge of my balcony at thé Upondoser inspection, thé beautyis tember 1993), unsightly piles of trash man made acti vides. Thèse environ- attract more visitors to thé archipelago. Rainmakerhôtel, in orderto seethé bay, therebut sadlydegraded. Thé capital can be seen. In other areas of thé Park, mental issues hâve been aired in re- Many Samoanshâve greetedthé ini- l hadto overiookwhat appearedto be a of PagoPagohas nothing of thé sani- remotefrom any village, garbagehas portsby governmentagencies such as tiative with openarms, if only because smaUsized concentration camp with glar- tary skyscraper look of Hawaii's been dumped, relying on thé lush veg- thé Departmentof Marine andWildlife of thé financial advantages it offers ing néon light and barbed wire: in fact. a Waikiki, but rather, thé dubious and etation to camouflage it conveniently. Resources or thé Environmental Pro- them. Thé alternative to mass tounsm dock for large ships unfortunately insalubriouscharm of its decayingco- Végétationdoes in fact cover suchblem- tection Agency, publicized in pam- is ecotourism,supposedly a more dis- placed under thé Windows of thé sole lonial structuresand of théprématuré ishesquite rapidly but théidea of a trash phletsand télévision adds or streetbill- creet but expensiveformula in which modem hôtel of American Samoa. aging ofits ill-maintained modem build- riddennature park remainsmind bog- boards. They report damage to thé thé traveler,in a fascinatingcontradic- Thoughlarge and relatively expensive, ingsand streets. Somewhat thé setting gling.In thélagoon of Ofu whichis also coral reef. near extinction of some natu- don, paysto seewhat wasonce free of thé Rainmaker is neither luxurious nor of a PolynesianHeart of Darkness.Far partof thé National Park,l snorkelednght rai species,sévère pollution of coastal charge,for thé very reasonthat nature's clean nor very attractive.One cannot, worsehowever thanjust a look of tropi- into a gréât blue plastic sheet stuck to waters, ground water contamination, beautyis declaredpriceless. In West- furthennorebenefit from its proximity to cal laisser-aller which has after ail its thé coral and found other unorganic polluted mn-off, leeching from cess- ern Samoa,thé processhas begun with thébay sincesévère pollution makesits séduction,are environmental problems residues of westemized living on thé pools or badly constructed septic somedmessurprising results such as unwiseto swim. Thé paucity of hôtels which are many in both Samoasbut beach.Neither was l sparedduring my tanks, graduai disappearance of in thé villageofLefaga where a villager is in my view an attractive feature of thé particularly noticeable inAmerican Sa- brief drive on thé islandof Olosegathé wetlands and lowland rainforest, in- recliningunder a thatchedf aiel told me archipelago.Unlike in WesternSamoa, moabecause of restrictedspace and blatantsight of a village dump.Admit- creased érosion...Thé gmesome list is to pay onetala2 to be allowedto walk where there are several comfortable ho- galloping demography,mainly on tedly,thé samething andworse can be by no meansexhaustive. on a beach. Thé latter was approph- tels, thé quality of serviceof thé exist- Tutuila.Thé damage of unsightliness: seenin parts of thé west as,for example, Thé development of tourism in ately nicknamedReturn to paradiseaf- ing onesin PagoPagomakes one won- streamsdraped in disregardedrags or on thé highly touristic and mostly un- American Samoa thus faces perhaps ter a film bearing that title had been der if thé averagetourist isn't well-ad- paper and diapers, dotted with used protected Mediterranean coast of greaterhandicaps than in other parts made there. In a land where beaches visedto stay away. sodacans and so on; a goodpart of France.Nonetheless, in a previously of Polynesia.Thé establishmentof a areubiquitous, l could not help annoy- InternationalJournal of IslandAffairs 47 Liice at having to pay to walk on one, Sandmining is another issue in which u ofits biodiversity. Given thé importance Horizons howevermodest thé priée. Samoanpriorities are clearly différent of thé chiefly System,this changeof b While thé Park in American Samoa fi-om those of environmentalists : sand attitude towards thé environment can en has helped to settle some land owner- is needed for Samoan funerals and be successfully achieved if thé chiefs L) ship conflicts, thé leasing has also though,consequently, beaches disap- -^ \ adopt an environmentalist point of stimulated old land rivalries and cre- pear, tradition must be satisfied. In thé view. ated ones. surprisingly then, new Not samemanner, rapid populationgrowth It is a changethat ail Polynesians others see it as another form of intru- becomes an unrelated abstraction as must ineluctably reflect upon and de- sion in Samoan life, with a new set of soon as an individual wishes to hâve a cide about now that their populations rulesestablished by thé Palagi ,that family or again,when thé westernreli- are growing fast and that most of their is thé westerner,with thé implication gion to which he has adhered forbids islandshâve akeady succumbed to cru- that thé Samoan knows little about thé birth control. There is between thé Sa- cial transformations. With environmen- nature of his islands and treats it im- moanvillager and thé ecologically con- tal reality closing in on them,thé eco- properly. By thé sametoken it implies cerneda différentunderstanding of thé nomic usefulnessof thé naturalbeauty that thé Palagi knows better. It is passageoftime. If thé environment con- of their islands becomes obvious. tempting therefore for Samoans to re- tinuesto be immediatelyuseful to thé An unfortunateaspect ofa willful 're- act by holding thé west responsible Samoan,nothing in his way of living turn to paradise'and its exploitation both thé causes environmental for of needsin hisopinion to bechangea. But through ecotourism is however, thé un- dégradation and for its restoration. for thé westemer, évidence of environ- natural self-consciousness about na- Thé Park is only one élément of thé mentaldamage is alreadyoverwhelm- ture which it breedsin bothindigenous misunderstanding ecological con- on ingand promises long-term damage. peopleand visitors andthé conséquent cerns. Though American Samoa bas How therefore will thèsedifférent no- commercialization.Though thé urban- retained its traditional communal so- donsofpriority andtime affect thé de- izedpalagi, in hiseager, almost desper- cial structurethrough thé authority of Division for Sustain^bie DevelopmenVDÊSA Small Island Developing States Network: velopmentofsustainable economy and ate searchfor uncluttered,pristine na- www. un. org/esa/sustdev/sids/htrn www. sidsnet. oFg thé matai or titled men and local as- ecotourism?Is ecotourismreally a so- ture may not judge such self-con- semblies called fono, an understand- lution for a 'return to paradise'when sciousnessso harshly and accept it ing of global environmentalismis not some among American Samoa's chiefs morereadily, it isjarring to thé Samoan automaticallyincluded in community consider environmentalism as essen- and ail Polynesians whose relations same though a feeling. In thé way, tially a westerngimmick ratherthan as withtheir natural surroundings through Samoanliving on théUS mainlandwill their own reality?A récentstudy on hunting, fishing and agriculturehâve considerthé whole of Samoaas home, deforestation in Western Samoa noted been so intimate and instinctive before his world will become far more re- thatprotection of théforest could only western contact. Thé very idea ofPara- strictedin Samoawhere his primary succeedifstrong local political author- diseafter ail is ofsomethingeffortless, allegiancewill go to his village,mak- ity supported coopérative efforts for boundless and eternal. A solution to ing thé neighboring village less of a that purpose.Similarly, in American this artificialitymay lie in théintangi- concern.Thus, disposing of garbage Samoa , instead of increased environ- blé or spiritual value which can be near another village has view in his mental éducation, areturn to traditional given to nature's beauty. And for this, keeping village thébenefit of his own respect for thé sacredness of nature Samoansand ail Polynesiansneed only clean. maybe more effective in théprotection to look toward their own traditions. heSpécial Session of théUnited Nations Général Assembly for thé review and appraisal ofthé implementation of théProgramme ofAction for thé Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States was held in NewYork on 27- 28September. Fiveyears after thé Barbados Conférence thé need to consolidatea more efficient and based insularity policy was made clear.Thé Small Island State as a wholeagrée in thébasic objectives of théisland sustainable development strategy, and in théfact that said objectives hâve been renewed in thérévision of théBarbados Plan of Action.In spiteof that,thé lack of co-operationof thé rest of thécountries and thé lack of explicitrécognition of islandneeds were thé basic issues of many islandgovemment représentatives' contributions. Thé need arose to urgepolitical actions of somemagnitude that will allow thé passageof thé ethic commitmentto practice. INSULA,représentée byits Président Dr. Ronald Parris and its Vice Secretary-General, MrCipriano Marin, was présent at thisUN Spécial Session and organised a Side-Event. Issues related with energy, tourism and telematics, took up an among thénew possibilities of co-operationwith théSIDS initiative opened by théorganisation. 48 International Journal of Island Affairs 49 EXTRACT0F THE REPORT0F THE COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT Fish Stocks,and thé 1993PAO Agreementto PromoteCom- State of progressand initiatives for thé future implementationof thé Programmeof pliancewith Conservationand Management Measures by Fish- Action for thé SustainableDevelopment of Small Island DevelopingStates ing Vesselson thé High Seas,and further calls upon small islanddeveloping States to activelyparticipate in emergingand for existing régional fisheries management organizations in or- SECTORALAREAS REQUIRING URGENT ACTION der to fully implement thèse agreements; . Formulation of policies, stratégiesand measuresto address Climate change . Improvementof work on capabilitiesfor naturaldisaster re- fisheriesneeds, including thé urgent needto addressillégal, ductionand early waming Systems, including in-depth assess- unregulatedand unreportedfishing in thé marine areasunder Small island developingStates are amongthose countries most ment and considération of effective means of natural disaster thé sovereigntyor nationaljurisdiction of small island devel- at risk from thé adverseeffects ofclimate change.Thé capacities réduction; oping States,to ensureessential sources of food suppliesfor neces- and meansto adaptto this phenomenonare an absolute ' Developmentofpartnerships between small island developing island populations, and économie development; sity for thèseStates. Thé involvementand committed support Statesand thé private sector consistent with responsiblebusi- . Strengtheningof national,subregional and régional capacity for of théinternational community are critical complémentsto small nesspractices to implementschemes that spreadrisks, reduce negotiating fishing agreements; island developingStates' own efforts in any responseand long- insurancepremiums, expand insurance coverage and thereby . Strengtheningof national,subregional and régional capacity for term planning by small island developingStates. International increasefinancing for post-disasterreconstmction and reha- Coastal and marine resources thé promotion,assessment and monitoring of commercialin- supportis particularly required for identifying adaptationop- bilitation. vestmentin sustainablefisheries, including catching,process- tions and linking efforts to reduce vulnerability with thé best . Thé health, protectionand préservationof coastaland marine ing andmarketing, as well as,where appropriate, environmen- available information. resources are fundamental to thé livelihood and sustainable devel- tally soundmethods of aquacultureto increaseownership and Freshwater resources opmentof small island developingStates. Improved coastal and managementcapacities of commercialfisheries activities by In thé contextof actionsbeing undertaken to addressthèse issues océanmanagement as weiï asconservadon of thé coasts,océans small island developingStates communities and national ac- and on thé basisof a sb-ongand committedpartnership between . Thé issueof freshwateravailability is crucialfor smallisland and seasand thé sustainable use of coastal and marine rcsources tivities in thé contextof thé Codeof Conductfor Responsible small island developingStates and thé intemadonalcommunity, developingStates in ail régions.Surface water and groundwater andarrangements and initiatives, including efforts aimed at reduc- Fisheriesand keeping in mind thé récent FAO International théinternational community and small island developing States resourcesare limited by thé smallwatershed and aquifer-re- ing land and sea-basedpollution, are critical both in supportof Plan of Action for thé Managementof Fishing Capacity; shouldpursue and supportthé following goals,objectives and chargeareas, and urban expansion has further exacerbated thé régionalfisheries organizationsând in maintainingthé océans as a . Greater régional coordination in management and monitoring, activities,including through spécifiemodalities, to assistin thé availabilityand quality of waterresources. Thé geophysical char- sourceof food anda principalfactor in tourismdevelopment. control and surveillance, including vessel monitoring Systems continuedimplementation of thé Programmeof Action for thé acteristicsof many small islandsleave them vulnérableto ex- and enforcement,consistent with internationalagreements of SustainableDevelopment of SmallIsland Developing States: tremeclimatological, seismic and volcanic events, and more cnti- . In thé contextof actionsbeing undenaken toaddress thèse issues coastalcountries and fishing counbiesin thé marineareas un- . Improvementof thécapacity of smallisland developing States callyto periodsof drought,low rechargeand adverse environ- and on thé basisof a strongand committedpartnership between der thé sovereigntyor nationaljurisdiction of small island de- to adequatelyrespond and adapt to climate change,and to mental impacts, including pollution, saline intrusion and soil small island developingStates and thé internationalcommunity, veloping States,including thé managementof straddlingfish participatein andmake thé necessarylinkages to otherintema- érosion,among others, and they require increasedattention to thé internationalcommunity and small island developingStates stocksand highly migratory fish stocks; tional activities,such as thé studyof climate variability; reha- watershedmanagement, land and wateruse planning. shouldpursue and supportthé following goals,objectives and . Assistanceto small island developingStates in assessingthé bilitation. activides,including throughspécifie modalities, to assistin thé impact of land-basedsources of marinepollution, and to de- . Improvementof work on capabilitiesfor climate prédiction; . In thé contextof actionsbeing undertaken to addressthèse issues continuedimplementation of thé Programmeof Action for thé velop mechanismsto eliminateor minimize pollution sources . Glosercollaboration of théSmall Island Developing States Unit andon thébasis of a strongand committed partnership between SustainableDevelopment of SmallIsland Developing States: and participatein thé implementationof thé Programmeof of thé Departmentof Econoinic and Social Affairs with thé smallisland developing States and thé international community, . Establishmentand/or strengtheningof programmesto build Action; secrétariat of thé United Nations Framework Convention for théinternational community and small island developing States capacity,assess and manage thé vast oceanic resources ofsmall Climate Changewill be désirableso that information can be shouldpursue and support thé followinggoals, objectives, and island developingStates, and establishand/or strengthen spe- Action is needed to sustain healthy reefs. Such action will build readily incorporatedinto thé overall planning for long-term activities,including through spécifiemodalities, to assistin thé cific régionalor subregionalarrangements for océansand small on thé International Coral Reefs Initiative and global reefassess- adaptation. continuedimplementation of thé Programmeof Action for thé island developing States issues; ments to ensure food security and fish stock replenishment, and SustainableDevelopment of Small Island Developing States: . Establishmentand/or strengthening of programmeswithin thé will provide a focusfor implementationof thé JakartaMandate, . Implementationof Commissionon SustainableDevelopment frameworkof thé GlobalProgramme of Action for thé Protec- including marineprotected areas and thé Global Programmeof Natural and environmental décision 6/1, relating to its work programmeon freshwater tion of thé Marine Environment from Land-based Activities Action on thé Protection of thé Marine Environment from Land- disastersand climate variability issuesin théspécial context of smallisland developing States; and thé régionalseas programme, to assessthé impactof plan- based Acti vides. . Improvementof assessment,planning and integrated manage- ning and developmenton thé coastalenvironment, including . Smallisland developing States are prône to extremelydamaging ment of freshwaterresources in thé spécialcontext of small coastal communities. wetlands. coral reef habitats and thé areas In thé context of actions being undertaken to address thèse is- natural disasters,primarily in thé form of cyclones,volcanic islanddeveloping States; under thé sovereigntyor nationaljunsdiction of small island suesand on thé basis of a strong and committed partnership emptionsand earthquakes,and are subjectto effectsof climate . Coordinationand refocusing ofaid andother programmes and developingStates and to implementthé Programmeof Action; betweensmall island developing Statesand thé international variability. In some islands, thé range of thèsedisasters and projectsdesigned to assistsmall island developing States, as . Strengtheningof national capacityfor thé developmentof a community,thé international community and small island devel- phenomenainclude storm surges, landslides, extended droughts andwhere appropriate, in developing or implementi. ngnational methodologyor guidelinesfor soundpractices and techniques oping Statesshould pursue and support thé following goals, andextensive floods. During 1997-1998, thé El Ninophenom- policies, stratégiesand légal frameworks,as well as cohérent suitablefor small island developingStates, for achievingthé objectives,and activities, including throughspécifie modalities, enonhad its strongestimpact on recordon thé sustainabledevel- plansand actions, within an integratedwater resources man- integratedmanagement and sustainabledevelopment of thé to assistin thé continuedimplementation of thé Programmeof opmentof many small island developingStates. agement approach. coastal and marine areas under thé sovereignty or national ju- Action for thé SustainableDevelopment of Small IslandDevel- risdiction of small island developing States, building on exist- oping States: . In thé contextof actionsbeing undertaken to addressthèse issues ing expériencein that area; . Encouragementof nationaland régional community-based reef andon thébasis of a strongand committed partnership between * Scientific research and analysis relevant to thé conservation conservation and management. smallisland developing States and thé international community, andmanagement ofhighly migratoryand straddling fish stocks . Initiativesrelated to alternativelivelihoods, such as aquaculture théinternational community and small island developing States on thé high seasand in thé marineareas under thé sovereignty and eco-tourism; shouldpursue and support thé followinggoals, objectives, and or nationaljurisdiction of small island developingStates; . Post-harvest technology and management initiatives; activities,including throughspécifie modalities, to assistin thé . Enhancement of thé conservation and sustainable management . Integratedreef managementinitiatives; continuedimplementation of thé Programmeof Action for thé and utilization of coastalzone ecosystemsand resourcesof . Research,monitoring and transfer oftechnology asset forth in SustainableDevelopment of SmallIsland Developing States: thé marine areas under thé sovereignty or national jurisdiction thé Programmeof Action to assessthé impactof explorationof . Greatereffort to improvethé scientific understanding of sévère of small islanddeveloping States; non-living resourceson thé coastaland marine environments; weather events, such as those associatedwith thé El Nino South- . Ratification of or accessionto by Statesof thé 1995 United . Furtherimplementation of coralreef actionplans as part of thé emOscillation phenomenon, and thé development oflong-term Nations Agreementfor thé International Conservationand International Coral Reef Initiative, its «Call to action», «Re- stratégiesfor prcdicdonand réduction of theirimpacts; Managementof StraddlingFish Stocksand Highly Migratory newed call to action» and its «Framework for Action» International Journal of Island Affairs 51 Energy . Encouragementof thé use of modemtechnologies and commu- mcationsSystems that effectively maximizethé useof global, . Takinginto accountthé dependencyof small island developing régional and national information in support of sustainable Stateson conventionalenergy sources, there is a needfor mobi- tourism development; lization ofresourcesfrom ail sources,including from théprivate . Improvementof thé collection and use of tourism data as a sector,for théprovision oftechnical, fmancial and technological meansto facilitate thé developmentof sustainabletourism; assistance, as appropriate, to small island developing States, to . Establishmentof partnershipsfor sustainabletourism to ef- encourageenergy efficiency, and to accelerateand maximize thé fectively conserveand utilize limited resources,based on con- developmentand utilization of environmentallysound renew- sumerand market demandand thé developmentof commu- able energy sources. nity-basedinitiatives. Destination marketing should préserve local culture and a healthyenvironment; . In thé contextof actionsbeing undertaken to addressthèse issues . Buildingof institutionalcapacity, further develop human re- and on thé basisof a strongand committedpartnership between sourcesat ail levels of thé tourism industry, with particular small island developingStates and thé internationalcommunity, emphasison smalland medium-sized enterprises and improve thé internationalcommunity and small island developingStates thécapacity to utilizemodem technologies. shouldpursue and supponthé following goals,objectives, and activities,including throughspécifie modalities, to assistin thé In thé context of actionsbeing undenakento addressthèse is- continuedimplementation of thé Programmeof Acdon for thé suesand on thé basis of a strong and committed partnership SustainableDevelopment ôf SmallIsland Developing States: betweensmall island developing Statesand thé international by PIERREENCONTRE' . Establishmentof renewableenergy initiatives at thé régional community,thé international community and small island devel- level so asto avoid duplicationof efforts andto achieveecono- opingStates should pursue and supportthé followinggoals, mies of scale; objectives,and activities, including through spécifie modalities, . Developmentofhuman resourcesfor théplanning and sustain- to assistin thé continuedimplementation of thé Programmeof ablemanagement needs of a renewableenergy sector; Actionfor théSustainable Development of SmallIsland Devel- . Promotion of researchand developmentand private sector oping States: investmentin priority renewableenergy projects . Enhancementof sustainable tourism and sustainably managed . Financingof renewableenergy applications, including stand- tounsm opérationsthrough thé adoptionof appropriateregu- ardsand guidelines for energyefficiency andconservation; lations,a voluntarycode of conduct,criteria for bestpractices, . Implementationin small islanddeveloping States ofbest prac- and otherinnovative measures; tices in achievingclean, sustainable energy resources and en- . Mobilization of adéquateresources from ail sourcesto assist couraging private sector involvement iri thé utilization of re- smallisland developing States in strengtheninginstitutional newableenergy resources and innovative fmancing schemes capacity,human resources and environmentalprotection; with a view to longer-tennself-sufficiency in energyresources. . Improvementof smallisland developing States capacity to implementtreaty requirements of thé InternationalCivil Avia- tion Organizationand thé InternationalMaritime Organiza- Tourism tion. . Thé developmentand promotion of sustainabletourism will Thélinkages between sustainable tounsm, energy and transport requireefforts undertakenby small island developingStates at areof considérableimportance to developingcountries, in par- study was by thé nationaland régional levels. In this regard,there is a needfor ticularthé least developed countries and small island developing TWENTY-FIVE YEARS nada (1974), Cape Verde (1975), Thé UNITAR followed continuedinternational support and coopération.Particular at- Statesamongst them. This should be borne in mindin théprepa- 0F INTEREST Comoros(1975), PapuaNew Guinea a requestfor a spécifiestudy on IDCs tention will be required to coordinateeco-tourism ventures at ration for thé agendaitem on energyand transportat thé ninth Thé United Nations began to study (1975),Sao Tome and Principe (1975), during thé Third Sessionof thé United thérégional levé), and to facilitatethé sharingof informationand session of thé Commission. Nations Conférence on Trade and De- expériencesand thé intégrationof thé private sectorwithin offi- thédevelopment problems of islandde- Seychelles(1976), Dominica (1978), cial developmentassistance supported eco-tourism projects. veloping countries and territories SolomonIslands (1978), Tuvalu (1978), velopment (UNCTAD) in Santiago Spécifieactions hâve been identified in thé report of thé United (IDCs) during thé period of Kiribati (1979),St. Lucia (1979), St. Vin- (Chile) in 1972, and in thé same year, a NationsEnvironment Programme/World Trade Organization decolonizationof thé dépendentisland cent and thé Grenadines (1979), résolution in thé United Nations Gen- (WTO) on sustainabletourism developmentfor small island developingStates. temtories of Australia, France, New Vanuatu(1980), Antigua and Barbuda eral Assembly.In thé proceedingsof Zealand, Portugal, thé United Kingdom (1981),St.Kitts-Nevis(1983),Federated thé SantiagoConférence, thé Secretary- . In thé contextof actionsbeing undertaken to addressthèse issues and thé United States. In 1971, thé States ofMicronesia (1986), Marshall GénéralofUNCTAD wasrequested to and on thé basisof a strongand committedpartnership between United Nations Institute for Training Islands (1986), Palau (1994). «convenea small panelof experts...to small island developingStates and thé internationalcommunity, théinternational community and small island developing States andResearch (UNITAR) producedthé identify and studythé particularprob- shouldpursue and supportthé following goals,objectives, and first U.N. study relevantto thé prob- lemsof... [islanddeveloping] countries activities,including throughspécifie modalities, to assistin thé lemsof thèseislands2. Eight territories [and temtories] and to make recommen- continuedimplementation of thé Programmeof Action for thé dationsthereon, giving spécial atten- SustainableDevelopment of Small Island Developing States: "î£S^,sg^ t""^ had already becomeindependent by . Establishmentof régionaland nationalenvironmental assess- îv~y.^ thé time of publication of thé UNITAR don to thé developing island countries ; A&1. é^?l. ment programmesto addressthé carrying capacityof natural study: Jamaica (1962), Trinidad and which are facing major difficulties in resources,including thé social,économie and cultural implica- :^,.' Tobago(1962), Western Samoa (1962), respectof transport and communica- tions of tourism development; ^ Maldives (1965), Barbados (1966), tions with neighbouring countnes as . Strengtheningof institutional capacity-building in thé tourism ws^ sector,and promotingenvironmental protection and thé pres- Mauritius (1968), Nauru (1968), Fiji well as stmctural difficulties, and which ervationof cultural héritagethrough local communityaware- (1970). Other territories gainedinde- are remote from major market centres, nessand participation; pendence later: Bahamas (1973), Gre- and also taking into account overall ^ 52 International Journal of Island Affaii 53 prospects for, as well as ex- of thé United Nations in promoting Direct assistance to SIDS in thé isting levels of, develop- developmentin thé context of glo- préparationof technicalcoopération ment»3. balization and interdependence projects or programmes for submis- In 1974, UNCTAD's first Assistanceto SIDS in their prepa- sion to donors. report on IDCs examined thé ration for thé Millennium Round of situation of 51 IDCs and dis- multilatéral trade negotiations, at thé cussed their characteristics request of thé Alliance of Small Is- and problems,as well as is- land States(AOSIS) N11 suesof transport,natural dis- Participation in thé Island States !. » ^KOWfN asters and control of marine Intergovernmental Organizations m»é OE¥KlOPIIieN1 resources,and régional poli- SecrétariatsMeeting, and in thé Joint cies4. Focal point: Thé report included Commonwealth Secretariat/World Thé focal point in UNCTAD for Small Island Developing States (SIDS) is thé statistical data and recom- Bank Task Force on Small States Office of thé Spécial Coordinator for Least Developed Countries, Land-locked mended, inter alia, that a Assistance to thé United Nations DevelopingCountries, and Small Island DevetopingStates. Thé Spécial Co- study on thé «viability of Committeefor DevelopmentPolicy ordinator is Mrs. Anna K. Tibaijuka. She is assisted, in thé coordination of small island countries be un- in measuring thé économie vulner- UNCTAD's work in faveur of SIDS, by Mr. Pierre Encontre, Economie Affairs dertaken»5.A study by thé abilityofSIDS. United Nations Economie Officer. and Social Council, in 1975, Contacts: examinedin détailthé spécial RESEARCH AND Mrs. Anna K. Tibaijuka économie problems and de- ANALYSISON ISSUES Spécial Coordinator for Least Developed Countries, velopment needs of geographically developmentstratégies for IDCs; thé trade-related issues relevant to small RELEVANT TO SIDS Land-locked Developing Countries, and Small Island Developing States more disadvantagedIDCs. This study impact of trade liberalizationand glo- island developing States, and other . Thé vulnerability of small island de- UNCTAD gave spécial attention to thé issue of balizationon IDCs; andisland-specific économie aspectsof thé Programme of velopingStates in thé contextofglo- Palais des Nations external dependenceand économie vulnerability21. Action (including issuesof économie balization: common issues and rem- 1211 Geneva 10 (Switzerland) vulnerability,and discussed thé objec- In 1994, a United Nations Général vulnerability), through cross-country edies, Backgroundpaper prepared Tel: (41) 22 907 2033 / Fax: (41) 22 907 0046 tive of sectoral diversification in thé Assembly résolution on island devel- work and direct assistance at individual for théExpert Group Meeting on Vul- E-mail: anna.tibaijuka@unctad. org light of a classificationof thé speciali- oping countries invited UNCTAD totir- country level, as summarized below. nerability Indicés for Small Island De- Mr. Pierre Encontre zation of island économies". ganize a high-level panel meeting to Thé notion of SmallIsland Developing veloping States, organized by thé context several mandates Economie Affairs Officer In thé of discussthé challengesfaced by IDCs States(SIDS) now appearsto hâvesu- U.N. Department of Economie and UNCTAD from thé United Nations Général As- in thé area of external trade22. In thé perseded that of island developing Social Affairs, New York, 15-16 De- Palais des Nations semblyto analyzeand monitor thé de- sameyear, UNCTAD was also mandated countries in thé considération of thé cemberl997,51p. velopment problems thé 1211 Geneva 10 (Switzerland) of IDCs, to cany out researchand analysisin categoryby thé United Nations. * ForthcomingUNCTAD publication Têt: (41) 22 907 6220 / Fax: (41) 22 907 0046 UNCTAD secrétariat has conducted support of thé implementationof thé (1999): Small Island Developing numerous studies sensitize thé in- E-mail: pierre.encontre@unctad. org to Programme of Action for thé Sustain- States:overcoming vulnerability in temationalcommunity to thé particu- able Development of Small Island De- UNCTAD's current work in thé context of globalization lar needs of thèse countries and terri- veloping States23,which had resulted favour of SIDS . Of spécial interest to SIDS is tories7.Thèse studies relate to général from thé Global Conférence on thé Sus- UNCTAD's work on sectoral devel- developmentaspects such as island- tainableDevelopment of Small Island Global support to SIDS opments in thé sphèreoftrade in serv- spécifie disadvantages8,vulnerability9, Developing States(Barbados, April- . Reportsof thé Secretary-Generalto ices, especially in thé areas of tour- 0 or or sectoral viability1 migrations", May 1994)24.In this capacity, since thé United Nations Général Assem- ism2 5, health services26, and thé mu- aspects such as commodities1 2, exclu- 1994,UNCTAD hasbeen dealing with bly and Commission on Sustainable sic industry27. sive économie zones13,transport14, Developmenton thé implementation technology15. Findings from thèse stud- of thé Programme of Action for thé Technical coopération with ies hâve generally been incorporated SustainableDevelopment of Small SIDS at national and re- by UNCTADin issuepapers prepared Island Developing States,with par- gional levels for 6, to expert group meetings1 reports ticular référence to trade-related and . Direct assistance to SIDS in their thé Général 7 orto UNCTAD Assembly1 other économie issues, including préparationof RoundTable meetings sessions1 8, and other of reports expert thé questionof measuringthé eco- under thé Integrated Framework re- 9. Three studies groups1 régional were nomic vulnerability of SIDS,as well sultingfrom théHigh-Level Meeting alsoprepared by UNCTAD20.More re- as maritime transport in SIDS on Integrated Initiatives for Least cent works on généralissues regard- . Assistance to SIDS members of thé Developed Countries Trade Devel- island States included studies on ing G77 in their negotiationson thé rôle opment 54 International Journal of Island Affairs 55 ' not an officiât note by thé UNCTAD Parker, J. M., Thé impact of global ganizations, TD/B/AC.46/2, 25 20Manhertz, H.G., Study on Carib- tion: common issues and rem- shop on Sustainable Development secrétariat warming, climate change and sea- April 1990, 34 p.; Spécifie prob- bean Island Developing Countries, eaf/es,Background paper prepared and Environmental Management 2 cf. J. Rappaport, E. Muteba, and J.J. level rlse on thé development of tems of island developing coun- Report to UNCTAD, 1992; Tradeis- by UNCTAD for thé Expert Group of Small Islande, which was hosted Therattil, Sma/ji- States anc/ Tèm'to- island developing countries, Re- tries. Working paper prepared by sues and development prospects Meeting on Vulnerability Indicés for by thé Commonwealth of Puerto ries; Status and Problems (New port to UNCTAD, June 1991 ,45 p.; thé UNCTAD secrétariat for thé of island developing countries of Small Island Developing States, Rico. York: Arno Press for UNITAR, Briguglio, Uno. Preliminarystudyon Group of Experts on Island Devel- thé Caribbean, Report to UNCTAD, New York, 15-16 December 1997, 25Vellas, François, Le tourisme dans 1971). thé construction of an index for oping Countries, UNCTAD/LDC/ by D. Pantin, UNCTAD/LLDC/IDC/ 51 p. /es pays en développement, 3 UNCTAD, Proceedings of thé ranking countries according to their Misc. 2, 26 June 1992. Mise. 1, 14 February 1996, 23 p.; 22GA résolution 49/100 of 19 Decem- UNCTAD, Expert Meeting on United Nations Conférence on économie vulnerability, Report to 17Spécifie measures in favour of is- Trade issues and development ber 1994: Spécifie measures in fa- Strengthening thé Capacity for Ex- Trade and Development, Third UNCTAD, 1992, 23 p. + annexes. land developing countries, Report prospects of island developing vour of island developing coun- panding thé Tourism Sector in De- Session; Santiago, Chile, 13 April- 10UNCTAD, Viability..., op. cit., 1983. of thé Secretary-General, A/41/ countries of thé Pacifie, Report to tries. veloping Countries, 8-10 June 21 May 1972, Vol. 1 (New York, 11Wiltshire, Louis A., Thé rôle and ef- 495, 18 August 1986, 48 p.; Spe- UNCTAD,by P.Osborne, UNCTAD/ 23GA résolution 49/122 of 19 Decem- 1998, Geneva, 30 p. ; Dudley, 1973), p. 74. fect of migration on thé socio-eco- cific problems and spécial needs LLDC/IDC/Misc.2, 14 February ber 1994: Global Conférence on Charles H., Air Access: thé Impact 4 UNCTAD, Developing island coun- nomic development of island de- ofisland developing countries, Re- 1996,26 p. thé Sustainable Development of of Air Transport on Tourism: Policy tries, Report of thé Panel of Experts, veloping countries, with spécial ref- port of thé Secretary-General, A/ 21A development strategy for island Sf7?a//Island Developing States. Options anc/ Stratégies for Devel- TD/B/443/Rev.l, 1974, 44 p. erence to thé English-speaking 43/513, 25 August 1988, 52 p.; developing countries: new chal- 24cf. United Nations, Report of thé oping Countries, UNCTAD, op. cit. 5 A study on thé viability of small is- Caribbean, Report on a study un- Progress in thé implementation of lenges, prospects and opportuni- Global Conférence on thé Sustain- (1998),7 p. land States under physical, demo- dertakenfor UNCTAD,1990, 41 p. spécifie action related to thé par- fr'es for coopérative action, Report able Development of Small Island 26Zarrilli, Simonetta, and Colette graphie, cultural, économie and po- 12Sevele, F, Thé benefits of thé Inte- ticular needs and problems of is- of thé Secretary-General, A/49/ Developing States: Programme of Kinnon (eds.), International trade in litical angles was later undertaken grated Programme for Commodi- /anc/ developing countries, Report 227, 18 July 1994,44 p.; Develop- Action for thé Sustainable Devel- health services: a development by UNCTAD:cf. UNCTAD,Viability ties for island developing counthes, of thé Secretary-General, A/45/ ment challenges facing island de- opment of Small Island Developing perspective, United Nations and ofsmall island States (a descriptive TD/B/891,TD/B/C. 1/232, 3 August 453, 11 September 1990, plus An- veloping countries: basic issues Stetes, Bridgetown, Barbados, 26 WHO, Geneva,1998, 261 p. study), Report by F.Doumenge, TD/ 1982, 49 p. nex, 2 p.; Spécifie problems and and prospects in thé context of April-6 May 1994, pp. 6-56. It must 27Kozul-Wright, Zeljka, and Lloyd B/950,22July 1983,37p. 13Dolman, Antony J., Small island de- neec/s of island developing coun- trade liberalization and globaliza- be noted that UNCTAD's interest Stanbury, Becoming a globally 6 cf. UNECOSOC, Spécial eco- veloping countries and thé devel- tries, Report of thé Secretary-Gen- tion, Report by thé UNCTAD sec- in thé sustainable development of compétitive player: thé case of thé nomic problems and development opment potential of exclusive eco- eral, A/47/414 plus Add. 1 ,30 Sep- retariat, UNCTAD/LLDC/IDC/2, 9 island developing countries began music industry in Jamaica, needs of geographically more dis- nomic zones, UNCTAD/ST/LDC/7, tember 1992, 45 p. February 1996, 23 p.; Thé vulner- well before thé Global Conférence: UNCTAD Discussion Paper, No. advantaged developing island 27 March 1986, 79 p. 18UNCTAD (Sixth Session, Bel- ability of small island developing in November 1986, UNCTAD co- 138, 0ctober1998, 40 p. countries: Note by thé Secretary- 14Couper, A.D., 777eproblems of in- grade), Spécifie action related to States in thé context of globaliza- sponsored an Interoceanic Work- Général, New York, 1975. ter-island transport, UNCTAD/RDP/ thé particular needs and problems 7 Studies of issues relevant to IDCs LDC/32,11 May 1990,35p. of land-locked and island develop- were also carried eut by, inter alla, 15Romer, M.D., Improving public sec- ing countries: issues for consid- thé World Bank, thé Common- tor performance in island develop- eration. Report by thé UNCTAD wealth Secrétariat, U.N. régional ing countries through modem in- secrétariat, Part Two: Island devel- économie commissions and other formation technology, UNCTAD/ oping countries, TD/279 (Part II), U.N. agencies. A study of global RDP/LDC/33,16 May 1990,62 p.; 28 January 1983, 32 p. interest was commissioned by thé UNCTAD, Transfer and utilization of 19UNCTAD, Report of thé Group of International Monetary Fund in technology: A country study on Fiji, Experts on Feeder and Inter-island 1983: cf. Legarda, B., Sma// tropi- Report by Hamzah Kassim, Services by Air or Sea for Island cal island countries: an overview, UNCTAD/ITP/TEC/30, 25 Novem- Developing Countries, TD/B/687, IMF, EBD/83/325, 16 December ber 1991, 29 p.; Capacity-building TD/B/AC. 24/1, 22 May 1978, 45 1983, 79 p. in small IDCs, UNCTAD's contribu- pages plus Annex; Spécifie prob- 8 Searwar, Lloyd. Intrinsic disabilities tion to thé draft report to thé Global tems of island developing coun- of island developing countries, Conférence on thé Sustainable De- tries: Report of thé Meeting of thé UNCTAD/RDP/LDC/31, 11 May velopment of Small Island Devel- Group of Experts on Island Devel- 1990,33 p. oping States, 22 June 1993, 7 p. oping Countries, held in Malta, 24- 9 UNCTAD, Tfte incidence of natural 'BProblems of island developing 25 May 1988,UNCTAD/ST/LDC 9, disasters in island developing countries and proposais for con- 5 July 1988; UNCTAD, Report of counthes, Study by thé UNCTAD crete action: Issues for considera- thé Meeting of Governmental Ex- secrétariat in collaboration with thé tion, Note by thé UNCTAD secre- perts of Island Developing Coun- Office of thé United Nations Disas- tariat, Meeting of Governmental Ex- tries and Donor Countries and Or- ter Relief Coordinator (UNDRO), perts of Island Developing Coun- ganizations, TD/B/AC/46/4, 8 Au- TD/B/961, 23 September 1983; tries and Donor Countries and Or- gust 1990. 56 International Journal of Island Âtïairs 57 tion of tertiary employmentaver 50 for Réunion).However comparing in- Service sector expansion years,thé rise is muchquicker in Reun- dépendent island states to one région and department status b ion. In both casestertiary sectorevo- a country result distortions. of may in Réunion was still a French colony y lution is différent in Réunion, whether It is also possible to compare Reun- after thé Second World War when it 0 becauseofits higherlevel or its quicker ion with other régional European is- was given department status in 1946: 2 <^Y ifss. v'st development. lands, which are doser in terms of in- this produced considérable change, u " ^^ .0 Today,Réunion thus seemsto be more stitutional Systems.5 Réunion73% even Réunion remained (and is) t l ï In if still Ç( _djBjt418 î^ CwMl s-» «tertiary»than metropolitan France. But ofemployed active population worked a sugar island. While WW2 had bro- ^ { >r> - f"Mr> ^ î ! %s* 0 comparing two économie entities that in thé services in 1990. In thé Greek, ken thé exclusive économie links with ]n . Maacaraftit» -'sefaîVA «s». f '£»&",if F/ are so dissimilar-eventhough they are Italian or Portuguese islands, relative metropolitanFrance, thé 1946depart- l». M*se *»s» » s . Mi tl-Lnii. may, partof thésame country-has serious limi- level of tertiary employmentis much ment statusmade it possible to pro- 7 ^^ UMOO <».- tations. It seemspréférable to use other lower due to thé existence of a still im- ^ wiw^w^' gressively re-establish such relations, -^rs^ ^ élémentsofcomparison. portant agricultural sector. In thé Span- but in a dramaticallyrenewed political, ish Balearic Islands and even more so economical «.A't institutional, social and INSULAR SPECIFICITY? in thé Canaries,employment break- environment. Though sugar activity Other,more natural comparisons be- down between thé three sectors (re- wasrevived after thé war throughsuch byJEAN-YVES ROCHOUX* tween small island statescan be made. spectively 68% and 70% relative terti- incentives as tradition, social behav- In principle development of services is ary employment) is fairly similar to that iour, priées guaranteed by France then logical in small insular économies due of Réunion. As for French islands, Re- Europe,and development aid policies, A DIVERSIFIED WORLD economy model, with a quickly declin- pqlicies, cultures, geographical and to: union is comparable to Corsica or agriculture rapidly transformed,becom- PHENOMENON ing numberof jobs in industrial com- economical environment, etc., are . difficult conditions for manufactur- Guadeloupe; only Martinique has a ing more diversified and efficient-there- Thé development of service indus- paniesand heavily outsourcedtertiary vastly différent from those of France, ing development, with no raw mate- slightly higher percentage. fore much less labour-intensive. tries is recognizedas a long-standing activities: this seems to be thé case in thé island's model must be fairly spe- riais and small markets, So thé servicesector is expandingin In terms ofemployment stmcture thé world phenomenon.Between thé turn thé U. S. and Canada. Other countries cific and, at any rate, far from thé one . systematic décline, in thé late 20th Réunion like everywhere else in thé agricultural sector declined to thé ben- of thé century and 1980, thé propor- like Japan or Germany rather tend to- followed by metropolitanFrance. century,ofa formeriydominant agri- world, only on a higher level-if not ex- efit of serviceswhile manufacturing tion of active population in thé tertiary wards thé info-industrial model with Indeed, comparison between cultural sector, ceptionally high like in thé Seychelles, and constmction remained stable on sector' rosé from just above 25% to services more integrated into their France's and Reunion's GDP and terti- . public administration reduced to thé where thé service industry contributed thé whole (Table2). Thé déclineofag- about60%2 or more: processing industries, so that a rela- ary employment figures in thé médium necessary minimum, about 80% to GDP in thé early 90's as a riculture-whoserelative sharepracti- tively high number of jobs are pre- and long terms showsthat évolutions . inévitable sea and air transport costs result of thé all-important tourist indus- cally decreasedtenfold between 1946 . inFrancefrom26to57%, served (about one fourth of active and levels are actually quite différent for sniall isolated spaces, try (l 10,000 tourists for a population of and 1990-rapidlybenefited both mer- . in thé United States from 28 to 67%, population). France is half-way be- (Table l). Over thé last quarter of thé . importance of thé trade sector when, 80,000). Tourism is often a developing chant and non-merchant services. Ter- * andinSwitzerlandfrom26to53%. tween those two models3 century thé proportion of services in as often, thé islands benefit from fafctorfor tertiaryemployment through tiary sector share increased fivefold thé grossdomestic product (GDP) has public andprivate money flows, hôtels, catering, shops, transport, etc. during thé sameperiod; asearly as thé Such évolution bas continued in thé risen significantly both in metropolitan . tounsm as a sometimes essential in- In any case, whether compared to late60's it alreadyaccounted for nearly récent years. According to thé Nation's REUNION ISLAND: France and Réunion but thé initial level dustry, etc. metropolitan France, small island states half of thé whole économieactivity. Accounts, aver 70% of French jobs A VERY STRONG was quite higher in Réunion than in or other European islands, Reunion's Non-merchant service share increase were in thé tertiary sector in March TERTIARY SECTOR France. Conceming thé relative propor- An articleon servicesin théeconomy economy always ranks among those directly resulted from progressive de- 1997, while in thé U. S. thé same pro- One can wonder, then, what spécifie ofvarious small statespublished in thé with thé most important service sec- partment status implementation, with portion was reached aver ten years ago development of thé French model is to early 80'sshows that thé proportionof tor! We must now go into such relative public administration, éducation,health and has been surpassed since. How- be found in Réunion Island. It would * Research Director of services in GDP is clearly higher there specificity in thé light of thé island's and other infrastructures generating ever job stmcture transition in faveur seem at first that as Reunion's inser- CEREQ-CERESUR Associate (nearly 70% as early as 1983) than in particular history. direct employment. In thé mid-seven- Research Centres of services must not be regarded as tion into world economy, institutional otherworld countries,especially devel- homogeneous ail countries: various and économie history, development University of Réunion oping countries.4That is considerably in Table2. EMPLOYMENTBY ACTIVITySECTOR (per cent) technologicallevels, interdependence high; y et suchpercentage is inferior to 1946 1954 1961 1967 1974 1982 1990 of économies, culture différences and that ofReunion-75%in thé early 80's. Table 1. COMPARING TERTIARY SECTOR EVOLUTION Agriculture, forestry & fishing 66 54.9 43.6 29.6 21.9 14.8 7.6 théhazards ofhistory will logicallypro- Thé fact that Réunion bas a particu- FRANCE IN REUNIONAND METROPOLITAN Manufacturing 9 11.6 8.8 6.9 8.1 6.9 7.7 duce strongheterogeneousness. There larly strongtertiary economyis there- France Construction 10 10.5 11.8 15.0 10.3 9.5 11.3 is not one single transition pattern to- Réunion Island Metropolitan fore confirmed, and even reinforced in Services in GDP Services 15 23.1 35.8 48.5 59.7 68.9 73.3 wards a post-industrial society that is thé senséthat if onecompares average 1970 to 1995 From 61 % to aver 77% From under 50% to 67% Merchant 11 17.6 28.0 31.3 26.5 31.0 36.2 thé samefor ail, but rathera multiplic- and relative tertiary employment of Non-merchant 4 5.5 7.8 17.2 33.2 37.9 37.1 ity of situations and évolutions. Employment in services small insular économies with that of 1955 to 1995 From 23% to aver 80% From 40% to 70% TOTAL 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Thus in thé developed worid, some Réunion, variation is wider still (50% in countries tend towards thé service Source: INSEE - National Accounts, Régional Economie Accounts and Census. 1983 for other islands and 69% in 1982 Source: INSEE - Census. 58 International Journal of Island Affairs 59 Table3. BREAKDOWN0F ACTIVEPOPULATION BY SECTOR Evolution of employmentstmcture ices to companiescornes after a long ï: 1982 1990 1990/1992 between 1982 and 1990 reveals a industrial development. In Réunion b Act. Pop. % Act. Po . % % number of distinctive features, among outsourcing should rather be consid- y A riculture, forestr & fishin 17,570 14.8 11, 141 7.6 -36.6 which thé following three (Table 3): ered as supporting thé industrial devel- 0 Manufacturin 8,147 6.8 11,295 7.7 +38.6 opmentof small, fairiy récentproduc- 2 Construction 11,292 9.5 16,563 11.3 +46.7 . employment in thé manufacturing tion units. Naturally such tertiary sec- E SERVICES 81,844 68.8 107, 254 73.3 +31.0 sector increased more than industrial tor expansion is strengthened by thé 36,852 31.0 52,992 36.2 +43.8 employmentas a whole, development of tourism-a heavy con- Merchant services ml Distribution 14, 468 12.2 17,902 12.2 +23.7 * employmentin hôtels and catering sumerof services:in thé récentyears, Transport & télécommunications 5,931 5.0 7,250 5.0 +22.2 went up dramatically, employment rate in thé hôtel and cater- Automobile distribution & repairs 2,756 2.3 4, 107 2.8 +49.0 * so did employment in merchant serv- ing industries has gone up tremen- Hôtels and catering 1,391 1.2 2,974 2.0 +113.8 ices to companies. dously. Available data for thé 90's corne from Services to companies 2, 775 2.3 5,363 3.7 +93.3 Services to individuals 7, 778 6.5 12,391 8.5 +59.3 Employmentrise in thé manufactur- a différent source (Table 4). Firstly, Real estate, insurance & finance 1,753 1.5 3,005 2.0 +71.4 ing sector runs counter to French employment count includes only wage is earners excludes non-merchant Non-merchant services 44, 992 37.9 54,262 37.1 +20.6 trend-but this doesn't mean Réunion and becominga newly industrializedcoun- sector«aided employment» (i. e. gov- TOTAL 118,853 146,253253 +23.1 try ! Most manufacturing is in fact light ernment-sponsored work contracts). Source: INSEE - Census. processingindustry producing food- Also sector grouping is différent, which stuffs for thé domestic market: progress makes systematiccomparisons with thé services in thé real estate sector and ties «administration» positions ac- departmentstatus, only lessdirectly (for Réunion is no doubt a service is real but started practically from preceding data more difficult. instance salaries related infrastmcture acdvities (design, counted for more than one third of to- through paid to civil economy-but thé question is what serv- scratch. However such manufacturing servantsand social benefits given to maintenance, etc.) contribute to terti- tal employmentand went up to neariy ices? There are of course public serv- developmentis probably one of thé familles). Indeed such extemal fmanc- ary sectorexpansion Réunion. 38% in 1982,while 1990figures seemto in ices for thé satisfaction of individuals, causesfor thé dramatic rise ofemploy- has In conséquencedepartment status, indicate a slight drop. ing affinai householdconsumption so that Réunion could be called a «pub- ment in merchant services to compa- some extent, a twofold positiveeffect on tertiarysec- generatingdirect expansion ofnon-mer- To thé évolution of lie service economy». However that nies: Réunion companies are small and tor development: chant services and indirect expansion «publicservice tertiary» exemplifies thé définition is probably inadéquate, as very naturally outsourcea numberof . on thé one hand, as such additional of merchant services, has been a very différent stagesof departmentstatus thé proportion of merchant services is service activities. household consumption demand dynamic vehicle of service develop- implementation: practicallythé same. Thé outsourcing trend is common to cannât be met by locally produced ment in Réunion, reinforcing thé natu- . thé first stage-upto thé mid-sixties- (and in) économies of developed coun- tendencyto expansion services is characterizedby thé small impor- goodsfor wantof an adéquatemanu- rai of tries like thé U. S.A. or, to a lesser extent, that is found in small, isolated islands. tance of public services; thé facturing sector, imports develop, MERCHANT SERVICE France, which are service économies. In fostehng an import-substitutionac- Thus Réunion Island's strong service «departmentalizadon»process is still SECTOR EXPANSION IN thosebig countriesoutsourcing of serv- morejudicial andpolitical thaneco- tivity which is good for distribution sectorexpansion is dueto two mainfac- THE RECENT YEARS tors which are thé result of history and norme, services such as trade or transport, According to Régional Economie . on thé other hand, heavier consum- geography:department status and small Table 4. EMPLOYEES 1^l EMPLOYMENT AS AT 31 DECEMBER . thé secondstage-up to thé early 80's- Accounts, Reunion's growth increased insular économie situation. However thé 1990 1996 1990/1996 is marked both by public service ex- erspartly conformto thoseof devel- considerably in thé récent years: mer- case of Réunion seems to be somewhat Employées Employées Employées % plosionand actual, physical and eco- opedcountries, thé local population chant GDP volume rosé by over 7% spécial:thé service sector has devel- Agriculture 2,600 2,000 -600 -23 nomic developmentof local author- imitadngFrench habits while numer- annuallyin thé 80's(but thé figure has opeddirectly détriment pri- Food-processing industries 3,950 4,700 +750 +19 ity agencies, ous households of metropolitan ori- to thé of thé beenreduced significantly since then). mary sector manufacturing Other industries 5,150 6,800 +1, 650 +32 * thé third stage-presentday-appar- gin keep up theirs. This is an ever- while thé Such performance was not sufficient sector, whose size was reduced on ac- Energy 1,300 1,600 +300 +23 ently showsrelative stabilization,or growing, immaterial componentof to curb down thé unemployment rate: Construction 13,600 9,900 -3,700 -27 maybe consolidation. consumption. count of thé island being a former sugar in terms of census définition it colony, affected. 9 wasnot significantly amounted to 31.4% in 1982, reached SERVICES 115300 +18350 +19 services, a more setting infrastruc- 3 550 44600 +22 In 1990merchant after In addition, up thé 36.9% in 1990 and is still going up ac- Merchant services +8050 +12 moderate long-term growth than non- turcsbrought about by departmentsta- cording to INSEE estimâtes. Distribution 17700 19900 +2200 merchant services,were practically on a tus-whether administration proper, This paradoxical situation, consider- Trans ort 3,950 4,600 +650 +16 4,750 5,250 +11 par with thé latter; but unlike them they public services (health, éducation, ing therewere fairly numerousjobcrea- Finance & real estate +500 3, 5, +45 seem to hâve been growing relatively housing, etc.), or utilities (transport, tions during thé period (thé number of Services to companies 700 350 +1, 650 individuals 6,450 9,500 +3, 050 moreaver thé most récent years. Even if téléphone,electricity, water, etc. )-entails people in jobs rosé by 23% between Services to +47 60,400 70,700 300 their évolution dépendsless on public developmentof thé building industry. 1982 and 1990), is thé conséquenceof Non-merchant services +10, +17 Also in line with thé abovementioned service development than économie re- population growth and thé increasing TOTAL 125,550 140,300 +14, 750 +12 ality, merchaatservices also benefit from merchant services, more specialized number of working women. Source: INSEE - Annual Employment Estimâtes 60 International Journal of Island Affairs 61 Certain trendsof thé 1982-1990period aboutother production activities, espe- are confirmedbetween 1990 and 1996 cially merchant services to compames: this wasthé periodof industry-oriented . like between 1982 and 1990, employ- tertiary sectorexpansion. In thé récent ment in services rises more quickly years,to meet thé needsof companies than in thé other sectors, and individuals (tourists and résidents) and . manufacturing has a very strong thé number of available services employment growth rate (in compa- relatedemployment is still on thérise! nies that are outside thé food- Reunion'seconomy today is a serv- processing sector), ice economy,even if its évolution is . employment in servicesto campâmes ratherspécifie. Thé économiedevelop- risesmore quickly than in any other ment of thé island will most probably sector (closely followed by services hâveto be comparedto thé clear drop result in more and more employment in to individuals). of employmentshare in construction, thé services.Thé questionis whether a sectorwith a jerky recordbecause it this can enable Réunion companies to One can then conclude that factors is highly dépendenton public commis- establish themselves on foreign mar- which hâve been at play for 15 or 20 sions or funding. Hence interprétations kets or, on thé contrary, it is simply a years now are still in thé processof of thé 1990-1996period mustbe taken structure with little efficiency, linked to transforming Reunion's economy. carefully. thé natural protection of servicesthat This is true of employment in services cannot be traded off on thé same for- to companies:it is an important fact ORIGINAL eign markets.Thé issueis ail thé more that during thé 90's employment de- EVOLUTION-TOWARDS urgent as new information technolo- by PHILIP SINGER" velopedin consultantand assistance- WHAT DEVELOPMENT? gies, after sea and air transport especiallystrategy consultant6. -serv- Since thé Second Worid War Reun- progress,make it very easy to trade ices. This is undoubtedly a positive ion bas known a succession of différent goodsand especially services on a glo- sign for future development:Réunion events:political, institutional,social or bal scale: today there is hardly any producersincreasingly turn to suppli- économie. Their concaténation and naturallyisolated économie space left; ers of sophisticatedservices, who will sometimes coexistence hâve progres- this is both an opportunity and a dan- increasetheir competitivenessin thé sivelydeveloped a serviceeconomy, but ger-forRéunion and other scènes alike! long mn. with a ratherspécifie évolution. nlike most cultures that hâve As for thé tuna, or Thunnus thynnus, who amongthé island'sfishermen will Finally one can observethat since Between 1946andthe 80'sdepartment Greek for thé «rushingest of thé rush- join thé élite tonnaroti, etc. 1990employment m non-merchantserv- statusimplemented in théformer colony been studied and reported in thé litera- ture which people take their way of ing,» they hâve been measuredmov- Embedded in thé entire process are iceshas again been growing at a quicker led to a service economy with predomi- in as «normal» and are quite uncon- ing at 50 miles anhour water,which rituals as significant to thé culture and pace than thé averageindustrial rate. nantpublic administration employment. life in people Favignana,as That évolution is to be considered in a Only in thé 80'sdid an industrialsector scious of thé cultural thèmes that gov- is 800 times denser than air. They mi- of thé ritual of grateto théarea seeking their birthplace thé mass is for Italian worshipers. It is longer,more général perspective. It may (apart from thé sugarindustry) bring em their lives, thé peopleofFavignana are fully aware of thé importance of thé to deposittheir eggsand sperm. thémagie cloak of culturalidentity with Notes Tonnara- Mattanw to their social and For thé «tonnaroti», who are thé is- supernatural authority. Thé Tonnara- économie identity. «Tonnara» is thé land's élite fishermen, thé cultural Mattanzais work, ritual, religion and 1 In thé 3-level activity and employ- ety: EmploymentStructure in G7 européenne,Office statistiquedes finally identity for Favignana. At thé ment division thé tertiary sector is Countries between 1920 and Communautés européennes et Di- Italian word for thé entire opération in- epiphanytakes place in thé «Caméra (Chamber Thé end of thé months of work, and mo- thé service sector. 1990»], Revue internationale du tra- rection générale des politiques volved in hunting thé Giant Blue Fin délia Morte» ofDeath). méat. «Chamber» is thé seventh room of thé ments before thé final Mattanza is 2 Braibant, Michel, 1982, «Le tertiaire i/a/7,Vol. 133, No 1: 5-36. régionales, Luxembourg. tuna and processing thé «Mattanw» is thé final act in thé hunt aboutto begin, thé tonnaroti - fisher- insaisissable?»[«Is thé TertiarySec- 4 Dommen, Edouard, and Norbert 3 Mordant, Guillaume, and Simon Favignanatuna net trap.Among them- men stand in thé boats that form a tor Impossible to Define?»], Lebalé, 1987, «Caractéristiques Verdier, 1997, «Services aux -thé massacre of thé tuna. selves, thé tonnaroti call it «II Luogo», - thé Place. Economie et statistiques 109 (July- des exportationsde services des entreprises. Croissance, atomisa- If in thé broadest, almost stereotypi- cal labels, Israël is a «Judaic» culture, Throughoutfhe preparadon tune, * Cultural Anthropologist and Profes- August): 3-17. pays insulaires»//es Tropicales : tion et déplacement vers l'ouest» work Italy a «Catholic» culture, India a and well before, thé dominant talk on sor of Anthropology and Health Sci- 3This typology of tertiarydeveloped insularité , insularisme [«Charac- [«Servicesto Companies.Growth, économies is borrowed from teristics of Island States Service Atomization and Displacement to- «Hindu» culture, then Favignana is a thé island is about thé weather - (good ences, Oakland University,Rochester, Castells, Manuel, and Yoko Experts» Tropical Islands: Insular- wards thé West»], Economie de la «Tonnara- Mattanza» culture. Thé for thé tuna migration, or problematic), Michigan, USA. His vidéo documen- tary, «63 Fishermen, 22 Days, thé Last Aoyama,1994, «Vers la sociétéde ity, Insularism],Collection «lies et Réunion 96-97 (November-Decem- Tonnara-Mattanza was brought to thé winds, thé likely size of thé catch, Tonnara - Mattanza?» won thé inter- l'information: Structures de remploi Archipels» 8 CRET-ACCT: 209-27 ber) (INSEE-Direction régionale de Pavignana-one of thé Egadi Islands whether thé tourists will Some for thé coast - cen- final Mattanza spectacle, thé tensions national 1997 ethnohistorical Premio dans les pays du G7 de 1920 à 5 Eurostat, 1994, Portrait des lies [Is- la Réunion): 4-6. off thé of Sicily in thé ninth Pitre first prize. 1990» [«Towards Information Soci- lands Profile], Commission tury by North Africans. amongthé fishermen,thé nvalriesas to 63 62 International Journal of Island Affairs 65 64 International Journal of Island Affairs From a social viewpoint, thé owner- «Tickets should be sold to tourists In 1998, there was a suecessful Thé Tonnara- Mattanza- Favignana 0 managed Mattanza functioned better just as if they go to seea folk show. Mattanza under Rais Cataldo and thé culturewill be displaced,then replaced, 81 than thé 'Coopérative ' System.It isn 't This is so eventhough l do not seethé Coopérative.Thé commune and thé by tourism, emigration, and possibly thé coopérativeSystem thatfailed, but Mattanw as a folk enterîainment, but Région made significant financial con- will be absorbedby thé new Euro-So- 3 individuals who weren 't prepared to as tuna fishing. For me thé Mattanw tributions. Four Mattanzas were held, ciety of global market,global fishing, e manage a coopérative System. Since is life, Maltanza is thé tuna.» with more than 700 tourists attending global entertainmentand global «civi- they did not understand what they As for thé future of thé Coopérative, each one. There were more young fish- lization». d were doing, it was easyto be cheated. Cataldo says: ermenthan in previousyears. It is pos- Favignana culture will not die with s When thé Coopérative had to choose «Ihopewe will alwayscontinue with sible that declining world-wide stocks thé «Last Mattanza» or thé last skilled u to be on thé side of thé fishermen, or to thé Coopérative. l don't like thé old of thé giant bluefin tuna, due to fishermen,but it will die, and is dying be on thé side of thé owner, important Systembecause it was dictatorial. This overfishing ranging from sport fish- by loss and absorptioninto thé «glo- l persans in thé Coopérative chose to attitude must stop becausethé most ing to factory trawlers, will one day bal» culture of fishing, marketingand side with thé owner. At thé beginning important thing betweenpeople is re- result in thé «Last Mattanza» for tourism.Thé Mattanza will bereplaced vvewere happy, becausewe thought spect. l think thé Coopérative can be- Favignana. with new activities, new patterns,thé thaï through thé Coopérative we were corne a model System.We eamed less Thé Tonnara-Mattanza is not just a Piazzawill give way to thé moviethea- in charge. When we understood that in 7997, but this was thé beginning «pièce» ofFavignana culture, like tufa, tre,boys practicing their knots will, and to manage thé Tonnara by ourselves for a future.» language,or thé fish market, but it is akeadyhâve, given way to playingpin- was a risky venture, at that point our «We hâve increased tourism. l see Favignana. Is it possible that with thé bail and computergames of violence happiness wenï down. Thé Coopera- thé future as rosy for someand very foreseeable death of thé Tonnara - more brutal than thé Mattanza, and tive was formed by illiterate persons. darkfor others.Rosy because in 1997 Mattanza, that thé culture of Favignanawill welcomeyou on their \Çoncerning thé Coopérative and help for thé first time there were many Favignana, thé learned and shared Web site www.egadi.com where thé from thé Sicilian Région,l know that young people who showeda big in- behavior, will die? Iffortunate, there will Tonnaraisjust oneofmany attractions thé Région is passing laws to finan- terest.This is so important becausein be a muséum in Favignana to hold thé for future tourists, and at least some cially help traditional activities, such thé last 20 years we hâve had a scar- artifacts, archives and photos of thé tuna fishermen hâve their own web as thé Tonnara. But as we know in Sic- city of îuna fishermen.This year l no- Tonnara - Mattanza - but thé values of «home page.» As tourism succeeds, ily, thé laws are always 'lerroristic' ticed young people want to learn.» daily living will not be there. thé Madonnacradling. «Today there aren't any more «Solidarity in Favignana is a fic- laws. This means that thé laws don't tonnaroti (tunafishermen). Now there tion. Bars, restaurants, supermarkets go further than a 'terroristic' culture are only persans who work in thé want thé 'Mattanz.a ' because it brings to benefit thé privileged few.» Tonnara because thev want to earn tourists. But when thé moment cornes In thé view of thé new «Rais», 5-6-7 million lira in 100 days. At thé to help thé 'Matîanw 'financially, few Gioacchino Cataldo, elected by thé Co- time of my father and grandfather persons contribute.» operative, thé 1997 Mattanza was a there wasfriendly compétition among As for thé «coopérative» System, «victory. » He passionately notes: tunafishermen. Now when a tunafish- Spataroechoes thé feelingsof most of «I hope that some crazy persans erman sees a fellow worker about to thé fishermen when he says: don't try to kill this Tonnara - finish a task, he slows down so thé «I prefer thé old Systemwith an Mattanza tradition, because it's a cul- other fisherman will do more work. owner. That way, l get paid a salary tural tradition and it's thé only pro- They work without diligence. and l know how much l earn.» vincial and régional tourist attrac- He adds: tion. » «I will workfor thé Tonnara even if Cataldo clearly seesthé importance Teresa Maggio is an American there is a coopérative System. Why of thé Mattanza for tourism and vice- scholar and journalist who has stud- shouldn'î I? If they pay me, l will versa. ied thé Favignana tonnara every work. » He says: year since 1986. l am indebted to A fisherman and prime organizer - «At this time, (1997) our tourism at- Ms. Maggio for making her work- supporter for thé «Coopérative» tracts only thé 'bad weekend tourists in-progress manuscript available Vincenzo Zabbarino, wryly observes who do not spendmoney. We are inter- and for permission to freely cite about thé 1997 expérience: ested in tourist 'quality', not quantity. from her research.Her manuscript «This yearfor thefirst time we were Thé Mattanza can attract touristsfrom is titled - «Mattanza A Sicilian linked in a coopérative Systemwhich ail aver Italy and abroad.» Tuna Trap.» could hâve played a primary rôle in Thé significance of tourists for thé thé managementof thé Tonnara. Un- success of a traditional way of life is 2 Ms. Rinaudo is a Favignese and a fortunatelywe still gavemanagement very clear for Rais Cataldo. doctoralcandidate in anthropology to thé owner and served his interest. He says: at thé University of Palermo, Sicity. 66 International Journal of Island Affairs 67 THE MUSICS 0F ISLANDS tional musical events. She is thé Afri- CookIslands (population: 19 000), with e Music is an importantpart of culture can woman who bas sold most records, ils typical music, is well known around a and oflife in almost ail countries. How- and was nominated for a Grammy thé Pacifie rim. Thé Christian tradition s ever,in tropical islandsthé very image Awardin 1995.Ms. Evorasings mainly of hymn-singing has reached gréât "Ail music is folk music. of thé country,particularly in thé eyes «morna», a mellow genre which has heights in several Pacifie islands, in- l never heard no horse sing a song" £ / of foreignersand visitors, is actually beendescribed as a typical expression cluding Tongaand Samoa. Thé annual Louis ARMSTRONG defined by music, alongside sandy of CapeVerdian nationality and indi- Christmaschoir compétitionin Fiji is beachesand palm trees. Can one imag- viduality. It is a poetic, rhythmic Créole regarded by many as unique in thé 1 ine Trinidad or Barbados without thé folk songthat draws much fromAfrica, world. In thé late l 980's,a popularmu- 0 melody of steel drums, or a Hawaiian with some éléments of Iberia. Other sic groupfrom Tonga(population: 101, 8 island without thé «aloa» tunes? CapeVerdian music forms with expert 000), thé Jets, reachedthé top of thé D «Island-in-the-sun» music is well potential are thé up-beat «funanâ» and charts in severalcountries, including g known in most partsof thé world; ex- thé «kola-zouk», which combines thé théUSA. However,many, in traditional 0 amplesof thé main musicalgenres are «zouk»with a traditionallocal style,thé Pacifie societies, as well as in thé is- u L provided below. «coladera»,which are sungby a host landof Bali in Indonesia,appear to con- - \- -. A few sounds from thé Caribbean. of other local artists (Ban, Hermina, sidermusic, and folklore in général,as Calypso music from thé West Indies, Vasco Martins, Boy Gé Mendes, Ildo oneof thé private and sacredareas not i with its spicy humorouslyrics, canbe Lobo, Simentara). to be invaded by foreigners and ex- by PHILIPPEHEIN AND ZEUKA KOZUL-WRIGHT heard in motion pictures and tourist Indian Océan islands. Madagascar ploitedcommercially. Such sentiments, settings around thé worid. Another hasa rich andunique musical héritage thoughacting as a constraintto music musical genre from thé Caribbean is which has yet to be presentedmore business, naturally need to be re- INTRODUCTION termsof output and trade.It is an area friendly and of not being subject to «reggae», which dates from thé 1960's widely outside that country. Mauritius, spected.At thé sametime theremay be in which many developing countries, Small island countriesare typically costly transport costs to international and brings together soûl, rock-n'-roll Réunion, Rodrigues and Seychelles a non-offensiveway to respectthé sa- constrained in their development by and in particular islands, hâve a recog- markets. In addition, it is an activity and élémentsof calypsoand «ska»,in hâve a common musical culture based cred rôle oftraditional music, while de- factors such as small domestic markets, nized comparative advantage and con- which haspositive income distribution a syncopatedrhythm. Hailing from on thé «sega»rhythm and sungin thé velopingand adapting certain rytms for high costsoftransporting their experts siderable potential, especially as re- effects (given thé grass roots back- deeppopular roots in Jamaica,reggae Créole idiom. Adaptationshâve been thé tourismor foreign markets. to overseas markets. limited minéral and gardscréation and supply of thé «prod- ground of most artists). Yet, not many wasbrought to world-widerécognition successful in thé francophone world. other natural resources, and ecologi- uct». Thé music industry island authorities take this sector with in thé 1970's by thé charismatic Bob Other variants such as thé «seggae» THE WORLD cal fragility. In a era oftrade liberaliza- does possess thé de- thé seriousness it would deserve, and Marley, and a host of other renowned (combiningsega with reggae)and styles MUSIC INDUSTRY sirable characteris- tion, they are threatened with thé loss almost no island country is close to Caribbean artists. «Zouk» is another introducing Indian rhythms and thé As already noted, thé music business oflong-standingpreferential access ar- tics of being envi- deriving thé full benefit from its mu- popularform from théCreole-speaking indo-mauritian dialect, bojhpuri, hâve is oneof thé fastestgrowing sectorsof rangementsto their major marketsfor ronmentally sic-related resources. Caribbean,with a particularly lively been developed. (It is also relevant to thé world economy.Global salesofre- their traditional commodities such as This article first recalls typical il- rhythm that invites dancing. Groups note that Mauritius has become a fa- cordedmusic alone grew from USD 12 sugar and bananas, as well as for lustrations of «island music». It goes such as Kassav hâve introduced zouk vourite and significant location for thé bilUon in 1982to USD 40 biUion in 1996 some products of their relatively re- on to describe succinctly thé size, to Europe, North America and Africa, filming ofmodonpictures from Mumbai, (IFPI,1997). Projections for 2003exceed cent light industry, such as cloth- technical process, and market where local variantshâve emergedin India, where cinéma is a major indus- USD50 bilUon (EC, 1997). Yet thèse fig- ing. Many islands hâve been able structure of thé worid music indus- countrieslike Angola,Côte dïvoire and try). Seychelles has taken thé initiative ures vastly under-estimate thé total to achieve success a number of in try. It then examines thé challenges Cape Verde. Cuban music, and its afro- of organizinga yearly CréoleFestival, économie contribution serviceactivities, in particular tour- and constraints faced by thé mu- cuban rhythms need no introduction. where music from various is- of thé music sec- ism and offshore business sic sector in developing This country hasbeen a major source lands world-wide fig- tor as a whole. services. It seems likely island countries, and fi- of musicalcréation and inspiration for ures prominently. Thé latter that thé future prospects nally présents some sug- générations world-wide, from thé Thé Pacifie. Hawaii includes, of many small islands . gestions of interventions rumba and thé mambos of thé 1920's has given thé worid will to a significant or policy measuresthat and 1930's,through thé chacha cha to thé ukelele and thé extent on finding could increase thé thé more récent salsa. languid sounds of innovative niches participation of A new diva from an Atlantic island thé hawaiianguitar, . notably in thé serv- thèse countries in country.Cesâria Évora has been said which are both as- ices sector. thé global industry to be Cape Verde's best ambassador. sociated with Poly- . Thé music industry and their share in thé Indeed, thé «barefoot diva», as she is nesia in général. would seemto be a prom- revenues generated affectionatelycalled, has brought gréât Many other Pacifie is- ismg activity in this con- from commercial use of récognition to this erstwhile little lands hâve made their text. It is a hugebusiness music onginatmg in is- known island country,through her re- mark in thé music field. world-wide, and is one of lands. cordings and participationin interna- Thé National Ballet of thé thé fastest growing in 68 International Jourr 69 for «worid music» - of which island apart from recorded music itself: live process consists of bringing thé carryingphysical stocks, through apar- CHALLENGES H performances such as concerts and en- tunesare a significantcomponent - is- product to thé final consumer and to ticularly efficient web site, and is now AND CONSTRAINTS a' tertainment in hôtels, sale of music re- land-type music will grow faster than carry out thé necessary promotion expandingin musicsales; and thé large Given thé acknowledgedcréative s lated-merchandise,public performance other segments of thé music sector. and advertising to sell it. This is a Reed/Elseviergroup (merger in 1993), ability andperforming skills of island- throughvarious média channels (there 0 capital intensive phase, with very with traditionsin paperand book pub- ersin music,it is worth trying to under- are more than 10 000 commercial radio Thé production and high upfront costs, which, not lishing, but which owns thé MIDEM standwhy theirparticipation in thé glo- and télévision stations in thé United distribution of music _t unsurprisingly, is dominated world organization, as well as smaller inde- bal revenuesgenerated by this sector 0 States and more than half this number It may be useful to provide some ba- e wide by a few large multinational cor- pendent labels. is relatively limited. As in other areas, 0 in thé United Kingdom; and music is sic information on thé productionand paradons(see «thé majors»below). New technologieschanging distri- thé situation of no two islands;is^the D central to distribution process of recorded mu- a An important global marketplace derthé most common application of thé bution channels same,and thé risk of over-generalizing 0 thèse; sic, although in this time of globaliza- L. where professionals from thé inter- law of copyright).Royalties generated New technologyis making it easier is gréât.In addition,many of thé con- u thus, tion and digital transmission this is a national music industry can negoti- from thé exploitationof thé recording for new entrants,including small inno- straintsinvolved are not unique to is- sector in perpétuai change. Some ate rights, sign distribution or pub- are sharedamongst thé producerand vative ones, to enter thé music and g lands, and many are sharedby other IG of thé literature on thé subject lishingdeals, sell or buy licenses,pro- thé artists,while royaltiesfrom thé ex- média business,and by-passthé ma- developingcountries, particularly thé appearsin thé bibliography at mote artists or recordingsand discover ploitation of thé song are sharedbe- jors. This seemsto be happeningin at small countries.Thé following prob- ^ thé end of this article. new talent is thé MIDEM, which takes l -l tweenthé creator(songwriter) and thé least two ways: lems relating to domesticsituations as a Création. A first require- placeevery January in Cannes,France. publishers.Thé publisher,by virtue of . thé main one is by going directly to well as thé extemal environment affect ment is obviously thé «raw ma- As is thé case for most distribution song-wnting agreements, secures retail via Internet,and subsequently small island developingcountries: prob- terial» or thé content of thé mu- networks, there are large and small re- rights to administerthé copyrightson arranging to send shipments to retail ably sic. This is thé initial phaseofcrea- tailers.Examples of largeretail chains behalf of songwhter.Publishers and outlets, or even to customers. This a. Domestic issues t h e don involving interaction between areSam Goody's and Tower Records songwriter usually hâve recourse to thé is thé method pioneered by A first and basic problem is thé in- most popu- song wnters, composers, musi- in thé United States, HMV in thé servicesof music copyrightcollection Amazon.com,which only startedop- sufficient récognition that thé music lar télévision station world- cians, and singers, implying United Kingdom. Being close to thé agencies, such as ASCAP (American eratingin 1995,but is alreadya major sector is, or can be, an important con- wide amongthé youth is some sort of coordination or final consumers, retailers are sensitive Society of Composers,Authors and playerin booksellingworld wide,and tributorto théeconomy, to employment, MTV, which is devoted understanding to thé changingdemand pattems and Publishers) in thé United States, or is moving fast on thé retailing of and to exports.Many, if not most na- exclusively to mu- among them. Thé can exert an influence on ail thé pre- SACEM (Société des Auteurs, music. In this area, it was announced tional policy makers,in line with con- sic), festivals, ad- product must be live ceding upstream activities. They nor- Compositeurset Editeursde Musique) in October 1998 that two main US on- ventional middle-class perceptions, vertising jingles, recorded for dissémination to thé mally commanda high mark-upfor in France, to deal with thé issuance of Unemusic sellers, N2K and CD Now, hâve tendedto regard popular music and motion- picture sound tracks. général public. their services.Retailing practices are licensesand thé distribution of royal- both using thé samewholesale dis- asa second-rate,marginal activity. Na- However, national and international b Recording. This takes place in a re- changingfast with increasingjoint ties generated from thé use of works. tribution firm, Valley Records Dis- tional account statisticians and econo- statistics do not identify separately thé cording studio, manned by a sound Books/ Video/Music outlets, like tributors, had agreedto merge,and mists in ail countrieshâve generally contribution thèse various activities. of engineer,where thé performersas- FNAC, in France,and with direct sales that Bertelsmannwasjoining Barnes been at a loss on how to handle this semble, under thé coordination of a In thé sphèreof pre-recordedmusic, through Internet. THE MAJORS & Noble, thé largestUnited States elusive «sector».Many island techno- CDs hâve known a spectacular in- producer. Thé output is a master re- An importantfact of thé global mu- bookseller, to create an ambitious crats, while accepting that popular crease:during thé 1991-1996period, thé cording. Sharing of risks sic businessis that marketingand dis- muldUngualbooks-cum music on-line musichas its rôle asa expressionof art real valueofCD salesaveraged 17 per e Manufacturing. Thé producer ar- and benefits tribution is controlled by five média opération. and culture, that it supportstourism cent annual growth. Singles grew by 7 ranges with a manufacturer to mass Thé recording studio cum sound multinational corporations:thé «ma- . thé other , more controversial and and bas thé positive side effect ofchan- per cent annually, while, through sub- produce product from thé finished engineer(s), thé musicians, and thé CD/ jors». Thèse are Polygram ( until re- lesswidespread, is by makinguse of nelling thé énergiesof disadvantaged stitution, thé sale cassette tapes fell of thé master in thé form of vinyl cassettemanufacturer are paid for theu- cently a subsidiaryof Philips, of thé thé new «codée»(compression/de- youth into relativelyharmless pursuits, by l per cent a year. records, CDs, cassettes, or mini dises. upfront. thé work Thémain risk-taker in Netheriands,but acquiredin 1998by compression) software - such as might be surprised to learn, for in- Although recorded music, being a Therc are in fact two distinct opera- process record producer, is thé who fi- Seagram,thé Canadianconglomerate) MP3 - which makes it possible to stance, that in industrialized Britain, discretionary purchase,is subject to dons: thé manufacturing thé CD/ of nances thé cost of thé recording and , WamerElectraAdantic (WEA) (USA), sendbulky streamsof digital audio export earnings from thé music sector some short-term fluctuations, a contin- cassette proper and its engraving. CD manufacturing/engravingprocess Bertelsmann(BMG) (Germany),Sony and vidéo information, and to trans- exceedthose of thé steelindustry. This ued growth trend is expectedwellinto Thèse usually and coordinates thé activities thé two opérations are of (Japan),and EMI (UK). Their combined mit thé files aver thé Internet, while imageof popmusic as a rathermarginal thé 21stcentury, in Unewith increased done a manufacturing such at facility, songwriter, singers, musicians, and re- output, at thé level of distributionrep- maintaining a high level of fidelity. activity is unlikely to be effectively re- incarnes and leisure time. Such growth as a CD manufacturing plant, which, cording engineers. It is of course pos- resentedalmost 80 per cent of thé glo- Thé comingon thémarket in 1999of versedby musicalpractitioners them- is likely to be slower in thé mature mar- in thé case of many islands, is not on sible for thé sameperson to exercise bal marketin thé mid 1990's.(Alexan- such déviées as thé hand-held Rio, selves, who tend to be individualistic kets Western Europe and North thé island itself. This phase is thé of more than one function (e.g famous der,1994JAMPRO, 1996). However, thé or thé Empeg car player will make lis- créative artists, notoriously inept in thé America,but, assumingthatpiracy can least costly part of thé process, on a singers often hâve their own produc- power stmcture appears to be chang- tening to Internet music easier to areaof businessor of organizedlob- be contained,prospects for increased per unit basis, but there are large don companies). Thé producer is usu- ing, with new playersmoving into thé non-technical consumers. (This bying. To complicatematters, several sales in Latin America, Asia and East- économies of scale due to high ally thé owner of thé masterrecording music business or about to do so. This raises major copyright problems, a local music groupsmay hâvecorne to ern Europeare very bright . It is also (though falling) initial capital costs. (but not of thé song itself, which re- includes thé meteoric on-liae bookseller discussion of which would be out- thé attentionof politicians or décision likelythat, view thégrowing tastes in of d Marketing and distribution. This mains thé property of thé creators un- Amazon.cora which opérâtes,without side thé scope of this article.) makersthrough their pungentand sa- 70 International Journal of Island Affairs 71 tirical sung commentaries deriding thé by world standardsthat few major in- ment and electronic musical instru- assumingthat their over-extendedrep- ogy and with thé fragmentationof thé such as Jamaica and Trinidad and practices of thé establishment, whose ternational music copyright holders mentsto luxury hi-fi listening equip- resentatives would hâve a good under- market. For instance, as Thé Economist Tobago,as well as Cuba,but much membersare thus not very well dis- find it worthwhile to interveneto stop ment-an item usually subject to heavy standing of what thèse interests are. In (31 October1998) put it : «Onceupon a more attention would be needed in ^ posedto promoting thé causeof such piracy.This meansthat local buyersof duties. Typically, thé music sector is fact, wheneverthé problemsof small time, people bought pop music. Then otherislands. International coopera- 0 artists. tapesand CDs are inevitably enticed left to Ministries of Culture, Youth and islands corne up for attention at thé thé boughtrock music.Now they buy tion, through technical assistance, Linkedto this first problemis thérela- to choose cheap (pirated) versions of Sports- or even of ReligiousAffairs, world level (e.g thé 1994Barbados Glo- grunge, ambient, illbient, acid house, shouldbe sought,whenever appro- tive lack of solid local understanding international hits, in préférence to thé which are not equipped to deal with a bal Conférence on Sustainable Devel- acidjazz,drum 'n'bass,Eurodance, hip- priate, andrelevant findings should of thécomplex technological processes more expensivelaw and royalty-abid- largeand technologically complex glo- opment of Small Island Developing hop, trip-hop, lounge,techno, glan, in- be widely disseminated. and marketingstructures of thé music ing local outputs.Thus arelocal artists bal industry.Such Ministries might ex- States)there is as yet no référenceto dustrialmétal, lo-fi, dreampop, psyché b) Promotionof locally createdmusic industry. As noted above, thé multime- often undermined in their own home ert considérable efforts to hâve thé any problem or opportunity linked to rock or riot grrl. ». Furthermore, thé should be officiai national policy. dia world is complex, and changing market by lower-priced compétition. country represented in thé preliminary music or entertainment, although, as «majors» are not a monolithic cartel, Thétask ofpromoting, or coordinat- fast. Governments, commercial There are of courseexceptions where heatsofa varietyof internationalsport- alreadynoted, this sectoris a good ex- andthere is no reasonfor suppliersnot ing thé promotion of, this sector at attachés, business managers and re- island countries are particularly at- ing events, while paying séant atten- ample of an environmentallyfriendly to benefit from healthy compétition thé nationallevel shouldbe specifi- searchinstitutions are generallybetter tuned to copyright issues. For instance, tion to thé worid-class musical talent industry, and is one of thé few where among thé various players. In any cally assignedto an appropriateen- equipped to discuss knowledgeably in Trinidad and Tobago,thé Ministry available locally. Thé end result is of- thé socially disadvantagedgroups ap- event, thé strategy of at least some of tity. This is thé case, for instance, in aboutproduction processes and export of LégalAff airs,which hasan Intellec- ten that thé local islandtalents, barring pearto hâvea comparativeadvantage. thé internationalmusic companies may Jamaica,where JAMPRO has a Film, market conditions conceming more tra- tuai Property Office, organized in Janu- some notable exceptions, are often left UNCTAD, for its part,has for a number well include a degree of delocalization Music and Entertainment Commis- ditional and «concrète»products such ary 1998 a national Copyright Week, in to wither on thé vine, or, when success- of years played a pioneering rôle in of certain opérations,so that their in- sion.Aparallel exampleis thé exist- as sugar, bananas, garments, fish, or coopérationwith WIPO, in which top- fui, aredestined to hâvethé productof drawing attentionto thé developmen- terests may coincide with those of is- ence of a Film Commissioner in Go v- handicraft. And while most décision ics such as pirating of recordings, and their work benefittingforeign interests tal rôle of services ( as indeed to thé landers. A success like that of Chris emmentof théBritish Virgin Islands makersare now attunedto thé impor- protection of folklore were discussed. in thé music industry chain, or simply spécialproblems of island developing Blackwell's Islands Records (Jamaica) to facilitate thé foreign film makers' tance and potential of thé service In that country,thé nationalcopyright enugrate. countries).Two spécifie servicessec- which played a key rôle in launching useof that Caribbeanterritory. economy in islands, considération of organization is so pro-active that it at- tors which hâverecently been thé sub- Bob Marley , shows that it is not be- e) National leaders should give per- thé latter in officiai pronouncements tempted to collect fées from taxi driv- b. External problems ject of attentionand intergovemmen- yond thé reach of islandsto aspireto sonalsignais that they are proud of and documents has in most casesbeen ers for playing music in their vehicles. Thé problems noted above at thé tal considération within UNCTAD are carve a niche for hemselves. But at a thémusical offehng oftheir country/ confined to tourism and thé off-shore But a more prévalentcase among is- national level are mirrored to a large ex- trade in health services and touhsm - time of fierce global compétition, suc- région. Such signaiscould include financial services- and hasrarely ex- land states is that of arrears, or even tent at thé international level. Thé mu- both incidentally of direct interest to cessis unlikely to happenby itself. havinglocal artistsperform on offi- tended to thé case of music, or enter- non-payment of royalties by radio sta- sic industry is not considered an «in- islands.Although thé UNCTAD secre- cial occasions at home or abroad, and tainment generally. A notable exception tions, even publicly owned. dustry» as suchby UNIDO , nor is it tariat has starteddrawing attentionto WHAT CAN BE DONE? include CDs among thé gifts pre- in this regard is Jamaica, where Thé combination of thé above fac- among thé «products» which thé In- thé importance and potential of this In spite of thé diversity of country- sented to honoured visitors or hasts. JAMPRO and thé Planning Institute tors means that, in most island devel- ternationalTrade Centrecurrently as- sector,there has so far beenno pres- spécifie situations,thé following sug- d) National copyrightagencies should hâve undertaken serious action-ori- oping countries, thé music industry sistsdeveloping countries to promote. sure to include «musical services» or gestions on thé policy measures and be strengthenedand made more pro- ented research, and hâve requc.sted tends not to be viewed as an industry - Thé regulatory bodies which are thé thé entertainmentsector on thé agenda interventions may be helpful to those active in this sector. Royalties complementary assistance t'rom or even a handicraft- by thé Ministry World TradeOrganization (WTO) and ofUNCTAD meetings. who seek to promote thé musical re- should be diligently collected and UNCTAD. of Industry, or by thé national struc- théWorld IntellectualProperty Organi- Evenif thé musicsector were to gain sources of islands. paid to local creators/editors,includ- Another aspect of this situation is tures- often inspiredby UNIDO - sup- zation (WIPO), lack thé development attention in international trade and de- a) Nationalauthorities or régionalbod- ing from radio and télévision sta- thé often inadéquate and generally porting thé development of small and focus neededto support thé interests velopmentfora, thé main objecdve chal- ies (CARICOM, OECS, Indian tions. Particular attention should be weakly enforcedintellectual property medium-sized enterprises;nor regarded of developingcountries. In any event, lenge facing island music suppliers Océan Commission, South Pacifie given to providing information and législation .In manydeveloping coun- as an off-shore business service by thé smallislands- small countries generally- would still beto effectively«package», Fomm) should document thé direct assistanceto local artists and pro- tries, efforts to enforce copyright law Ministry of Finance, or as a trade item do not hâve thé diplomatie capacity to promote, market and distribute their and indirect contribution of music/ ducerson how to protect intellec- tend to be responsiveto thé pressures to be promoted by Ministry of Trade intervene and de- fendtheir products. This involves in particular entertainment to thé economy, em- tuai propertyrights. (Heartbreaking of externalcopyright holders,notably or thé trade promotion organization. interests in thèse, orother stratégies on how to interface with thé ployment and export earnings,in- casesabound of old artists and their powerful multinationals, rather than CustomsDepartments for their part of- international fora, internationalmédia giants, or newplay- cluding thé supportingrôle vis a vis familles living in abject poverty, being pro-active in supportof thé in- ten tend to liken recording studio even ers such as Amazon. com. Thé costs of thé tourist industry. Studying this while their unprotected intellectual terests of local musicians, artists and equip- advertisingand promotion of local pro- sector should include analysing thé property has been used lucratively domestic music producers.In small ductions (e.g sponsoringartists to in- implications of technological inno- world-wide by others). countries, however, thé local temationalfestivals, «motivating» disc vation such as thé use of Internet e) Festival-type events should be en- island market is so jockeys,arranging for médiaexposure) and digital transmission. National or couraged. Examples are thé Carni- tiny are very large.But thé cost of entry in régional universities or research in- val in Trinidad and Tobago and sev- thé business of music should not be stitutes could contribute to this bet- eral other Caribbean islands, and thé exaggerated.It is not as high as for ter understanding. As already Festival Créole in Seychelles. Thèse manyheavy industnes, and may be fall- noted, this question has been ad- events are tourist attractions in their ing with thé advent of modem technol- dressedin someof thé largerislands own right, but are also fertile occa- 72 International Journal of Island Affairs 73 sionsfor stimulatingbudding island tributing to tourism promotion and talents, and making them more image-building. («thé Spice Giris widely known. werehere»). f) Thé developmentor upgrading of k) Supportshould be giventolocaledi- recording studiosand rehearsalfa- tors/producers in their accessto in- cilities shouldbe encouraged.Such temational distribution channels, ei- encouragement should include ex- ther with international companies, Bibliography emptions from customsand other includingthé majors,or throughde- ALEXANDER, P (1994), « Entry Bar- riers, Release Behaviour, and Multi- duties of thé relevant equipment. velopingtheir own distributionnet- Product Firms in thé Music Record- g) Work permits for foreigners to sup- works (e.g., CDs could be distrib- r^ plement and enrich thé local crea- uted by OXFAM along with other ing Industry», Review of Industrial tive and technical skills should be handicraft).Attendance of special- Organization, Volume 9, pp.85-89. BOURNE, COMPTON and S. M. viewed favourably. ized fairs, in particular MIDEM, h) Thé présenceof internationalmusi- should be facilitated. Spécial atten- ALLGROVE (1995), Prospects for cal companies should be favourably tion should be given to opportuni- Experts of Entertainment Services from Caribbean: Thé Case of considered,for instance asjoint ven- lies for new distribution approaches thé ..<,, turc partners with local interests, or or channels made possible by thé Music, World Bank Report (Wash- .l through sub-contractingof certain new digital transmissiontechniques ington, DC.: Thé World Bank). functions. Thèse companies may be and by Internet. EC (1993,1997), Panoramaof E.C. Grilles and colour are essentialfeatures of thé Trinidad architecture. expected to contribute to thé selec- l) Thé problems and opportunities Industry ( Brussels: Commission of tion of talents, to thé improvement or faced by islands and other musi- thé European Communities) XAVfERCASANOVAS" «packaging»of musicalofferings in cally-inclineddeveloping countries FINK, M . (1989), Inside thé Music by thé senséofmaking them more sale- in thé music business should be Business (New York: Schrimer able intemationally, to thé upgrading givenmuch more attention at thé in- Books). (1997), Industry ofrecording facilities, to thé promo- ternational level. Music-related is- IFPI Thé Recording a * he town of Trinidad, on thé submergeain devastatingpoverty. Thé of thé city is really contradictory.We don ofartists, and to thé international suescould be taken up, for example 1997 in Numbers (London: Inter- south coast of Cuba, was one of thé enormous mills became a caricature of now hâve one of thé best conserved national Fédération of thé Phono- distribution of resulting outputs. throughAOSIS (thé Alliance ofSmall first to be founded on thé island. In thé era of splendeur.Thé récession, colonial cities in Cuba and thé whole of i) Emerginglocal groups,after an ob- Island States) in économie and trade graphie Industry). 1514,Diego Velazquez decided to build that lasted more than a century, made a Latin America. Thé same can not be said JAMPRO (1996/1997), Marketing jective sélectionprocess, should be fora. International organizations, thé town on a ridge close to thé river décisive contribution to its current for thé SanLuis Valley, where thé coun- Plan for Music and Entertainment subsidized to participate in interna- suchas UNCTAD, ITC, ILO, WIPO, Tabayal, as it was a stratégie site near patrimoniallegacy that definesand ex- tryside has been conserved, but thé tional tours and festivals, as is done WTO. UNIDO, UNESCO, thé World (Kingston: Jamaica Film, Music and somegold mines.Thé gold minesnever plains both its économierise aad its buildings that constituted thé mills hâve Entertainment Commission). for trade f airs for exporters ofgoods. TourismOrganizadon and thé Com- really tumed out to be very productive décadence. been destroyed and ravaged, as they KOZUL-WRIGHT,Z. and L. STANBURY Subsidies may be from public funds, monwealth Secrétariat, should be re- and until thé end of thé XVIII century Thé fact that poverty, lasting more served no use whatsoever. Thé fact that or externalaid programmes.Spon- questedto do more researchon thé (1998), Becoming a Globally Com- thé history of Trinidad could easily than a century, managedto curb thé Trinidadhad maintained thé signsof its petitive Player: thé Case of Jamaica, sorshipfrom major non-musicalin- developmentaldimension of thému- hâve goneunnoticed. It was thé sugar processof évolutionand transformation past intact was thé main argument Aat terests which seek to link their brand sic industry,and to provide techni- ( UNCTAD, Discussion Paper No. boom of thé beginning of thé XIX cen- of thé architectural and urban héritage led to Trinidad and thé Valle de los names to musical events or prod- cal assistance in this hitherto insuf- 138, Geneva) tury that brought life to thé town and Ingéniasbeing declared a Maridnd Her- KRASILOVSKY,W. and S. SHEMEL ucts is also a distinct possiblility. ficientlyrecognized field. completely transformed it to thé point itageSite by UNESCOin 1988and Aat (1995), This Business Music, ( Thé Guaimaro house-farmis one of thé most j) Thépromotion of local facilitiesand m) In line with thé tourist/music image of where it could compete with La Havana it hasbecome of thé leadingtourist des- important of thé Valle de los Ingénias. Once skills, such as recording studios, of islands, it would be worth-while New York: Billboard Books) and refinement. Every- tinations of thé Caribbean. itselfin luxury very degraded, it is at présent almost com- THE ECONOMIST, (1998), Roll your backing vocals, background organizinga World Island Festival, thing changeaand thé fertile landsthat pletely restored. voiceovers, musicians, designers where various events would take own CD, March 14, p. 14. stretched east of thé town, thé San Luis Thé Trinidad House and printers of record casesand pro- place, and prizes awarded,and where MBI (1998),Thé MBI World Report Valley, becamethé site for severalof Trinidad's architectural héritage re- (London: Music Business Interna- motional material, should be under- music would figure prominently. thé most important sugar mills in Cuba flectsthé history of thé XVffl andXIX taken to entice visiting international n) Finally, and going beyond thé world tional). and, indeed, in thé world. centuries.Characterised by a colonial PARISOTTO, (1997),«Transnational artists to record in an island setting, of islands, is it not high rime that a A. Thé city, that rapidly took on thé ap- urban layout and its traditional build- corporations and thé Emerging Glo- possibly combining this with their majorprestigious international prize, pearancethat now characterisesit, with ings,it givesus a closeup of animpor- bal Média Markets», in Y. Aharoni holidays. Such activities can be comparableto thé Oscars,Booker cobbled streets, colonial house and tant attempt at reconciling différent (ed), Thé Changing Rôle of State In- complemented by thé encourage- or Concourt, or even Nobel, prizes magnificent palaces, withered as styles,ranging from baroqueforms with tervention in Services in an Era of ment of servicesto supportfilming be awarded to thé world's best crea- quickly as it had bloomed. Sugar pro- of vidéo clips and film-making, us- tive music artists? Thus may Saint Open International Markets (New duction fell sharply after thé crisis of York: New York State University ing thé favourable «island light» and Lucia (population: 150,000) be in line 1857, thé mansions and palaces were * Architect and lecturer at thé glamorous settings, thereby con- to obtain its third Nobel Prize! Press). abandoned and thé population was Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya 74 International Journal of Island Affairs 75 andto help controlthé wholeopera- centuryoflights», he describesthé at- ments like thé composition of thé led to a furtherspread toward thé rear of traditional Trinidad architecture. Some Characteristichouses, showing différent âges of thé city. façade,thé materialused for thé grilles, thé site, creating a third centreline on of thèse,such as thé Borrell, Iznagaand thé kind of roof and thé floor plan ail which to locate thé service areas. In thé Canteropalaces, stand out as singular identify it for us at a glanée. second thu-d of Ae century, thé tradi- élémentsin thé uniform style of thé Up until thé XVIII century,thé typi- tional Créole tile roofs were replaced city, becominglandmarks in thé sugar cal house ofTrinidad had its own well- with fiât terrace roofs and thé wooden aristocracy ofTrinidad. defined style. Thé layout is character- roof tiles and banisterswere replaced istic of a fanning economy: a centreline with wrought u-on.Architectural and or- INDUSTRY, SLAV running parallel to thé street, followed namental fonns took on a neo-classical AND LANDSCAPE by a hanginggallery at Ae back, giv- air. There are pilasters with continuous Thé Valle de San Luis, or Valle de los mg accessto thé back yard. In thé fu-st entablatureon façades,followed by Ingénias,was thé powerhouseof thé centreline, there is a central hall with parapetswifh pedestals.We can seeclas- Trinidad economyfor almosttwo cen- bedroomson either side and thé gal- sical mouldings, on both thé inside and turies, due to thé fact that there were -.-U-.. 1. lery is left for services.By this time,we outside of doors and Windows. morethan 50 mills operatingAère, with can find thé typical Trinidad Windows thé most atrociousform of slavery. openingonto thé street,allowing a very Restorations during thé 60's and 70's gave Thé mill, or agro-industrialcomplex du-ectrelation with thé street.Thé roofs an artificial appearance to this city area, was made up of a large extension of which is very appreciated by tourists. arepitched on four sidesand thé grilles land, a plantationhouse for thé owner, aver thé Windowsmade of wood. By quarters for thé slaves, a bell-tower and thé XVIII century,thé reargallery was thé whole sugar processing system, closedin to increaseliving space,oc- consistingbasically of thé sugarmill, cupying thé second centreline. This thé boiler house and a drain house. t t stageis characterisedby austèredeco- Thé owner's plantation house was ration, where thé most elaborate ele- alwaysbuilt on a rise in thé groundto ments are thé wooden bow structures. emphasisethé image offinancial power 76 International Journal of Island Affairs 77 stmcted by a German maestro, a fonner A PROMISING TURE violin of thé Manheim Orchestra. Théresults ofpreceding actions hâve (... ) But, behind thèsetrees lies some- led us to consider thé need for a clear thing inadmissible.And he pointed to policy of réhabilitationthat, at thé same thé row of tall Cypressesthat rosélike time, is capableofimproving théliving green-black obelisks above thé sur- conditions of thé inhabitants of thé rounding végétation, hiding another town centre,by carrying out a recon- world: thé world of thé slavequarters naissanceand revaluing of traditional that sometimes resounded to dmms buildings, conserving and protecting beatinglike distant hailstones.» them. Thé task requiresactive and in- tegral protection that recognisesand DOUBTFUL PROGRESS values thé historié, artistic, architec- In thé60's and 70's, thé appraisal, pres- tural, environmentaland social aspects ervation and recovery of thé historical that hâve giyen it thé statusof Man- centre concentrated on thé exact and kind HéritageSite. Without ignoring thé traditional restoration of some of thé changein customsand life style of thé buildings,within a smallarea of théhis- population, thé aesthetic and toric town centre. Within 250 m, we can compositional harmony must be re- find 5 muséums and several culture and But Trinidad is incomplètewithout spectedand traditional building skills leispresites for touriststo enjoy.Ne ver thé Valle de los Ingénias.So far, only must be recovered. more than 50 métrés off thé main axis, one mill hashad any work doneon it. Life is changing in Trinidad. Thé there are several streets that offer re- In Manaca-Iznaga, thé plantation house young Conservation Office and its en- newed or récent tourist attractions. It hasbeen restored, along with thé tower, thusiasticteam hâve been given a lead- could be said that Trinidad has a mu- but thé site has not been dealt with as ing rôle in this field. They hâve been ThéPlaw Mayorseen from thé tower of théLucha contra bandidos (fight against bandits) muséum. seum district for tourists and a clear and a whole. It is a partial and tourist ori- given someof thé financial, légal and highly concentrateditinerary that can ented intervention: restaurant and look- practical instrumentsthey needto de- easily be covered in a few short hours. out point. a conservation velop new héritage policy from a global stance,consider- Thé objectivesand priorities of thé ing thé entirehistorié centre as a whole, new approach can be summarised in Restorationworks in a houseof théTrès Cruces quarter. théentire population and thé develop- three basic aspects,in which thé in- ment of tourism, somethingthat is an volvement of thé local population in important key factor for Trinidad, a thé décisionmaking process will be an positive one if appropriatelymanaged essential factor: a sacri- and négativeone if quality is Stonedstreets and simple architecture define a)To draw up and implementa Man- ficed its interests. in thé image of Trinidad. agementPlan basedon an approach Awarenessof thé différent aspects Créole tiles, classic columns and wooden aimedat preservingthé architectural, that hâve been mentioned. has in- grilles are thé simple componentsof a rich historié and environmentalhéritage creasedamong thé authorities and their architecture. from pressureto change,consider- objectivesnow include global planning ing thé essential balance between andthé useof someof thé incarnegen- tourist development and thé need to eratedby tourism to invest in improv- improve thé living conditions and ing thingsfor ail thé area'sinhabitants. progressof thé population. Discussionamong thé staff of thé Con- b)Recovertraditional building skills servation Office and ail thé différent and techniquesfor thé restoration parties and international experts in- work to be carried out. volved in thé five workshopsthat hâve c)Extend thé tourist supply to cover been organisedhas provided a theo- thé entire Historié Centre and thé retical and practical foundation. Some Valle de los Ingénias,with a diversi- members of thé Conservation Office fied approachthat will graduallyim- hâve made différent visits and taken pregnateail sectorsof thé popula- part in international courses,which has don. In other words,pursue sustain- alsobrought their know-how up to date. able tourist development in balance AUofthis will beuseftil for meetingthé with thé resourcesof thé city andthé challengeinvolved. valley, respecting local values. 78 International Journal of Island Affairs 79 3CD ^ CD jj Q r~^ 0 g r f Restoredhouse in thé Très Cruces quarter. ^}F^ Severalexpériences are already in school,aimed at providing training in an important and décisive option be- -^-L heIsland Solar Summit, jointly course. By thé 15th ofDecember 1999, traditional building skills. cause of its intégration in thé natural organised by INSULA, thé UNESCO and thé two first réhabilitation works are Mention should also be made of thé environment and because it promotes thé World SolarProgramme, was held be- scheduledto open.Thèse projects are alternatives ap- fact that one of thé sustainabletourism that is compatible tween6th and8th May 1999on thé island international co-operation projects proved in Cuba in récent years, with with thé characteristicsand thé carry- ofTenerife(Canary Islands) with thé sup- aimed at improving thé living condi- regard to tourist accommodation, has ing capacity of thé city's social and portof théITER (Instituto Tecnologico y tions thé local population, that are of been to authoriseprivate housesfor urban fabric. de EnergfasRenovables) and thé Tenerife thé result of thé Réhabilitation ofTrini- this purpose. Thé measure has been We are, therefore,highly confident IslandGovemment (Cabildo de Tenerife). dad International Workshops, of welcomed among thé population of that thé destiny of thé Historié Centre Energy in général,and renewableen- which thé fifth has just been held. Trinidad (more than 400 houses), thus can be changea, from becoming ergy sourcesin particular,are key factors More specifically,thé projectsconsist making possibleto spendthé night it merely a tertiary cog in thé economy, to théprésent islands' situation. Aspects ofcompletely rehabilitatingmore than in thé Historié Centre without sacri- to make it more human, maintaining relatedto energyseriously détermine is- 50 dwellingsin Calle Amargura,in thé fice to thé résident population and re- and promoting its fundamental and lands' developmentmodels, as well as district of Très Cruces, thé most de- specting their social characteristics. constant traits and its commitment to their quality oflife andenvironment. pressedarea of thé Historié City Cen- This is thé Valle de los Ingéniasthat was thé Fromthat stemsthé gréâtimportance tre, and thé réhabilitation of thé catalyst of its past splendeur.Ail this ofthisSummit, whichjoined togetherrep- Eduardo Gracia school in thé same is possible without having to re- resentativesand experts from govern- neighbourhood. Work on thé nounce any of thé positive trends ments and institutions of more than 100 plantation house thé of that thé tourism of thé twenty islands from ail aver thé worid. United Guaimaro mill has also first century can bring to a city Nations' SIDS Unit, UNDP's SIDSnet and started. This will soon form that has so far had a very cheq- thé EuropeanCommission are among thé thé central base of a mu- uered career and that needs to international organisations and institu- seum that deals with thé continue to evolve in peace. tiens related to islands and renewable Valle de los Ingénias as a energy that sent their représentativesto single, whole unit. Thé Con- TE IERIFE thé Summit. Responsiblesof producers servation Office now has a View of thé Très Crucesquarter, in thé Trini- CANARY ISLANDS dad historic centre. Thé Valle de los Ingénias and suppliersof thé renewables'sector newly opened vocational training in thé background. Photographsofthé author were also présent. 80 International Journal of Island Affairs 81 ready seenmany différent initiatives, landrégions. À goodexample of this such as thé Barbados Action Plan that fragilityand ofjust howimportant thé emerged from thé United Nations Con- island héritageis, lies in thé fact that ferencefor thé Developmentof Small théarea of islandsunder protection is IslandStates or, for example,thé Island generallyfar greater in proportionthan Agenda approved in thé European Sus- onthé mainland. So, energy solutions tainable Island DevelopmentConfer- mustadapt very carefully to thèsecon- ence organised by UNESCO and IN- ditions. SULA. Thèsearejust two examplesof Concerningenergy efficiency, thé thé intense activity carried out in re- gystematicimport of rigid mainland cent years by thé islands, in which thé modelsof production and consumption new challenges of energy policies ac- generallyadapt very pooriy to thé en- count for a large proportion of island ergysources used. Islands cannot sup- strategy. port conventionalenergy models in ei- Two yearsago, in thé Minorca Con- ther physical or économieterms. and Head-Tableof thé 1SSFinal Session:from left to right: Luis Marqués (memberof thé Spanish ference, island représentativesstated National Commissionfor UNESCO), Boris Berkovski (UNESCO), Adân Martin (Vice-Presi- Onethé final sessions ofthé Summit, in thé présence ofthé island représentatives. we shouldnot forgetthat this kind of unequivocally that «Ail energy dentof thé CanaryIslands Government), Ricardo Melchior (Président of thé TenerifeIsland mistakehas caused really serious prob- Council) and Pier Giovanni d'Ayala (Secretary-Generalof INSULA) sources, other than renewable ener- tions.That is, we arein a positionto At best, excessivespécialisation of lemsin thépast. In factpart of théwork gies, should be consideredas provi- work togetherto promotea clean and most island économies often forces weface in thénext few years is to solve Thé IslandSolar Summit faced up to thé largest islands, but ail with one com- sional solutionsfor solving thé energy distinctenergy strategy, based on thé themto install over-sizedenergy ca- thèseproblems. an extremely important challenge:to ag- mon denominator. In thé course ofthis problems thé islands thé long of in featuresthat distinguish us from thé pacity,as there are other determining glutinate islands' actions round thé Summit, we could see once again that, tenn». No other régional or world-wide mainlandand our real potentialfor factorslike acuteseasonal peaks and energy sustainability and to promote in thé area of energy, and indeed in forum has ever mooted such a daring change. troughs in consumption, abrupt PUTTING THE THEORY thé necessaryco-operation actions in many other areas,islands hâve an enor- alternativeas this. And that is precisely changesin demandor greaterterrito- INTO PRACTISE: order to shapean InternationalAction mous variety of circumstances.Their what thé island factor is; we hâve dif- rialfragmentation than in otherrégions. ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR Programme in favour ofrenewables in extrême diversity and singular nature ferent conditions and resources, our DISTINGUISHING We shouldnot forgetthat islands are 0F ISLAND ENERGY insular areas. are what differentiate them in a worid- problems are very différent and, there- FEATURES 0F THE currentlythé worid'sleading tourist SUSTAINABILITY We know that thé island worid en- wide context. fore, we need spécifie stratégies to ISLAND ENERGY destination after historié cities, and, Most islandshâve excellentrenew- compassés territories that are charac- In this context, thé Island Solar Sum- tackle them. FACTOR moreover, it is thé area in which thé ableenergy resources available in suf- terised by their extrême diversity and mit is a majormilestone for reinforcing Thé option of using renewableen- Thé externaldependence of islands greatestgrowth in thé industry is fore- ficientabundance to guarantee very complexity.Remote archipelagos or is- a common policy to promote energy ergy sources to thé maximum is pres- in energy matters, is a factor that deter- cast. often,a large degree of self-sufficiency lands that lie close to thé mainland, sustainabilityin islandrégions. We talk ently a real objective for islands. But, minesthé basicaspects of their devel- Thé environmentalimpacts pro- in energy terms. Thèse are currently somewithjust a few dozensquare kilo- ofreinforcingas thé path to befollowed whatis evenmore important is thatthere opment. mostcases, especially in In duced by conventional energy underexploited in comparisonwith métrés of land to has been gradually consolidated for is a cleardetennination to put thétheory smalland medium-sized islands, energy sourcesand technologiesare morefar their real potential. time. In fact, we hâve al- into practise. Sustainable energy in thé products account for over 15% of ail reaching than mainland. due to on thé Muchof théenergy forecasting and islands already has well defined islandimports. thé fragile andvulnérable nature ofis- planningwork done in récentyears in stratégies and ac- Thécost of electricityproduction in islands can soar abovethé samecost in other régions. Small and medium- Readingofthé Conference's Recommendations byCipriano Marin (Secretary ofISS), Manuel Cendagorta(Director of ITER) and Osman Benchikh (World Solar Programme 1996-2005). sized islands encountercosts that are betweenfour and twenty. timesgreater than on thé mainland,in caseswhere thereis no câbleor gaspipe line con- nections with thé mainland. But it is not just electricity production that is excessivelyexpensive, in manyplaces, energy consumptionby thé transport sector alone can account for aver 60% of théenergy balance. Thèse figures in themselvesexplain shortages of sup- plies in many smallislands, or thé fact thatthey hâve to bearan unacceptable financial burden to survive. 82 83 thé basic foundations that underpin of energysaving and rationalisation. Spe- form a solid baseand an initial point of We hope, therefore, that another thé argumentfor implementingthé sus- cific frameworks that createfavourable référencefor thépowerful island renew- processfor recoveringour threatened § energy strategy. tainable conditionsfor overcomingthèse short- ableenergy movement. island paradises has been initiated. As s âges must also be promoted. In this ^ Thé ISS secrétariat,in co-operation thé représentativefrom thé Azores so u work, thé internationalagencies in- with UNESCO, thé World Solar Pro- rightly said in his présentation,build- D OVERCOMING volved can makea powerful contribu- grammeand INSULA, with thé support ing thé future of islands is also build- ô ISLAND BARRIERS tion towarâ this essentialchange. of thé organisationsand institutions ing a major part of thé future of thé lessons learned One of thé main from It is also surprisingto seethé enor- that hâve backed this Summit. hâve ad- world. barriersimpeding thé thé ISS is that thé mous déficit that exists in differentiated dressedthé task of guaranteeinga fol- development of sustainable island en- marketstratégies and initiatives,mak- low up to thé main accordsand are ergy are exactly a technological not of ing it impossible to couvert thé islands startingto build an effectiveSystem of e nature. obstacles (i Thé impeding thé im- into one of thé greatestreal nichesin co-ordinationand participation among plementation ofrenewable énergies are thérenewable market. Individually, is- islands, basedon thé recommendations political, financial, légal and training lands generallydo not,.achieyean ac- and proposais contained in first Island barriers that must be overcome in or- ceptablecritical mass,but as a whole, Solar Agenda. Présentation of thé European Commission OPET Network, by Pedro Ballesteros. der to croate a favourable and techni- they arethé largestcurrent gateways to Thé most important points of and social - économie climate, es-' Cover of Conférenceresults hook. It contains thé islands' cal thé gréât renewablesmarket of thé XXI thé Agenda are: island régions indicate that potential tor, suggest a surprising potential présentationsand contributionsand thé Island Solar Agenda. tmly pecially in thé area of comparing them century.This situationcould be nega- . Strengthening an information energysustainability is highly feasible. for reducingenergy consumption.Is- with conventional energy sources. tively affectedby a poorly established and éducation island network If we takethé exampleof wind energy, lands havejoined thé gréât tourist mar- Thélack ofdifferentiated energy poli- technicalsupply and a lack of services on renewables. 2 ttc ^ we can see that, in an international con- especially intense fashion. ket in an cies for island régions at ail thé main capableof laying a soundfoundation . Consolidatingrégional service text, thé largest growth in wind farms Islands are also excellent laborato- rV levels of décision making, local, na- for a cleanenergy industry. centresthat will operateas fo- '^M}f/ hastaken place in islands. ries for researching and developing tional and international, is another ma- But, in this case, we do hâve thé im- cal éléments of thé whole strat- Thé scaleofislands allows for highly appropriate,clean and low impact en- jor handicap.Sustainable energy strat- médiateinstruments for changingthé egy. ^ modulatedenergy planning, with renew- ergy models. Thé scaleofislands makes states egies for island and régions course of events. Thèse instruments . Promotingthé appropriatelégal ableénergies accounting for a largepro- it possible to introduce and test new must go beyond merely introducing facilitateaccess to specialisedinforma- measures and international portion, a factor that must be consid- solutions within an acceptable time conventional energy policies. One of tion and training. Islandnetworks and frameworks. eredas a valueadded aspect. is hardly scale. a com- It This is real advantagein thé main pillars of island energypoli- goodmainland connections for promot- . Favouringmarket's conditions surprising, therefore, that projects with parison technological cies must be to establish incentive with thé rigid ing a maximum level of transfer of thé . Promoting démonstration a heavy bias favour are imple- models of thé mainland market and one foster in ofRES mechanisms and instruments to technologiesthat interest thé islands. projects mented islands,giving rise to in What is vital for us too, is to use ail thé . Launching thé campaign «Is- thé first initiatives promoting Signing thé coopération agreementbetween Sicilian Govemment,INSULA and Tenerife Island Council. means at our disposai to foster an in- land 100% renewables» From left to right: Ricardo Melchior (Présidentof thé TenerifeIsland Council), Aurelio Angelini (advisor 100%renewable energy. This is terchangeof expériences.Thé spécial to thé Présidentof thé Sicilian Région) and Pier Giovanni d'Ayala (Secretary-Generalof INSULA). a possibility that would hâve conditionsin which we operatemean Thé consolidation of ITER, in been unthinkable a years hi jî few that we hâve to learn from thé mistakes thé Canary Islands stands out in ago, but which has been fa- of other islanders and to imitate suc- théframework of thérégional cen- voured by technological ad- cessful solutions. très' consolidation strategy. This vances and by a firm will to So,thèse are some of thé principal centrewill beworking in co-opera- change thé existing model. But, challengethat we must tackle in practi- tion with INSULA and thé along with thé rediscovery of thé cal terms. We need to consolidate thé UNESCO has declaredit first Cen- gréâtpotentialofRES, oneof thé Island Solar Council as au instrument tre of Excellence to this effect. 4 . a.. -^ A d , ^ .3 Siu'jus.îa fsv^f . main challengesfor islands is for understandingand as a platform for achievingan acceptablelevel of promoting sustainableenergy agree- Finally it's necessaryto remind energy efficiency in practically ments. This will lay thé foundations for thé words of thé représentativeof thé entirerange of domainsand a network of specialised island train- théSolomon Islands during thé ISS, ,, '. activities. This is a possibility ing centres and information, and de- when he stated that thé technical ." .. that fits in perfectly with thé idea veloping good practise guides and discoursemust never forget thé hu- ofrecoveringthé tme islandcul- Systemsfor reaching a consensusin man dimensionof energy.In thé ture,overflowing with solutions thé process of turning ideas into real- end, thé essentialrôle ofrenewable that convertshortages into rela- ity. AU thèseaction proposais, recom- énergies is focussed on their con- tive abundance. Studies carried mendationsand spécifie expériences tribution to a fair and balanced de- out in this field in islands with Ail information on thé Conférence and thé following-up are contained in thé Island Solar velopment of island societies and of thé agreementscan be f'oundat thé INSULA's ISSwebsite: rapid growth in thé services sec- Agenda,which will almostcertainly to safeguarding their future. http://www.insula. org/solar/ 84 International Journal of Island Affairs 85 l'.A ''^ sions. and was able to contribute is- . Dozens of solar installations in Medi- land expérienceand to présentto thé terranean hôtels meeting thé EuropeanCommission's . Spectacularadvances in control and new Organisationfor thé Promotionof momtonng Systems ^^' EnergyTechnologies: European Island . Bio-climatic buildings, passive solar OPET. energy and thé intégrationof tradi- Hydrawas a beautifulplace for bring- tional architecture ing thé pastand thé future together,an . Alternative transport This important encounterthat will island that witnessedthé fu-stshipwreck * Training and skill-building actions hâvespécial relevance for islands,was recorded in history, an island that based held in October on thé island of Hydra. its commercial influence for many years That is why thé principlerecommen- Thé most striking aspectof this initia- on seatraffic and its windmills that sup- dations include thé consolidation of an tive is that thé participantsrepresented pliedAthens with flour, anisland that is eminentlypractical Fomm, in whichIN- thé tme socialpartners involved in thé hamessingnew technologiesfor taking SULA playsan important rôle, to operate he Fifth Framework Pro- transition toward more sustainable thé first stepsinto thé XXI century. underthé sloganof «SustainableHôtels grammeof thé UE, adoptedon Decem- forms oftourism: hôtel chains, tourism Thé Hydra conférenceis a reflection for Sustainable Destinations». Thé most ber22nd, 1998, defines thé Community associations, governmental environ- of thé leap forward that is being taken outstandingand interestingfollow-up actions in thé field ofresearch. techno- mental and energy agencies,engineers, in thé area of sustainable tourism since actionsinclude creating and identifying logical development and demonstra- universities. thé World Conférence ofLanzarote: thé a network of démonstration projects to tion during thé years 1998-2002. In thé ^ ADEME (France),ICAEN (Spain), transition from theory to practise. actas an active point of référencefor thé field of Energy and thé Environment, AREAM (Madeira-Portugal) and Thé Hydra accordsare basedon a hôtel sector. Thèse would be centres that thé création of thé OPET network long sériesof expériences,particularly hamesstechnological innovation in thé standsout within thé accompanying SOFTECH (Italy) were thé organisa- "-.. --^a tions behind this initiative, with thé in thé field of energy: field of renewableénergies, thé rational measures chapter. supportof thé EuropeanCommission. . Implementationofeco-labels useof energyand with facilitiesthat are OPETstands for 'Organisa- tion thé Promotion INSULA, representedby Mr. Cipriano * Developmentof environmentalman- highly integrated in thé environment. for of organisations involved in thé whenadvising on technologysélection Marin, chaired one of thé meeting ses- agementSystems: ISO 14001-EMAS Thèse centres can be monitored and will Energy Technolo- OPET Network already hâve a they can draw on Best Practice across host training and skill-building courses gies'. Thé public mandateto work in théenergy thé, so ensuringthat their clients use for top-managementtechnicians from thé field, promoting new technologiesin thé most cost-effective and/or environ- hôtel industry. thé renewableenergy, rational use of mentally-favourableoption. Finally, thé Thé island of Hydra was an excep- energy or fossil fuel sectors. They also transnationality of thé Network also tional setting for thèseaccords. It is a hâve thé local market knowledge and helpsthem to identify andopen up new surprising island tourist destination. technical expertise to allow them to do marketsfor theirlocal suppliersin tech- Cars hâve been eliminated and ail thé this. nology areaswhere they hâveparticu- singularhouses and buildings, includ- Thé rationale behind a transnational lar strengths. ing thé famous windmills, hâve been Network for thé promotionof new en- rehabilitated with gréât sensitivity. ergy technologies is firmly rooted in Thé range of activities carried out by Hydra hasstarted to introduceenergy- thé European policies relating to com- OPETsis extremelybroad, but typically savingmeasures and bio-climatic build- petitiveness, cohésion and market includes: ing solutions,based on traditional ar- transparency.By being members of thé . Networking andAssisting Market Ac- chitectural style, in thé accommoda- Network, thé OPETs immediately hâve tors: linking with local networks, one- tion sector. An excellent image of thé access to a much broader base of tech- to-one meetings with SMEs and in- présentfor thèseaccords of thé future. nologies and markets. Furthermorc, dustry, open days and technology 86 International Journal of Island Affairs 87 and thé Environment - Madeira), INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ANCIM (Small Italian islands' Munici- J _î-ê palities Association) and Saareemaa (Estonia)participate together with IN- SULA in thé création ofthis fu-st OPET th of thé islands, Next years' actions of thé island f/ . . OPET will be focussed on two impor- at thé Foundation for International Studies tant transnational actions: Valletta, Malta . . transfer days, site visits and train- . launchingof thé Island 100%RES démonstration projects, acting as 11-13 November 1999 mg. campaign,oriented to thépromotion focal points for thé promotion of Organiséeby THE ISLAND AND SMALL STATES . of actualprojects in islandsable to RES and RUE in thé hôtel sector. Evaluating Technology and Mar- INSTITUTE of théFoundation for InternationalStud- achieve total energysupply from kets: studies,préparation oftechni- thé iesat théUniversity ofMalta andthé MANAGEMENT cal fiches... renewable energy sources. Among thé local actions promoted AND PERSONNELOFFICE at théoffice of théPrime «Théislands of thé EuropeanUnion after Amsterdam. . Events: seminars, workshops, con- . launchingof thé campaignsustain- by thé OPET,thé following fields of Minister, Malta. For a betterrepresentativity of théEU islands'enterprises» ferences, exhibitions... able hôtels for sustainable destina- work stand out: collaboration with: . Publications: newsletters,reports, tions, where thé création of a net- . Counselling Systemfor island local in Basse-Terre(Guadeloupe), brochures, CD-ROMs... work of accessible hôtels that are in authorities WTERNATIONALASSOCIATION 0F SCHOOLS 8-9 November 1999 Thé ITER (Institute ofTechnology thé processof implementing new . Theislandcityoftomon-ow. Munici- ANDINSTTTUTESOFADMENISTRATION,Bmssels. Organised by: and RenewableEnergy - Canary Is- energy technologies and Rational pal level energy solutions. Further information can be obtained from: Chamberof Commerceand Industry ofBasse-Terre lands), NTUA (National Technical Use ofEnergy measures.Thèse ho- . Application of zéro and ultra-low Thécoordinating office. International Conférence Gov- 6, rueVictor Hugues- 97100Basse Terre (Guadeloupe) University ofAthens - GreekIslands), tels will be at thé base of a training émission technologies to urban ernance of Small Jurisdictions, Island and Small States Tél.: +590 994444 / Fax: +590 812117 AREAM (Régional Agency for Energy opération and will be considered transport. Institute, Foundation for International Studies, Uni- E-mail:cdbt@als. gp versity Building, St.Paul Street, Valletta, Malta. Contacts: Tél.: +356 248218,234121-2 Mr OUvier Lemerie (ACFCI) - Tél.: +32 2 2210411 Fax: +356 230551,248218 Mr Georges Giourgas (Greek CCI) - Tél.: +32 2 2030090 E-maU:islands@um. edu.mt - lbril@um. edu.mt Mr J.C. Baptistide(Guadeloupe CCI) - Tél.: +590 994444 SAÂRE MAAVALITSUS In thé City ofBarcelonathé World EnvironmentDay (1999) bas been devoted to thé Sea and thé Islands. insula AREÂM Thé Kon-Tiki ANCIM ^ expédition TUA Thé photo showsthé guest réception by thé Barcelona au- thorities. Ms Marie-ThérèseDanielsson (Tahiti - Right Liveli- ITER hood Award in 1991) is in thé centre. At her left Mr Thor Heyerdahl,organiser of thé Kon-Tiki expédition.At her right Cipriano Marin ofINSULA. 88 International Journal of Island Affairs 89 ing", confmns Dra. Sonia Montiel, Dean 0 of thé Faculty of Geography of thé g Havana University. " Cuba is not only sun and beaches, our cultural territory is large and diversified as well as our 3 natural and political history, thèse are E thé éléments which will allow us to solve in our faveur thé iron hard equa- tion: quality versus priées, which is at thé very basisof any successfultour- ism activity. Eduardo Salinas Chavez, member of thé Faculty's group of geoecology,landscapes and tourism, ^ff stresses on his side that thé work Officiai Opening in thé Main Hall of thé University. From brought forward since yearsby his team right to left: Sonia Montiel, shows clearly that to engage in local Dean of thé Faculty of Geog- and régional tourism development raphy, P.G. d'Ayala, Secretary- means among others, to confront thé général of INSULA, Juan Vêla Valdes, Rector of thé Univer- social and environmental rationality to sity, Ibrahim Ferradaî, Cuban thé globalised économie rationality of Minister of Tourism. our times. No one can attempt to chal- and in addition a changein their use lenge such a hégémonie fact without society to be turned into knowledge Cuba and other Latin American Participants from South and North rect management of ils undisputed patterns. At what point in time can such involving deeply thé local population basedsociety in orderto fully réaliseits countries are searching for solutions America together with several Europe- wealth in terms of natural and cultural a process be considered as sustain- especially thé younger générations to promises.Networking and shareto com- to their developmentproblems. Tour- ans sharedin a lively debate their ideas, héritage. His University was of course able, a décade or more décades later? whom after ail belongsthé future. pète were conséquentkeywords, show- ism is of course an attracting one. This their projects and their hopes.Cuba, engageain supporting ail relevant pub- Foreveris obviouslyofno practicaluse Insula' message to thé Conférence ing thé stratégieadvantages for islands is thé reason why thé international our hosting country, was obviously at licpolicies. inhumanaffairs. stressed further thé above considera- and countriesto enter togetherat thé meeting «El Turismo en el Desarrollo stake. In thé words of thé Minister of During thé debateshowever thé very Thé meetingwent on explonngsome dons.Planning with thé citizenand par- régional level into thé world tourism Régional e Local» (Tourism in thé Re- Tourism Mr Ibrahim Ferradaz thé meaning of thé sustainabledevelop- promising catchwords such as ticipation as a tool werc thé stratégie marketstruggle, adoptmg common poli- gionaland Local Development)organ- présentpolitical situation and thé still ment concept was critically examined ecotourism, nature oriented tourism, keywords together with thé challenges cies while showingthé highly diversi- ised in Havanaby thé Paculty of Ge- enforced U.S. embargo, obliges us pres- together with thé satellite définition of cultural tourism and so on as possible offered by thé upcoming information fied wealthof theirhéritage. ography of thé Havana University on ently to address ourselves towards sustainable tourism. In fact any devel- solutionsto thé sustainabilitydilemma. 27-30 September1999, was a success. tourism development stratégies which, opment requires energy and resources Hère again, it was observed that thèse, we hope, might compensatethé lack so to speakinnovative touristic prod- of resources transfer from sister coun- ucts,were already largely commercial- tries. Thé issue is a short term, and ur- ised worldwide by thé tour-operators gent one, becauseour Govemmentis and that there is no substantial differ- engagea,as previously, to dedicatethé ence from conventional tourism in terms maximum ofresources to thé social de- of sustainability,including harshcom- velopment of our people: éducation, pétition among destinations offering healthand better quality of life. Ail our similarproducts.It wasfinally. admitted efforts, however, are directed to avoid that to be bestowed with a considérable Cuba's pre-revolution expérience of unexploredcultural and natural héritage having thé island considered as thé as it is thé case in Cuba and other Latin «tropical gambling and prostitution Amehcan countries,is not enoughto paradiseof thé Caribbeans».Realistic enter successfully in thé world-wide and bitter words indeed! This is pres- compétition. A compétition which at thé ently Cuba's challenge. Thé Havana's loom of thé third millennium is based University Rector Prof. JuanVêla Valdes more than ever on capital investment, who opened thé meeting stated on his humanskills andimagination. side that Cuba' touhsm should aim at a Capitalis p.resentlylacking in Cuba, satisfactory degree of sustainability not so human skills and imagination. through a wise and scientifically cor- "This is thé winning cardwe areplay- 90 International Journal of Island Affairs 91 piled on thé basis of lessons learned from intersectoralpilot projectsand e associated UNESCO Chairs. Further (S en ironf -ît niji conceptualdevelopment is ongoingat m co Sal r gion nd in m local, régional and global levels 0Q through Web-based discussion (D groups, as well as face-to-face work- ^ ment in historié coastal cities/towns are derstandablemessages to people, stones... a noise preventing them from ties were launched:on creating envi- shops. Through a thematic session on thé major focus. Within thé Urban De- ronmental vidéos and on coastal ob- «without such an effort», he said behavingas responsiblecitizens...» 'traditionalecological knowledge', CSI velopment and Freshwater Resources: «whenélections are at stakethey will Did UNESCOdo everything to avoid servationand clean-up campaigns. Thé provided a stronglyintersectoral com- SmallCoastal Cities project, co-opera- vote on thé basisof rumors,generated that «noise»prevents islanders from on-going régional project for national panent to thé Worid Conférence on don has been fostered among a net- planning agencies and stakeholders, by cun-entevents, catastrophes or love behavingas citizen? Science.Information on pilot project work of some 20 historié coastal towns «Planningfor CoastlineChange», op- and Chair acti vides is accessibleon thé in orderto developintegrated solutions eratedin Antigua-Barbuda,British Vir- CSI website:http://www. unesco.org/ to sharedproblems such as chronic gin Is., Dominica, Grenada,Montserrat, csi or http://mirror-us.unesco.org/csi a new commitment ÎEB i ICH < Thé CoastalRégions and Small Is- shortage, St. St. WortdConferenca on Soenc»for thé21 s» Century freshwater dégradation of Kitts-Nevis, Lucia, St.Vincent & Thé UNESCO's World Conférence lands platform is operationalising cultural héritageand rapid socio-eco- thé Grenadines, Turks & Caicos Is. and on science:«Science for thé twenty- UNESCO'sprimary comparative advan- nomic transformation. hasreceived financial supportedfrom first century:a new commitment»has tage: its capacity for integrated action In thé Asian région, thé impact of Development thé Caribbean Bank. In takenplace in Budapestlate June 1999. involving Naturaland Social Sciences, globalisation on coastal communities 1 thé GulfofGonavepilot project(Haiti), FedericoMayor, Director Général of Culture, Education and Communica- and assessmentsof natural and human a ecological collection of local fisher UNESCO has proposedthere a new tion. Over20 intersectoralpilot projects environments are pursued. To recon- knowledgehas provided thé basisfor contractbetween science and society. hâvebeen established involving some cile environment conservation and hu- a Créoleguidebook on sustainablere- An action plan addressed to ail 50 countries,uniting decision-makers, man developmentobjectives, partner- source use. In Jamaica, data collected Budia^!É®t news >s^.. stakeholdersin thé public or private MMîîgary programme local communities,cultural héritage ex- ship and dialoguehâve been strength- on fisher harvesting stratégies and » Ain* . 1 July sector to be implemented with créative 19» perts and scientists. UNESCO Chairs ened between government agencies socio-economic baselines are contrib- imagination, to make peace and in IntegratedCoastal Management and and indigenous Moken communities élaboration a manage- uting to thé of progress a reality for ail. SustainableDevelopment provide living within National Park and future mentplan recentlydeclared Port- for thé Many up to date important issues interdisciplinarytraining andcapacity- World Héritage Site boundaries (Thai- land Bight protectedarea. Local fisher were introduced and discussed in Bu- building for environmentallysustain- land).An ecologistand an anthropolo- associations in both Haiti and Jamaica dapest,leaving however thé feeling ThéUNESCO'sWorld Conférence on science:«Science for thétwenty-first able,socially équitable and culturally gistjointly occupythé interdisciplinary hâve been strengthened, including that thé gamewas played mainly by century:a new commitment»has taken place in Budapestlate June1999. appropriate development in coasts and UNESCO Chair recently established in through bilatéral exchange visits to largeinstitutional actors with appar- FedericoMayor, Director Général of UNESCOhas proposed there a newcon- small islands.From project and chair thé Philippines. Thé Chairholders and build awareness ofshared environmen- ently scarceparticipation of citizen or- tractbetween science and society. An actionplan adressed to ail stakeholders in activities, a first set of examplewise their studentshâve developed, with tal and social concerns.Pilot projects ganizations representing after ail thé thépublic or privatesector to beimplemented with créativeimagination, to make practiceshas been generatedand dis- UNDP support,coastal resource moni- hâve now been launched with thé Uni- beneficiaries of thé proposedaction peaceand progress a reality for ail. cussed via thé «Virtual Forum». toring and impact assessment versity of Papua New Guinea, on thé plan. Manyup to dateimportant issues were introduced and discussed in Budapest, In Africa and thé western Indian protocols, as well as socio-economic social and environmental dilemma fac- Islandsand islanderswhile repre- leavinghowever thé feeling that thé game was played mainly by large institutionnal Océan Island States, communication profilesfor théUlugan Bay pilot project ing Motu-Koitabuvillages increasingly sentinga high variety of cultural and actorswith apparently scarce participation of citizen organizations representeing and éducation stratégiesfor sustain- site.In théframework of théJakarta Bay encapsulatedwithin thé rapidly-grow- territorial specificities were not men- afterail thébeneficiaries of théproposed action plan. able coastaldevelopment, are thé ma- pilot project,alternative incarne gener- ing Port Moresby urban area and on tioned. Their educational needs. their Islandsand islanders while representing a high variety ofcultural and territorial jor foci. A strategyfor thé above has ating activities and environmental edu- gatheringkey social,cultural and eco- needto get asa prioritythé best sup- specificitieswere not mentionned. Their educationnal needs, their need to getas been developed through thé cation campaigns were undertaken in logicalbaseUnes required for community- port from scienceand technology ad- apriority thé best support from science and technology advances were neglected PACSICOMprocess and implementa- thé SeribuIslands, and a community- baseddevelopment in thé Moripi Cul- vances were neglected as well as their aswell astheir ambition to equitablycompete for progress. tion begunthrough new pilot projects. based waste management centre was tural Area. In thé Sanaapu-Sataoapilot ambition to equitably competefor Climatechange of courseis a majorthreat for manyislands. Thé Conférence Thé DakarChair (Sénégal)enlarged its establishedin thé KapukMuara coastal projects (Samoa), activities has been progrès s. adressedits conséquencesonundetermined coastal eco Systems while neglect- geographicalcoverage to include stu- area (Indonesia). launchedto integrateindigenous and Climatechange of courseis a major ing thé impactson island people,why? dents fromWestAfrica and established In théSmall Island Developing States scientitic knowledge into local environ- threat for many islands.Thé Confer- FedericoMayor rightly summoned thé scientific- community to passunder- co-operation on eco-tourism with thé (SIDS) of thé Caribbean and Pacifie Re- mentalmanagement practice, and to en- ence addressedits conséquenceson standablemessages to people,«without suchan effort», he said «whenélections UNESCOChair at thé University of Las gions, human development for sustain- hance environmental éducation cur- undetermined coastal ecosystems areat stakethey will voteon thébasis of rumors,generated by currentevents, Palmasde Gran Canaria (Spain). able island living, poverty alleviation, ricula in local Associated Schools. while neglectingthé impactson island catastrophiesorlove stories.. a noise . preventing them from behaving as respon- In thé Arab Statesand Mediterranean planning for changingcoastlines and At thé global level, example 'wise people,why? siblecitizens...» régions, intersectoral pilotprojects con- freshwatersecurity are thé major foci. practices' for sustainable coastal devel- FedericoMayor rightly summoned Did UNESCOdo everythingto avoidthat «noise»prevents islanders from cerning sustainablehuman develop- In thé Caribbean,two new pilot activi- opment hâve been formulated and com- thé scientificcommunity to passun- behaving as citizen? International Journal of Island Affairs 93 u Q n's aid 8 diplomacy and (D thé acific slands l bySANDRATARTE «In thé 1980s Japan rosé to promi- ^ nence as a leading aid donor to thé Pacifie island countries. In this study thé factors that hâve motivated and shaped Japan's officiai development A Session of thé Mahdia Seminar with thé Tunisian authorities, assistance towards thé Pacifie islands Ms Francine Fournier, UNESCO Assistant Director-General for are explored. Thé unique characteris- Social and Human Sciences,and Cipriano Marin of INSULA. tics of this région and Japan's inter- ests-primarily as a fishing power-are , he seminar entitled «Sustain- agementof waterand coastal resources with its médina and Spanish fort, an Sojth acific shownto hâveprofoundly influenced . ^îit^a Ce»'iir6teO^-e^m8!iîS;u(te3 ^îs whScto 94 International Journal of Island Affairs 95 join or ia 3UDDor'c insui a aponésie: délimitation of thé Exclusive Economie Thé aim of thé publicationis to guide éopolitique et Zones (EEZ) witness as usual thé re- political decision-makersamong thé ex- géographie currentrôle of thèsepériphéries. isting managementSystems and thé most "listorique This volumeextremely well documented important Codes of Conduct. It makes sur l'insularité analysesthé processofJapan's territorial also référence to thé most island-wide- nu organizationshowing how its peculiar spreadlabels and to thé mcorporationof byPHILIPPE 'PELLETIER geographicalfeatures were at thé origin rules and standards Uke thé ISO 14001. of a well shapedunitarian nation-state. It includesa complèteset ofbest-prac- he InternationalScientific Council for IslandDevel- Japanoffers thé imageof sucha ho- tice guidelines for thé tourist sector, ' , thé InternationalJournal of IslandAf- mogeneity thaf seems be- as it difficult to Philippe Pelletier: La Japonésie:Géopolitique where spécifie island features are taken opment(INSULA) was formally crcated in November1989 fau-s,is publishedby théInternational Scientific Council for Is- et géographie historique sur l'insularité au Uevethat its spaceis topographically into account,making spécialréférence aninternational non-governmental organisation whose aim is to landsDevelopment. Thé aim of théjournal is to crcatea world- crumbledand parcelled manyis- Japon - CNRS Editions - Paris - J997 out in to: water, energy,wastes, environmental contributeto shape island awareness anddevelop islands' com- widefomm for ail those who consider islands asan important part lands, which définition and number, impacts and building intégration. monfuture, supporting necessary co-operation andinformation ofmankind'shéritage deserving major attention. Contributors can from 3400 to 6900 dependingon thé Another advantageof this guide is actionsin théscientific and technological fields. usethé Journal to sharenews and views about thé islands of thé authors,is far from being clear. nternation l of thé nsular thé gréâtnumber of practicalcases and Théaims of INSULAare to contributeto thééconomie, social worldfrom a variety of perspectives,including thé following: Insularity however is a main geo- successfuldémonstration project in- andcultural progress of islands throughout théworld, as to thé OUESSANT/26-28 AUGUST1999 graphicalfeature Japan.Japanese as of cluded,giving a complèteview of thé protectionof island environment and thé sustainable develop- Environmentalmanagement well as foreign scholarswhether they meas- ment of their resources.Within sucha context,INSULA co- Natural resources conservation Islands'richness and variety has been incorporation of environmental l «lude this capital historical and geo- ures hôtels and island tourist infra- Water clearlyreflected through this ideato put in opérâteswith UNESCO and other international organisations, as graphicalévidence, or they refer to Ja- l together a good collection of thé exist- structures, both at thé private and at wellas institutions atthé national or régionallevel sharing thé Liquid andsolid wastemanagement pan as being composedat thé best by ing publications in French in this inter- thé local authority level. samegoals and interests. Through its internationalaad l Prévention of natural hazards four largeislands or «hondo»:thé main national show. multidisciplinarynetwork of expertsand rcsearchers, INSULA land. Thé feeble descriptionof thé in- Thé Insular Book Prize more than sur- contributestowards balanced, sustainable development initiatives Démographietrends sularphenomenon is indeeda paradox. Health prised readers and professional editors undertakenby islandauthorities. z But thereis an «overinsular»periph- 0 for thénumber and quality ofbookspar- Human geography,human resources ery composed by hundreds of small or Throughits initiatives,INSULA seeks to facilitateor favour: ticipating in thé compétition (a total of l Educationand training médium sized islands more or less re- CLIMATIC CHANGES . Technicalco-operation in ail fields relating ta sustainable l Culture 78, basicallyrefemng to Corsica,Anti- ylob^i warming 2 mote (rito), a belt which hasplayed thé island developmentwith a spécialinterest in island cul- Traditionalknowledge lies, thé Indian Océan and thé Pacifie). change was beiiig conduci ed. Ttie devsloped w^i double rôle of screen and frontier. tures and humanresources development. Further information can be found at This islandgarland, by its humanand T.orldwicie addit-ls &' GHGs into thé almosphere. . Thé exchangeof informationand expériencethrough thé Général économies thé Internet website: 'est and sltepticisn o* ecologicalwealth, by its extensionfrom ndeed tiny-lsland and ci publicationand diffusion ofperiodicaljournals,books and http://perso.club-internet.fr/ Tourism and Transports thé ice-floe to thé subtropicswas nev- reports, using thé international and multidisciplinary net- jacbayle/livres/Prix99.html Agriculture and aquaculture erthelessat thé origin for thé japanese ÏÏZ work representedby INSULA members. miy Fishing and océan resources civilisation, to develop itself as a full in Nouember1989. Thé. . Inter-islandagreements directed towards thé defenceof Contact: lî Bio-technologies System,a worid in itself. Mr Jacques Bayle-Ottenheim islands' common interests in thé framework of sustainable |2 Industry and mining Thé questionofjapan's insularity is Conseiller littéraire du Salon, development,at level of governmentsand public adminis- ë^ . îrongc 3^ Applied communicationtechnologies Salon du Livre însuîuire ^eywoJdh; directlyrclated to geopolitics.Thé fron- trations as well as technical and scientific institutions. t/>3 2 ter, rue de l'Hippodrome Professor Maf/in S Soraos Renewableenergy tier disputesreenhanced by thé récent 29000 Quimper FRANCE Internationalpolitics and policies Forthé attainment of its aims, INSULA promotes international Tél.:+33 2 98903332 / Fax:+33 2 98900348 co-operationprojects, assists islands dircctly, organises seminars ENVIRONMENTAND DEVELOPMENT Théjournal will publisharticles and communications that andconférences at national, régional and international levels and )N SMALLISiAND STATES providenew insights and understanding aboutthé subjects men- ou/ism promotesa direct dialogue with and between thé authorities and thé tionedabove and invites authors to submittheir studies and com- sustain blé populationsofdifférent islands and island groups. It also promotes EDSIS is an independentscholarly ments.Guidelines of stylecan be obtained from thé editorial development: thé co-operationand exchange of expérienceand expertise between journal providing analysis and critical officeat thé address appearing below. islandsof agiven région as well as at thé inter-regional level. island expérience thought on environmental issues of bi/LufSGORTAZAR & ClPRIANO MARIN INSULA'stask is to favourthé passage from theory to prac- particular interest to thé development tice,supporting thé actions which contribute to a sustainableand of small island states. INSULA- Thé International Journal ofIslandAffairs Under thé slogan «Sustainable Tour- fairdevelopment of every island of théworld. is distributedfree of chargeto membersof INSULA ism: from theory to practice», INSULA EDSIS: P.O. Box 5552 Church Street. published a guide that gathers thé main Toronto, Ontario - CANADA M4Y 2E3 initiatives and practical solutions that Tél.:(416)598-3927 / Fax:(416)598-3156 E-mail: edsis@interlog. com Joinand support ' . are nowadays being implemented in is- For more information visit EDSIS on thé Forindividual and group membership in INSULA, see overleaf. land tourist destinations. Internet: http://www.edsis.com 96 International Journal of Island Affair 97 join ana supDorc insuLQ APPLICATIONFOR MEMBERSHIP0F INSULA l wishto become member ofINSULA, thé International Scientific Council for Island Development -l Sumame: First Name: Institution: Address: City: Country: e-mail: Téléphone: Fax: Francs Annualmembership: Individual l l 400French Institution D 1200French Francs Supportingmembers: D 2000French Francs (ormore) l ampaying thé amount of by: AmericanExpress l Chèque Q MasterCard D Visa ll Chèquesareto be made in Créditcardnumber: DDDDD DDDD DDDD DDDD FrenchFrancs payable to INSULA Expirydate of crédit card: Signature: Date: -, c/oUNESCO: l, meMiollis, 75732 Paris cedex 15, France. Tel:(331) 45 68 40 56, Fax: (331) 45 68 58 04; émail: insula@insula. org 98 International Journal of Island Affairs