Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

Prepared for NexGen Oil and Gas, LLC

Prepared by SWCA Environmental Consultants

May 2015

CLASS II CULTURAL RESOURCES INVENTORY OF CASTLE VALLEY OIL AND GAS LEASE AREAS IN EMERY COUNTY, UTAH

Prepared for

NexGen Oil and Gas, LLC 5251 DTC Parkway, Suite 800 Greenwood Village, Colorado 80111

Submitted to

Bureau of Land Management – Price Field Office 125 South 600 West Price, Utah 84501 (435) 636-3600

Prepared by

Lisa Benson, M.S. Brian Forman, B.A. R. Kelly Beck, Ph.D.

Under the direction of

R. Kelly Beck, Ph.D.

SWCA Environmental Consultants 257 East 200 South, Suite 200 Salt Lake City, Utah 84111-2048 (801) 322-4307 www.swca.com

BLM Permit No. 14UT55126 Utah State Antiquities Project No. U-14-ST-1084b

SWCA Project No. 31287 SWCA Cultural Resources Report No. 2014-589

May 2015

Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

ABSTRACT

Report Title. Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

Report Date. May 2015

Agency Name. Bureau of Land Management (BLM), Price Field Office

Permit Number. BLM Permit No. 14UT55126

Land Ownership Status. Federal

Project Description. SWCA Environmental Consultants (SWCA) conducted a Class II inventory of the Castle Valley Oil and Gas lease area in the San Rafael Swell, Utah. SWCA used a probabilistic sampling method to gather data of the largely undocumented study area. Twelve 40-acre areas were selected for full pedestrian-level inventory.

Project Number. SWCA Project No. 31287, Report No. 2014-589, State Antiquities Project No. U-14- ST-1084b

Project Location. The study area is located in Sections 10, 11, 12, 14, 21, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, and 35, Township 21 South, Range 8 East; and Sections 6, 28, 29, and 31, Township 21 South, Range 9 East in Emery County, Utah, Salt Lake meridian; U.S. Geological Survey Molen (1983), Horn Silver Gulch (1978), Short Canyon (1983), and Sid and Charley (1983), Utah State, 7.5-minute quadrangle.

Number of Acres Surveyed. 449.55 acres full intensive-level survey; 28.39 acres reconnaissance; 2.06 acres not accessible

National Register of Historic Places (NRHP)-Eligible Sites. Three sites: 42EM004654, 42EM004656 and 42EM004657

NRHP-Ineligible Sites. Three sites: 42EM004653, 42EM004655, and 42EM004658

Recommendations. During the cultural resources inventory, six newly documented sites (42EM004653 through 42EM004658) were encountered. Three of these sites (42EM004654, 42EM004656, and 42EM004657) are recommended eligible for the NRHP. The remaining three sites (42EM004653, 42EM004655, and 42EM004658) are recommended not eligible for the NRHP. The site distribution and types suggest that the study area experienced moderate use throughout prehistory, likely during logistic foraging bouts. Rock art sites were not identified during this survey principally because survey blocks selected for the possible presence of rock art were not characterized by exposures of appropriate rock. Identification of portions of the study area sensitive to the presence of rock art should focus attention on areas with exposures of early Jurassic sandstone.

i Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

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ii Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ...... i Introduction ...... 1 Study Area ...... 1 Environment ...... 5 Cultural Context ...... 7 The Paleoindian Period (>11,000–8,000 B.P.) ...... 8 The Early Archaic Period (8,000–5,000 B.P.) ...... 9 The Middle Archaic Period (5,000–3,000 B.P.) ...... 9 The Late Archaic Period (3,000–2,000 B.P.) ...... 9 The Terminal Archaic (2,000–1,500 B.P.) ...... 10 The Formative Period (1,500–800 B.P.) ...... 10 The Late Prehistoric Period (800–200 B.P.) ...... 11 The Protohistoric Phase (400–150 B.P.) ...... 11 Previous Research ...... 11 Methods ...... 12 Inventory Results and Evaluations ...... 15 Cultural Resources ...... 16 Isolated Occurrences ...... 16 Sites ...... 17 Management Summary ...... 24 References ...... 27

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Location of survey areas in the larger Castle Valley study area...... 3 Figure 2. Example of survey area (Area 11) with a mesa edge and flats area, facing north...... 4 Figure 3. Example of survey area (Area 11) with ephemeral drainages and slopes, facing northeast...... 4 Figure 4. Example of dune area (Area 8) vegetation, facing south...... 7 Figure 5. Example of vegetation on top of a mesa (Area 2), facing northwest...... 7 Figure 6. Example of steep slope (Area 2) that was surveyed using the reconnaissance method, facing southeast...... 15 Figure 7. Close-up of the rock types associated with the geologic layer in the study area (Area 6); shows a conglomerate form that is not conducive to rock art, facing north...... 25

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Legal Location of Survey Areas ...... 2 Table 2. Previous Projects that Intersect the Castle Valley Study Area ...... 12 Table 3. Previous Recorded Sites in the Castle Valley Study Area ...... 12 Table 4. Isolated Features and Isolated Occurrences Observed During Survey ...... 16

iii Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Literature Review Results Map Appendix B: Selected Survey Areas in the Castle Valley Study Area Appendix C: Survey Results Maps Appendix D: Complete Intermountain Antiquities Computer System Forms

iv Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

INTRODUCTION

In November 2013, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) deferred several proposed oil and gas lease parcels in the Castle Valley region of Emery County, Utah. The removal of these parcels occurred after the BLM received a protest letter from Utah Rock Art Research Association (URARA), an avocational group interested in prehistoric rock art, which argued that many known but undocumented rock art localities would be harmed by energy exploration. To determine the extent of known cultural resources in the vicinity of these deferred lease parcels, NexGen Oil and Gas, LLC (NexGen) requested that SWCA conduct a search of project, site, and preservation files at the Utah Division of State History (UDSH). The literature review yielded very little data, and found that very little formal archaeological research had been conducted in the area. In such instances where significant data gaps regarding known but undocumented resources occur, BLM Manual 8110 – Identifying and Evaluating Cultural Resources suggests that a Class II probabilistic field survey may be appropriate. Consequently, NexGen requested that SWCA conduct a Class II probabilistic cultural resources inventory in a 28,428-acre study area in the Castle Valley region of Emery County. The Castle Valley Class II study area includes 28,428 acres of BLM-managed land in Township 21 South, Ranges 8 and 9 East in Emery County.

The primary objectives of the survey’s probabilistic sampling design were to provide information about site distribution on the landscape, site type potentials, and landform use for the general study area. Using a stratified random sampling strategy, twelve 40-acre blocks were identified for full intense-level pedestrian survey (Figure 1). The total survey area was 480 acres, which is 1.7 percent of the full Castle Valley study area. The selected survey blocks were subject to intensive-level archaeological survey in October 2014. In all, six prehistoric sites were identified during the surveys. Three of these sites (42EM004654, 42EM004656, and 42EM004657) are recommended eligible for the NRHP. The remaining three sites (42EM004653, 42EM004655, and 42EM004658) are recommended not eligible for the NRHP.

Study Area

The Castle Valley Class II study area comprises 28,428 acres of BLM-managed land in Township 21 South, Ranges 8 and 9 East in Emery County. The study area is located at the southern end of Castle Valley, immediately east of the Molen Reef and west of the San Rafael Swell. North Salt Wash and the Red Ledges bisect the study area. Three areas of environmental concern (ACECs)—Molen Seep, North Salt Wash, and Dry Wash—intersect the study area. The study area is topographically rugged and contains abundant exposures of bedrock, sand dunes, and associated large rock-fall conducive to the presence of rock art. No permanent, flowing water is found in the study area; however, a complex network of ephemeral drainages would have provided at least intermittent access to fresh water for prehistoric occupants of the region.

In total, 12 randomly identified blocks (survey areas) were selected for full intensive-level survey, collectively covering 480 acres (194.25 hectares [ha]; 1.7 percent) of the 28,428-acre (11,504.40 ha) Castle Valley study area (Table 1). The individual survey areas were selected based on their terrain and spatial relationship to water; therefore, most of the areas contain steep slopes and large elevation changes. Not all of the total 480 acres identified for the survey areas was accessible; therefore, a total of 449.55 acres (181.93 ha) were fully surveyed, 28.39 acres (11.49 ha) received a visual reconnaissance survey, and 2.06 acres (0.83 ha) were not surveyed at all. All the survey areas are on lands administrated by the BLM.

1 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

Table 1. Legal Location of Survey Areas

Survey Area Section(s) Township Range

Area 1 30, 31 21 South 8 East Area 2 29 21 South 8 East Area 3 29, 28 21 South 8 East Area 4 21 21 South 8 East Area 5 28, 33 21 South 8 East Area 6 10 21 South 8 East Area 7 11, 12 21 South 8 East Area 8 14 21 South 8 East Area 9 6 21 South 9 East Area 10 34, 35 21 South 8 East Area 11 31 21 South 9 East Area 12 28, 29 21 South 9 East

2 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

Figure 1. Location of survey areas in the larger Castle Valley study area.

3 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

Figure 2. Example of survey area (Area 11) with a mesa edge and flats area, facing north.

Figure 3. Example of survey area (Area 11) with ephemeral drainages and slopes, facing northeast.

4 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

ENVIRONMENT

The Castle Valley Class II study area comprises 28,428 acres of BLM-managed land in Emery County. The study area is located at the southern end of Castle Valley, immediately east of the Molen Reef and west of the San Rafael Swell. North Salt Wash and the Red Ledges bisect the study area. Sids Mountain Wilderness Study Area borders the east side of the study area.

The study area is located within the larger Colorado Plateau region of eastern Utah. The Colorado Plateau is characterized by large areas of elevated mountains and plateaus, and is drained principally by the Colorado River and its tributaries (Wahlquist 1981:17). Most of the Colorado Plateau region in Utah is dry and desolate, though noted and prized for its spectacular beauty. The San Rafael Swell is an anticline that measures roughly 100 miles north-south and 40 miles east-west within the Colorado Plateau. It is crested by Permian and Kaibab limestone and surrounded by sedimentary rocks (Chronic 1990:33, 38). The San Rafael Swell is bordered by the San Rafael Desert and Book Cliffs to the east, and Fishlake National Forest/Wasatch Plateau to the west.

There are 16 subdivisions of the Colorado Plateau in Utah, including the Mancos Shale Lowlands, which is the area where the Swell is located. The soft, gray siltstone known as Mancos Shale is a result of the deposition of marine and non-marine sediments deposited during the Cretaceous Period, from 144 million years ago to 78 million years ago (Stokes 1986:133). This subdivision is characterized as a relatively level, S-shaped area bound by the San Rafael Swell and the Book Cliffs. Surrounding the northern portion of the San Rafael Swell, a series of concentric hills facing the Swell makes up the interior limits of the region, while the steep talus slopes of the Book Cliffs, below the sandstone ledges of upper Cretaceous deposits, form the region’s western, northern, and eastern exterior. To the south, the Mancos Shale Lowland gently gives way to the Green River Desert and the Salt Anticline physiographic subdivisions of southeastern Utah (Stokes 1986:232). Mancos is known for a high clay content, which swells and shrinks because of changes in precipitation, making it tough sedimentation for vegetation to flourish.

Castle Valley and the surrounding badlands in which the survey areas are located include the Morrison Formation, which dates to the upper Jurassic, from 155 to 148 million years ago (Turner and Peterson 2004:310, 318). Like other sedimentary formations, the Morrison is composed of mudstone, sandstone, siltstone, and limestone in light gray, greens, and red. These were deposited by terrestrial environments generally; however, some marginal marine environments have been noted, but not for the Colorado Plateau members (Turner and Peterson 2004:312, 316). Not only are fossils commonly found in this formation, but uranium ore is also excavated out of this layer. The formation is found throughout the western United States and into Canada; however, the stratigraphy is best known in the Colorado Plateau (Turner and Peterson 2004:311).

Sediments throughout the study area consist primarily of light red to medium brown sandy silts and gravels. Soils are generally thin due to unstable, active erosion in the drainage, sloped, and mesa areas. Along the ridge edges, exposed bedrock is common. Most of the ridgelines, boulders, and bedrock outcrops are conglomerate rocks that are weathering and producing top sediment. The conglomerates are composed of large to small rounded cobbles and smaller gravels and sands. Sedimentary sandstone, siltstones, and shales are common among the ridgelines, mesa edges, boulder outcrops, and some surface sediment cover, but most of the sandstone is mixed with the conglomerate layers. The areas have been composed by and continuously impacted by eolian and alluvial processes, and every area is highly active.

Vegetation in this portion of the San Rafael Swell is dominated by the shadscale and juniper communities. The shadscale community is found along the lower flat bottoms, small mesas, and fan slopes. It consists of low, widely spaced shrubs, grasses, and forbs as well as annuals that are drought resistant and salt tolerant (Wahlquist 1981:31). Among the shrubs present are shadscale (Atriplex

5 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah confertifolia), Mormon tea (Ephedra nevadensis), rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus), gray molly (Kochia americana), and greasewood (Sarcobatus baileyi). Grasses and forbs include galleta grass (Hilaria jamesii), Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides), prickly pear cacti (Opuntia spp.), desert needlegrass (Stipa speciosa), and wild buckwheat (Eriogonum ovalifolium). With sufficient autumn and winter precipitation, the following annuals appear in the spring: cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), cateye (Cryptantha circumscissa), and Russian thistle (Salsola kali). Juniper communities were noted on the larger mesa, ridgetops, and areas near ephemeral water sources. These consist of little sagebrush (Artemisia arbuscula), greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus), skunkbush sumac (Rhus trilobata), Mormon tea, rabbitbrush, various junipers (Juniperus sp., including J. osteosperma), pinions (Pinus sp.), prickly pear cactus, and claret cup cactus (Echinocereus triglochidiatus) (United States Department of Agriculture 2009).

This region of shrubs and grasses in open desert or prairie-like lands is home to a large number of mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds. Small terrestrial animals include numerous species of mice (family Cricetidae), several varieties of kangaroo rat (Dipodomys ordii var.), ground squirrels (Citellus spp.), prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), chipmunks (Eutamias spp.), cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.) and jackrabbits (lepus californicus) (Durrant 1952; Wahlquist 1981:40-41). In the middle- to large-sized mammal range, mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), prong-horned antelope (Antilocapra americana), coyote (Canis latrans), red fox (Vulpes fulva), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), bobcat (Lynx rufus), and mountain lion (Felis concolor) are common (Durrant 1952; Martin et al. 1983:2,5). In addition to the diverse mammal population, the area is home to numerous birds, with the large variety of birds of prey being noteworthy. The openness of the lands, coupled with the numerous small mammals present, makes the area ideal for birds such as the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), American kestrel (Falco sparverius), prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus), and various hawks (Accipiters spp.) (National Geographic Society 1983). The reptile and amphibian population includes various species of salamanders (Ambystoma spp.), lizards (Sceloporus spp.), frog (Rana spp.), toads (Bufo spp.), and snakes, including the Western rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis) (Stebbins 1985).

Temperatures in January average between -13 and -3 degrees Celsius (7 to 27 degrees Fahrenheit), and in July averages are generally between 30 and 38 degrees Celsius (85 and 100 degrees Fahrenheit) (National Weather Service 2014). Likewise, the annual number of frost-free days is subject to marked variability, ranging between 120 to 190 days (Natural Resources Conservation Service 2014). Annual precipitation in the Mancos Shale Lowlands region is scant, averaging only between 15.24 and 30.23 centimeters (cm; 6 to 11.9 inches), but generally not much more than 20.32 cm (8 inches) for the entire area (Wahlquist 1981:66–70). The generally warm desert area in Utah has an average precipitation ranging from 10.6 to 20.3 cm (4 to 8 inches). It is not uncommon in the lowlands of eastern Utah for winter snows to deposit much of the precipitation for a given year, though the majority of precipitation is generally attributed to summer thunderstorm activity (Wahlquist 1981:67).

6 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

Figure 4. Example of dune area (Area 8) vegetation, facing south.

Figure 5. Example of vegetation on top of a mesa (Area 2), facing northwest.

CULTURAL CONTEXT

To assess the periods of significance for the cultural properties expected to be found in the study area, it is crucial to understand specific themes, individuals, and events influential in the region’s past. To this end, a cultural context is presented that addresses the chronological and thematic framework for cultural

7 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah resources that are expected to occur in the study area. Very little data have been gathered from the study area; therefore, a broad cultural context must be utilized until more information is available. Based on a pre-field analysis of file search data, SWCA identified high potential for prehistoric sites, specifically rock art. Although historic sites are known in the surrounding area, no historic sites were identified in the study area. Given the lack of historic sites in the immediate area, the following cultural context focuses on the Prehistoric period.

Regional models of prehistory, settlement patterns, and paleo-environments provide a basis for generating expectations regarding the types of archaeological resources that might occur in a given area. This information also provides a context for evaluating the significance of any identified archaeological remains. The cultural context presented here is tailored to the prehistoric sites and isolates identified during survey. For in-depth information about the historic period in Emery County, see Geary (1996).

The Paleoindian Period (>11,000–8,000 B.P.)

The Paleoindian period is the least understood of all the cultural units in the eastern Great Basin and Colorado Plateau. There is no firm control on the date of the earliest arrival of humans in the region. Based on the few radiocarbon dates available, primarily from Danger Cave (Jennings 1957), an onset for the period of approximately 11,000 B.P. has been judged likely by numerous researchers (Schmitt and Madsen 2002). Very few sites have been systematically investigated from this period, and it is mostly known from the distribution of diagnostic projectile point types and inferences from nearby regions. Diagnostic projectile points consist of fluted types such as Clovis and Folsom as well as large stemmed points most typically called Great Basin Stemmed points (Willig and Aikens 1988). Fluted points are generally thought to represent older types, and stemmed points more recent, but a new analysis of the extant data indicates that this pattern is not well demonstrated (Beck et al. 2004). Although few points of either type have been dated, the dated examples of stemmed points actually appear to be older than fluted points. The analysis is preliminary, but it is clear that the relationship between fluted and stemmed point traditions in the area remains poorly understood.

There is a strong suggestion that the primary adaptation during this period was a focus on the lacustrine and marsh resources created during the regression of Lake Bonneville following the end of the Pleistocene (Schmitt and Madsen 2002; Schroedl 1991; Willig and Aikens 1988). As such, the adaptation appears less focused on large megafauna as is typical in other areas (Kelly and Todd 1988), and is somewhat more generalized, even “Archaic-like” in nature. Indeed, numerous researchers have proposed that the period be called the “Paleoarchaic” period to better capture the characteristics of this adaptation (Jones and Beck 1999; Schmitt and Madsen 2002). Although there is much merit to this argument, the nature of early human adaptations in the region has not yet been fully resolved. Our understanding of subsistence during this period is inferential, based primarily on the location of projectile points found in disparate, non-integrated surveys, and a few very limited excavations (Seddon 2005). No direct evidence of subsistence or systematic demonstration of a focus on lacustrine occupations has been obtained to date. The term “Paleoindian” is retained for the period in this chronology to convey the association with similar time periods in other areas.

Although surface finds of fluted and stemmed points are fairly common in Utah (Copeland and Fike 1988), excavated sites dated to this period are much less common overall (Schroedl 1991), and excavated sites in the study area in particular are extremely rare. Only five sites with Paleoindian components have been excavated in Utah, and these are relatively well reported. These include Paleoindian components at Danger Cave (Jennings 1957), the Lime Ridge Site (Davis 1989), the Montgomery Site (Davis 1985), the Silverhorn Site (Gunnerson 1956), and 42MD300 (Simms and Lindsay 1989). The Hell’n Moriah Clovis Site (42MD1067) has also been reported from the eastern Great Basin (Davis et al. 1996); although this

8 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah site has not been excavated, it did appear from an analysis of the surface assemblage to represent a single- component Clovis site.

The Early Archaic Period (8,000–5,000 B.P.)

The beginning of the Early Archaic period is defined on the basis of a well-documented and dramatic increase in regional temperatures and the onset of a significant drying phase that had dramatic effects on the regional ecosystem ca. 8,000 years before present (B.P.) (Madsen et al. 2001). This transition, which may be more accurately dated to ca. 8,350 B.P., appears to mark one of the most sudden and dramatic environmental changes in the climatic record for the region. For example, in west-central Utah, Old River Bed streams (feeding Lake Bonneville) ceased to flow, the Old River Bed marsh system disappeared, and plant and animal diversity was greatly reduced (Schmitt and Madsen 2002). Although there had been climatic changes during previous periods, this change was extremely dramatic and serves as a good marker for exploring any potential adaptive changes that may have occurred in tandem with the environmental change.

Human populations during the Early Archaic period appear to have relied on a highly mobile, generalized hunting and gathering strategy. Small thermal features with low amounts of fire-affected rock are the most common type of cooking technology. Ground stone technology appears to have been an important component of food preparation, suggesting an emphasis on seed processing. Projectile points confidently associated with this time period are difficult to identify. Few projectile points of any type have been confidently dated to this range, and points previously considered associated with the Early Archaic period, such as Humboldt points, now appear to be predominantly associated with later periods.

The Middle Archaic Period (5,000–3,000 B.P.)

Around approximately 5,000 B.P., new projectile points appear to have been used in greater proportions than previously. It appears that Humboldt and Gypsum points are used primarily after 5,000 B.P. (Reed 2005). Although the reasons for this change in point styles are unknown, the dramatic change in styles of hunting gear suggests a sufficient change in adaptation to define a separate period. There is a noticeable increase in the frequency of radiocarbon dates from the area for time periods that are slightly earlier than 5,000 B.P., at approximately 5,500 B.P., which may suggest a population rise or migration or other changes. However, this rise is followed by a decline in radiocarbon date frequency at about 4,500 B.P., and it is not entirely clear whether these fluctuations in dates accurately represent fluctuations in the prehistoric human populations.

Many other aspects of the period appear similar to those of the previous time period. Small features, relatively high proportions of ground stone, and highly mobile populations appear to have been the norm. As more sites from this time period are excavated, it may become easier to identify other potential changes in adaptation. Furthermore, the dates for the onset and end of the period may require slight revision, particularly if the radiocarbon evidence continues to suggest a rise in population at about 5,500, rather than 5,000, B.P.

The Late Archaic Period (3,000–2,000 B.P.)

The most dramatic changes in adaptation appear to have occurred at the end of the Archaic period, at approximately 3,000 B.P. This period appears to include the onset of a major cooling period in the eastern Great Basin dated to approximately 2,700 radiocarbon years (RCY) B.P. This period is marked by a cooling event, indicated by rising lake levels and a number of vegetation changes (Madsen et al. 2001).

9 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

Notable changes in subsistence technology also occurred at this time. Large thermal features became much more common after 3,000 B.P., comprising about 25 percent of all features. The occurrence of fire- affected rock is also more frequent; features having large amounts of fire-affected rock become much more ubiquitous as well. These changes probably reflect differences in subsistence activities and adaptations. Although it is difficult to date precisely, there appears to be a decline in the proportion of ground stone as well. This decline may have begun earlier than 3,000 B.P., but it is pronounced by this time. There is also another rise in radiocarbon date frequencies from this time period. Overall, this period appears to reflect significant changes in both the environment and human adaptations to the environment that merit a separate designation.

The Terminal Archaic (2,000–1,500 B.P.)

Because there was undoubtedly no dramatic “end” to the Archaic way of life, it is difficult to define a terminal date for the Archaic period. During the transition, sites with early cultigens, some ceramic use, and other factors characteristic of later periods begin to appear. Undoubtedly there was a transitional time when changes in settlement, subsistence, and other adaptations began to occur. For this reason, it is appropriate to define a transitional period, called the Terminal Archaic, here, following Schmitt and Madsen (Schmitt and Madsen 2002), between the two general eras. This period may, in fact, prove to be a rich one for the investigation of social change in the region, because many of the later dramatic changes seen in the archaeological record (adoption of more sedentary lifeways by some groups, use of bow and arrow technology, use of pottery, use of cultigens) appear to have their origins in this time period. Certainly, by 1,500 B.P. or so, the use of pottery, cultigens, arrow points, house structures, and other adaptations suggest that a major change had occurred for many populations. The designation of 1,500 B.P. as the onset of a new period in the eastern Great Basin seems well supported.

The Formative Period (1,500–800 B.P.)

The most dramatic change in the entire prehistoric record of the region took place during the first millennium A.D. Populations in the Great Basin and adjacent areas began to adopt agriculture, sedentary lifeways, ceramics, and other material culture changes. These changes were not uniform over the entire area and support the argument that attempting to define “cultures” or “peoples” on the basis of trait lists is not a productive endeavor (D. Madsen and S. R. Simms 1998). Rather, the period is intended to denote a time frame during which many people began investment in new lifeways. These changes would have undoubtedly affected all peoples, including those who did not adopt the lifeways. Thus, the period can be distinguished on the basis of the changes, even if they were piecemeal. Although the term “Formative” carries evolutionary or developmental connotations, it is used here as a general term due to its widespread use in nearby regional chronologies (Massimino and Metcalfe 1999), and is employed here in general reference to the Fremont complex.

The term “Fremont” has traditionally been applied to populations in the eastern Great Basin and northern Colorado Plateau that began to adopt agriculture and sedentary lifestyles. Generally, the Fremont culture was present from A.D. 600 to 1300 in the eastern Great Basin (Barlow 2002; Coltrain and Leavitt 2002; Simms 1990). Although there is evidence for considerable adaptive diversity in the eastern Great Basin and surrounding areas throughout prehistory, this is especially the case for the Fremont period. As Madsen and Simms (1998) note, groups attributed to the Fremont complex adopted a variety of subsistence and mobility strategies, and individuals within those groups may have pursued a range of strategies within their lifetimes (see also Barlow 2002; Coltrain and Leavitt 2002). Fremont sites range from fairly large, settled villages, particularly on either side of the Wasatch Plateau, to more ephemeral camps that suggest a high degree of mobility; caves also continued to be used during the Fremont period (e.g., Aikens 1970; Bryan 1977). The full range of subsistence strategies from pure hunting and gathering

10 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah to relatively intensive farming is evident at Fremont sites. Barlow (2002) suggests that such variability in the importance of agriculture was due to variability over time and space in the productivity of wild resources, noting that intensive agriculture would have been economical only when and where high-return wild resources were encountered infrequently.

The Late Prehistoric Period (800–200 B.P.)

Beginning ca. 800 B.P. throughout the Great Basin, small triangular arrow points (Desert Side-notched and Cottonwood Triangular) along with a distinctive brown ware pottery called “Intermountain Brownware” or “Shoshonean Ware” become more common. The sudden appearance of these ceramics and other aspects of material culture have been taken as evidence of an expansion of Numic-speaking peoples into the region from the Mojave Desert area (Bettinger and Baumhoff 1982; Madsen 1975; Rhode 1994). Although the exact nature of the change in material culture, and whether it is a result of population movement, remains an open debate (Aikens and Witherspoon 1986; Brewster 2003; Lyneis 1982), there is no doubt that significant changes occur in the archaeological record of the region for this period.

Perhaps the most significant difference between occupations of the Formative and Late Prehistoric periods is the abandonment of maize agriculture. Although the Late Prehistoric period has been relatively poorly investigated, the predominant evidence is that groups in the region were primarily mobile hunter- gatherers, possibly with the highest level of mobility of any prehistoric group. Certainly by the period of historical contact with Euro-American cultures in the late AD 1700s, the present ethnographically known groups inhabited the region. These primarily consisted of the Ute, Shoshone, and the Paiute, all groups that speak Numic languages. The early contact period is poorly known, and the record becomes primarily historical at that point. A phase designation has been employed here to distinguish sites that may provide direct evidence of contact-period interactions.

The Protohistoric Phase (400–150 B.P.)

At some point between the earliest Euro-American contact in the broader western region (during the late sixteenth century) and the onset of the reservation period (in the 1870s), ancestors of the region’s historical native occupants would have been living in traditional manners within a changing context of increasing Euro-American expansion into the region. The processes of cultural change that would have occurred during this period—changes in material culture, the introduction of the horse, the impacts of infectious disease, war and conflict, and other factors—are significant and interesting, and the period merits a separate designation. However, it has proven difficult to identify unequivocal evidence of interactions. Numerous sites date to the period after the arrival of explorers in the Southwest during the sixteenth century; however, few appear substantially different from sites prior to this time. Exceptions include the possible contact-era occupations at the Green Springs Sites (Westfall et al. 1987), and the possible ancestral Southern Paiute ceremonial site of 42IN1213 (Dames & Moore 1994). Nonetheless, the concept of a Protohistoric Phase is used to designate sites that contain evidence indicating aboriginal peoples interacting with Euro-American populations (trade beads, coins, etc.). PREVIOUS RESEARCH

SWCA’s Kiera Westwater conducted a file search on April 4, 2014, at the UDSH. File search results are listed in Tables 2 and 3. In all, only six archaeological projects have been reported in this nearly 30,000- acre area (Table 2). From these projects, only 13 archaeological sites have been documented (Table 3). None of the previously recorded sites or projects intersect the 12 survey areas (Appendix A). The map depicting literature review results in the study area is provided in Appendix A.

11 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

In addition, General Land Office (GLO) plat maps and several geographic information system (GIS) layers were examined for potential cultural resources. These layers, available from state and federal agencies, include National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) properties, Utah historic trails, Utah historic districts, historical topographic maps, ACECs, and other historical aerial imagery. From these resources, three ACECs (Molen Seep, North Salt Wash, and Dry Wash) are included in the study area. No other additional cultural resources were found while searching the previously described GIS layers during the file search.

Table 2. Previous Projects that Intersect the Castle Valley Study Area

Project Report Title and Reference Consultant Number

U00BL0527 Dog Hollow Dino Site Bureau Of Land Management U01BL0427 Red Hole Dinosaur Bureau Of Land Management U01MQ0081 Inventory of the Moore Road (County Road 1612) Montgomery Archaeological Consultants U78NI0506 Clearance Survey of Seismic Exploration Lines: Pacific Museum of Northern Arizona West Exploration Co. Denver Colorado U79AF0498 Archaeological Survey in the San Rafael Swell Area Archaeological Environmental Research Corp. U89LA0267 Celsius Federal 8-1 Well Pad and Access Road La Plata Archaeological Consultants

Table 3. Previous Recorded Sites in the Castle Valley Study Area

Site Number Eligibility Site Type

42EM000177 Undetermined Prehistoric 42EM000896 National Register quality Prehistoric 42EM000898 Undetermined Prehistoric 42EM000899 Non-significant Prehistoric 42EM000900 Non-significant Prehistoric 42EM000901 Non-significant Prehistoric 42EM001775 National Register quality Prehistoric 42EM001776 National Register quality Prehistoric 42EM002172 Not available at SHPO Unknown 42EM002174 Not available at SHPO Unknown 42EM002175 Not available at SHPO Unknown 42EM002176 Not available at SHPO Unknown 42EM002179* Non-significant Prehistoric 42EM003258 No information available No information available

*Site location information not available

METHODS

Remarkably little formal archaeological research has been conducted in the Castle Valley study area. Accordingly, the range of site types present and the distribution of those sites across the landscape are not

12 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah known. The stratified random sample survey used here was designed to provide a baseline characterization as to the range of variation of site types present in the Castle Valley study area, and to provide an initial assessment as to the expected distribution of those sites.

To begin, the Castle Valley study area was divided into 40-acre blocks. This grid was created in GIS software using the ET GeoWizards Basic-Vector Grid tool. The extent, coordinate system, and spatial reference of the grid was based on the study area; the grid type was set at polygon; and the grid size was based on the dimensions of a 40-acre square. Once the set of grid polygons was created, any blocks that did not intersect the study area were removed. Each block was assigned an identification number. Any blocks that only partially intersected the study area were attributed “partial,” and all blocks fully within the study area were attributed as “complete.” Only those blocks completely within the study area were considered further.

Topographically rugged portions of the study area conducive to rock art were identified by visual GIS analysis using a combination of aerial imagery, shaded relief, and topographic maps. Individual blocks were then attributed as either intersecting rugged terrain or not. This information was then displayed on maps and exported as tables for final selection.

Because availability of water was an important limiting factor in the prehistoric use of any desert region, the presence of permanent or ephemeral water sources was considered an important variable to explore in the Castle Valley study area. To determine the presence or absence of water, the 40-acre block grid was overlain with most recent set of National Hydrography Dataset (NHD) data. Individual blocks were then attributed as either intersecting a water source or not. Again, information was then displayed on maps and exported as tables for final selection.

The presence or absence of topographically rugged terrain and the presence or absence of water sources were used to characterize each 40-acre block as one of three types: 1) blocks with rugged terrain only, 2) blocks with available water only, or 3) blocks with neither rugged terrain nor water.

Four blocks were selected at random from each of the three study area stratifications described above for a total of 12 selected blocks. Individual blocks were selected from each stratification type by assigning a random number to each block containing the characteristics of interest using the random number generator in Microsoft Excel, sorting blocks in ascending order by random number, and then selecting the first four blocks. The locations of selected blocks and the stratification criteria from which each block was drawn are shown in Appendix B and Figure 1. In total, 12 randomly identified blocks were selected for survey, collectively covering 480 acres (1.7 percent) of the 28,428-acre Castle Valley study area.

Each selected block was surveyed for cultural resources at an intensive level consistent with BLM guidelines for Class III cultural resources inventory. The cultural resources survey was was accomplished using parallel pedestrian transects spaced 15 m (50 feet) apart across the survey area to identify any cultural resources. Surveyors visually inspected the ground on each side to an approximate distance of 7.5 m (25 feet) per side. Several of the survey areas were selected because of their rough terrain, which is conducive for rock art. Given the topography of the area, steep slopes were encountered in most of the survey areas. SWCA attempted to investigate these areas with a higher level of scrutiny regardless of normal slope exclusion protocols. When areas were not safely accessible by any means, the use of binoculars was employed. These are the “reconnaissance”-labeled areas in the survey results map (Appendix C). The reconnaissance areas included steep slopes that the crew was unable to climb, and slopes with unstable footing. These areas had to be close enough to be visually surveyed with binoculars. Additionally, if SWCA was not able to investigate an area due to unstable slope conditions and there was a section of the survey area above the slope that could not be fully investigated using the reconnaissance method, these were labeled as “not surveyed,” and the areas were not physically or visually investigated at that time (Appendix C). The nature of investigating rough terrain does make maintaining 15-m

13 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah transects difficult, so in these areas the crew leads documented their survey lines using the GPS units. In ArcMap, the full buffer of a two- or three-person transect was placed along these lines as appropriate, and these were used to calculate the full area surveyed (see Appendix C). In all other areas, 15-m transects could be maintained without difficulty and were recorded as fully surveyed. Field crews used Trimble GeoExplorer XT GPS units and tablet computers with survey area shapefiles to navigate the survey areas. The GPS units were uploaded with an SWCA-created data dictionary so that survey area data and cultural resources data could be collected while surveying. Trimble’s Pathfinder Office software was used to process the GPS data in the office. The GPS data were differentially corrected and were then exported in Esri’s ArcView shapefile format using the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Zone 12N North American Datum (NAD) 83 datum coordinate system. A personal geodatabase was generated in Esri’s ArcGIS 10.1. The shapefiles were loaded into the personal geodatabase and cleaned, and the attribute table of the cultural resources database was then populated with the appropriate values. All maps for this report were generated using ArcGIS 10.1.

When cultural resources were identified during the survey, archaeologists applied the BLM guidelines to determine if the resources constituted a site or isolate. All resources were documented to the standards of the Utah State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO) and BLM. Sites were documented on Intermountain Antiquities Computer System (IMACS) site forms, and isolates were recorded on an isolate form in the tablet computers. All linear cultural resources were to be documented as per the Utah Professional Archaeological Council linear sites guidelines; however, no linear resources were identified in the study areas. Sites were delineated regardless of project and landownership boundaries. If a site extended into an area that was not accessible, it was clearly indicated on the site record.

Site and isolated occurrence (IO) definitions given by BLM guidelines were followed throughout the survey (Bureau of Land Management 2002:6). In general, a site is defined as a location of purposeful prehistoric or historic human activity. An activity is considered to have been purposeful if it resulted in a deposit of cultural materials beyond the level of one or a few artifacts. Locations of human activity not classifiable as sites by this definition were considered IOs. BLM definitions are as follows:

Sites should contain remains of past human activity that are at least 50 years old and should consist of one or more of the following: 1. At least 10 artifacts of a single class (e.g., 10 sherds) within a 10-m diameter, except when all pieces appear to originate from a single source (e.g., one ceramic pot, one glass bottle) 2. At least 15 artifacts that include at least two classes of artifact types (e.g., sherds, nail, glass) within a 10-m-diameter area 3. One or more archaeological features in temporal association with any number of artifacts 4. Two or more temporally associated archaeological features without artifacts (Bureau of Land Management 2002:6)

In applying Criteria 3 and 4 above, rock piles should be recorded as sites only if there is reason to believe that they are aboriginal. Historical rock piles such as mining cairns may be recorded as sites if they are believed to be of significant importance. Similarly, single hearths, small rock rings, or small rock alignments without any associated cultural material or without potential for yielding dates or faunal or floral samples need not be recorded as sites unless they are believed to be of sufficient importance in the area they are found. Professional judgment is always to be exercised when applying the criteria to cases that are questionable (Bureau of Land Management 2002:6).

When prehistoric lithic debitage was identified as an IO or a site, a basic methodology based on percentage of cortex and size was used to classify the debitage as tertiary, secondary, or primary. Tertiary flakes are defined as having no cortex (0 percent), and generally range in size from 0.5 cm or less to 2 cm

14 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah in diameter. Secondary flakes are defined as having less than 20 percent cortex, and generally range in size from 0.5 cm or less to 4 cm in diameter. Primary flakes are defined as having more than 20 percent cortex, and are generally more than 2 cm in diameter. All debitage was accounted for on lithic tally sheets included with each site.

Site recording included a written description of a site’s general location and setting, as well as a description and sketches of the temporally diagnostic artifacts and features observed on the site. Recording also included creating a site sketch map; photographing the site, features, and diagnostic artifacts; and mapping the site boundaries, datum, features, and diagnostic artifacts via GPS unit. All photographs were taken using a high-resolution digital camera. Sites were documented on a combination of IMACS paper forms and tablet computers. SWCA documented digital datums and did not place physical datums for this project. Isolates were recorded on tablet computers as well. When an IO or isolated feature (IF) was located during a survey, the field crew stopped the inventory and recorded the IO/IF on an IO/IF form in the tablet, took a digital photograph of the IO/IF, and then recorded its location on a GPS unit before continuing the inventory.

All data from the tablet computers were collected in an application that incorporates all information required on the IMACS forms. Tablet data were uploaded to SWCA’s in-house IMACS generator when a survey was complete. The inventory results maps are presented in Appendix C; the complete IMACS forms for the sites are presented in Appendix D. No artifacts were collected during this inventory.

Figure 6. Example of steep slope (Area 2) that was surveyed using the reconnaissance method, facing southeast.

INVENTORY RESULTS AND EVALUATIONS

SWCA conducted an intensive-level pedestrian survey of all 12 survey areas between October 23 and 27, 2014. SWCA conducted intensive-level surveys for 449.55 acres (181.93 ha), visual reconnaissance-level surveys for 28.39 acres (11.49 ha), and did not survey 2.06 acres (0.83 ha) at all. SWCA archaeologists identified six previously undocumented prehistoric sites and 22 cultural IOs/IFs.

15 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

Cultural Resources Isolated Occurrences

In all, 10 prehistoric IOs (IO-01 through IO-07, IO-09 through IO-11), one historic isolate (IO-08), and 11 historic isolated features (IF-01 through IF-11) were observed during survey.

Table 4. Isolated Features and Isolated Occurrences Observed During Survey

Final SWCA Field Isolate Description Topographic Description Isolate Number Number

IF-01 RJ-IF-01 IF-01 consists of a juniper post mining claim with an associated IF-01 was located on an alluvial tobacco tin. The tobacco tin is 4.5 × 3-4/16 × 14/16 inches. There fan. is another claim in the viewshed, 15 m to east. The juniper post is buried in the ground upright and lined with naturally occurring boulders.

IF-02 LB-IF-04 IF-02 consists of a rock cairn composed of approximately 15 IF-02 was located on the talus subangular tabular rocks. It measures 22 × 24 inches. It has IF- slope below IF-03. 03 in the viewshed. The cairn also contains a broken aqua glass bottle with an Anchor Hocking Glass Company mark. These date from 1838 to the present (Toulouse 1971). The bottle is machine- made with side paneling, and the base is stippled.

IF-03 LB-IF-03 IF-03 is a rock cairn composed of approximately 24 medium- IF-03 was located on the edge sized tabular rocks. It measures approximately 30 × 30 inches. of a mesa ledge. IF-02 is in the viewshed to the southwest and downslope. IF-04 LB-IF-02 IF-04 is a rock cairn composed of naturally occurring subangular IF-04 was located on the edge tabular small boulders. There are three rocks that measure of a mesa ledge. approximately 20 × 20 inches. IF-05 LB-IF-01 IF-05 is a rock cairn composed of 15 naturally occurring IF-05 was located on a talus subangular small boulders of various sizes and shapes. No other slope among large boulders. cairns are visible. It measures 23 × 33 inches. IF-06 LB-IF-05 IF-06 was located on the edge IF-06 is a rock cairn with no associated artifacts. It is composed of a finger ridge above a of approximately 10 subangular tabular small boulders. It drainage, and in the viewshed measures 21 × 23 inches. of IF-07. IF-07 LB-IF-06 IF-07 is a rock cairn composed of approximately 10 subangular IF-07 was located on the slope tabular small boulders. It measures 23 × 27 inches. It is in the of a finger ridge, above viewshed of IF-05. drainages on either side. IF-08 LB-IF-07 IF-08 is a historic mining claim. It consists of a collapsed rock cairn with a crushed sanitary can. The cairn is composed of This collapsed IF was located approximately 13 tabular, subangular small- and very-small on an alluvial fan. boulders. It measures 14 × 47 inches. IF-09 LB-IF-08 IF-09 is a historic cairn composed of tabular sandstone topped with a conglomerate boulder. It measures 30 × 70 inches. It is associated with a glass jar with paper inside. The glass jar has an Owens-Illinois maker’s mark that dates from 1929 to 1954, and a IF-09 was located atop a large cursive “Duraglas” signature embossed on the side, which began boulder on a talus slope. in the 1940s (Toulouse 1971:403). It has a metal screw-top that could not be opened. The bottle measures 4- 2/16 × 2-4/16 inches. IF-10 LB-IF-09 IF-10 consists of a cairn composed of seven tabular sandstone IF-10 was located on top of slabs. It measures 40 × 50 inches. sandstone bedrock. IF-11 RI-IF-02 IF-11 consists of a milled 4 × 4 post in seven sandstone slabs. IF-11 was located on the crest The width of the rocks is 2.5 feet. The post is 3 feet tall. Another

16 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

post is located to the east and is 2 feet tall. of a petrified sand dune. IO-01 RJ-IO-03 IO-01 was located on the IO-01 consists of a light brown CCS Stage 3 biface. It measures bottom of an ephemeral 11.5 × 3.5 × 2.2 cm. drainage in an alluvial plain. IO-02 RJ-IO-01 IO-02 was located in an alluvial IO-02 consists of one light brown CCS tertiary flake. area eroding downslope. IO-03 LB-IO-03 The flakes were observed on IO-03 consists of two translucent CCS tertiary flakes. the base of a slope. IO-04 LB-IO-01 IO-04 has been impacted by IO-04 consists of one gray CCS tertiary flake and one brown CCS alluvial processes, which are tertiary flake. washing the flakes downslope. IO-05 LB-IO-02 IO-05 consists of one mottled gray and light red Stage 4 CCS IO-05 was observed eroding biface. It has a lenticular cross section and a random flaking down a talus slope. pattern. It measures 5.0 × 4.7 × 1.9 cm. IO-06 LB-IO-04 IO-06 was located on the edge IO-06 consists of one white CCS tertiary flake with lichen on it. of a butte. IO-07 LB-IO-07 These cores were located on a IO-07 consists of two tested cores. Both are red and black CCS slope in an area impacted by with 45 percent cortex. They measure 4 × 4 × 4.5 cm. They are heavy alluvial and colluvial located in an area with a lot of natural, unmodified CCS. processes. IO-08 LB-IO-05 These historic artifacts were The single historic IO consists of two crushed three-hinge located on a stream terrace that tobacco tins and one crushed sanitary can. No measurements is impacted by heavy alluvial could be obtained. processes. IO-09 LB-IO-06 IO-09 consists of six ceramic sherds from the same vessel. These are all gray ware body sherds except for one shoulder fragment and one rim. The shoulder measures 5.5 × 5.0 × 0.5 cm and the rim measures 1.8 × 2.5 × 0.7 cm. None of the sherds These ceramics were located have any finish, paint, or patterning. They all have a lighter gray on an alluvial terrace. exterior and darker gray interior with a dark gray core. The temper is coarse-grained subangular basalt (around 0.2 cm) with light-grain sand. There was no evidence of the construction method. IO-10 LB-IO-08 IO-10 consists of one gray tertiary CCS flake. IO-10 was located in an arroyo. IO-11 RJ-IO-02 IO-11 consists of two red CCS pieces of shatter and five white IO-11 was located in a drainage tertiary CCS flakes. eroding downslope.

Note: CCS = cryptocrystalline silicate

Sites

Six prehistoric sites (42EM004653 through 42EM004658) were recorded during the survey. The IMACS forms for these sites are included as Appendix D.

SITE 42EM004653

Site Type/Function: Prehistoric artifact scatter

Period: Unknown prehistoric

Eligibility: Recommended not eligible

Site 42EM004653 is a newly documented, moderately dense prehistoric artifact scatter on the slope of a mesa top, west of Bellevue Flats and north of Red Hole Draw in the Red Ledges area of the San Rafael Swell. The site measures 76 × 38 m. Vegetation consists of juniper, pinyon, rabbitbrush, and Mormon tea, with shadscale in the surrounding areas. Surface soil consists of light red sand with approximately 35

17 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah percent subrounded pebbles and gravels, and less than 19 percent subrounded to subangular small shale boulders. The site is partially located in an ephemeral wash; therefore, there is potential for subsurface artifacts, but they would likely not retain their original spatial integrity. The site is in fair condition but is being heavily impacted by alluvial processes, which are washing artifacts downslope.

The artifact assemblage consists of five bifaces (P-01, P-02, P-03, P-05, and P-06), one core (P-04), and approximately 50 pieces of debitage. The flakes are primarily tertiary with some shatter present. The lithic material consists primarily of translucent, gray, mottled light red, and light gray cryptocrystalline silicate (CCS). Some white CCS and white and light red quartzite were also observed. Maximum density observed was four flakes per square meter. No features or temporally diagnostic tools were observed. The site is eroding downslope, and most of the artifacts are located along an active slope on the southern end of the site.

National Register of Historic Places Eligibility

Site 42EM004653 is a prehistoric artifact scatter on a mesa-top slope in the Red Ledges area of the San Rafael Swell. The site is in fair condition, but alluvial and other erosional processes are moving materials from their original context. Although six tools (five bifaces and a core) are present at the site, the general assemblage indicates an unknown aboriginal cultural affiliation. Site 42EM004653 is not associated with either “a specific event marking an important moment in American prehistory or history and a pattern of events or a historic trend that made a significant contribution to the development of a community, a State, or the nation” (National Park Service 1997:12). Site 42EM004653 does not have any association with any “individuals whose activities are demonstrably important within a local, State, or national historic context” (National Park Service 1997:14). Site 42EM004653 does not have any features or structures; therefore, it does not reflect any distinctive architectural or engineering characteristics, patterns, types, or styles. The site overall does not “embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction; represent the work of a master; possess high artistic values; or represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction” (National Park Service 1997:14). Therefore, 42EM004653 is recommended not eligible for the NRHP under Criterion A, B, or C.

Site 42EM004653 is located on top of a mesa and along an active slope, and has been impacted by alluvial and colluvial erosion. There is limited potential for subsurface artifacts; however, they would likely not retain their original context and their spatial integrity would be comprised. Thus the information that could be gathered from subsurface artifacts at the site would contain little significant information to the overall site composition. No temporally diagnostic artifacts were observed; therefore, no temporally associated research questions about the San Rafael can be answered. Site 42MD004653 is unlikely to “have, or have had, information to contribute to our understanding of human history or prehistory, and the information must be considered important” (National Park Service 1997:21). Therefore, 42EM004653 is recommended not eligible for the NRHP under Criterion D.

In summary, 42EM004653 is recommended not eligible for the NRHP under any criterion.

SITE 42EM004654

Site Type/Function: Prehistoric artifact scatter

Period: Unknown prehistoric

Eligibility: Recommended eligible under Criterion D

Site 42EM4654 is a newly recorded sparse prehistoric lithic scatter located in an alcove above North Salt Wash in the Red Ledges area of the San Rafael Swell. The site measures 20 × 19 m. Vegetation consists

18 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah of a typical shadscale community with shadscale, greasewood, small sagebrush, small grasses, and rabbitbrush in the surrounding areas. Surface sediment consists of light brown silty sand with approximately 5 to 75 percent subrounded pebbles. Sediment in the alcove consists of vegetation duff and animal pellets. The site is located in an alcove and has eroded downslope, with two ephemeral drainages observed. Inside the alcove, there is obvious sedimentation from sediments and vegetation brought in by packrats, animal pellets, and roof fall. The site is in fair condition, but is being heavily impacted by colluvial and alluvial processes, which are washing artifacts downslope.

Artifacts at the site include approximately 14 pieces of debitage manufactured from CCS and quartzite, and a Stage 5 biface (P-01), possibly the stem of a long-stemmed projectile point. Tertiary flakes dominate the debitage assemblage, with minimal secondary flakes and shatter also present. The lithic material consists of predominantly white CCS; however, red CCS and mottled white and red quartzite were also observed. No concentrations or features were observed.

NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES ELIGIBILITY

Site 42EM4654 is a newly recorded prehistoric lithic scatter in an alcove of a tabletop ridge in the San Rafael Swell area. The site is in fair condition, and has been impacted by erosion and animal inhabitants causing sedimentation. Site 42EM4654 is not associated with either “a specific event marking an important moment in American prehistory or history and a pattern of events or a historic trend that made a significant contribution to the development of a community, a State, or the nation” (National Park Service 1997:12). Site 42EM4654 does not have any association with any “individuals whose activities are demonstrably important within a local, State, or national historic context” (National Park Service 1997:14). Site 42EM4654 does not have any features or structures; therefore, it does not reflect any distinctive architectural or engineering characteristics, patterns, types, or styles. The site overall does not “embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction; represent the work of a master; possess high artistic values; or represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction” (National Park Service 1997:17). Therefore, 42EM4654 is recommended not eligible for the NRHP under Criterion A, B, or C.

Site 42EM4654 is located in an alcove with a high potential for subsurface cultural materials. Given the high potential for more buried artifacts, the site could be constrained to a specific prehistoric time period and address questions pertaining to logistic land use in the Swell during that time period. Additional investigations at the site are likely to yield information important to our understanding of prehistoric activity in the San Rafael Swell, especially around ephemeral water sources. Therefore, 42EM4654 is likely to “have, or have had, information to contribute to our understanding of human history or prehistory, and the information must be considered important” (National Park Service 1997:21). Site 42EM4654 is recommended eligible for the NRHP under Criterion D.

In summary, SWCA recommends 42MD004654 eligible for the NRHP under Criterion D.

SITE 42EM004655

Site Type/Function: Prehistoric artifact scatter

Period: Unknown prehistoric

Eligibility: Recommended not eligible

Site 42EM004655 is a newly documented, moderately dense prehistoric artifact scatter located on the top and edge of a mesa near Red Hole Draw in the Red Ledges area of the San Rafael Swell. The site measures 63 × 33 m. Vegetation consists of junipers with some bunchgrasses, rabbitbrush, Mormon tea,

19 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah and unknown flowers, with shadscale in the surrounding areas. Surface sediment consists of light brown silty sand with a layer of approximately 90 percent subrounded pebbles and gravels, and 3 percent sandstone and conglomerate boulders. The site is located on the edge of a mesa on bedrock, with some ephemeral drainages running through it. The site is in fair condition, but is being heavily impacted by alluvial processes as well as recreational use (all-terrain vehicle trails).

The artifact assemblage consists of one biface (P-01), one core (P-02), and approximately 130 pieces of debitage. The flakes are primarily tertiary with some secondary flakes; however, one primary flake is present. The lithic material consists primarily of white CCS; however, red, mottled red, orange, purple, mottled white CCS, and white quartzite were also observed. The maximum density observed in C-01 was approximately 55 flakes per square meter. The debitage in C-01 appears to have been deposited by alluvial processes, not anthropogenically. C-01 consists of 55 flakes. Approximately 75 flakes were observed outside the concentration; the rest of the site had a density of 1 flake per square meter. No features or temporally diagnostic tools were observed.

National Register of Historic Places Eligibility

Site 42EM004655 is a newly recorded prehistoric artifact scatter located on a mesa top in the Red Ledges area of the San Rafael Swell. The site is in fair condition due to impacts from recreational use as well as alluvial processes moving materials from their original context. Although two tools (P-01 and P-02) are present at the site, no temporally diagnostic artifacts were observed; therefore, the general site assemblage indicates an unknown aboriginal cultural affiliation. Site 42EM004655 is not associated with either “a specific event marking an important moment in American prehistory or history and a pattern of events or a historic trend that made a significant contribution to the development of a community, a State, or the nation” (National Park Service 1997:12). Site 42EM004655 does not have any association with any “individuals whose activities are demonstrably important within a local, State, or national historic context” (National Park Service 1997:14). Site 42EM004655 does not have any constructed features or structures; therefore, it does not reflect any distinctive architectural or engineering characteristics, patterns, types, or styles. The site overall does not “embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction; represent the work of a master; possess high artistic values; or represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction” (National Park Service 1997:14). Therefore, 42EM004655 is recommended not eligible for the NRHP under Criterion A, B, or C.

Site 42EM004655 is a surface manifestation located on a mesa top slope in the Red Ledges area of the San Rafael Swell. It has no potential for subsurface cultural fill because the site is located in a bedrock area. The lithic tools and debitage assemblage cannot provide important temporal nor lithic technological information; therefore, specific questions pertaining to prehistoric time periods cannot be assessed with the data from this site. Consequentially, 42EM004655 is unlikely to “have, or have had, information to contribute to our understanding of human history or prehistory, and the information must be considered important” (National Park Service 1997:21). Therefore, 42EM004655 is recommended not eligible for the NRHP under Criterion D.

In summary, 42EM004655 is recommended not eligible for the NRHP under any criterion.

SITE 42EM004656

Site Type/Function: Prehistoric artifact scatter

Period: Formative

20 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

Eligibility: Recommended eligible under Criterion D

Site 42EM004656 is a newly documented prehistoric artifact scatter located at the edge of the Red Ledges Mesa on a ridge above Red Hole Draw to the northwest, in the Red Ledges area of the San Rafael Swell. The site measures 27 × 13 m. Vegetation consists of low sagebrush, Mormon tea, bunchgrasses, and unknown flowers with small junipers and bushes in the surrounding areas. Surface sediment consists of light red sand with approximately 45 percent subangular sandstone and shale slates. The site is located in an alcove; however, a portion of the site is eroding out of the alcove and down a wash into an ephemeral drainage. The depositional context of the part of the site inside the alcove appears to be a product of packrats and roof fall. The site is in fair condition because of these processes.

The artifact assemblage consists of lithic debitage, lithic tools (P-01 through P-05), ground stone, and ceramics. Five lithic tools were observed on the slope of the site. Of these, there is one Elko Corner- notched projectile point (P-01); two are pieces of ground stone (P-02 and P-04); one biface (P-03); and a drill (P-05). Approximately 32 pieces of debitage were recorded at the site. Shatter and primary flakes dominate the debitage assemblage, with minimal primary and secondary flakes present. The lithic materials consist primarily of orange and red mottled CCS, translucent with red CCS, and orange and white CCS with other colors and materials present. Four gray ware ceramic sherds were observed at the site, most likely from the same pot. No features or concentrations were recorded at the site. Given the range of artifacts found at the site and the lack of structures, it is possible that the alcove could have been used as a cache or storage area for seasonal use.

NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES ELIGIBILITY

Site 42EM004656 is a newly recorded prehistoric artifact scatter in an alcove and on a slope of a mesa on a ridge above Red Hole Draw in the San Rafael Swell. The site is in fair condition, and has been impacted by erosion and animal inhabitants. Given the projectile point type and the gray ware ceramics, the site is associated with the Formative period (Bright 2006). Although the site contains temporally diagnostic artifacts that can be dated to the Formative period, it is not specific enough to relate to a singular event or person. Site 42EM004656 is not associated with either “a specific event marking an important moment in American prehistory or history and a pattern of events or a historic trend that made a significant contribution to the development of a community, a State, or the nation” (National Park Service 1997:12). Site 42EM004656 does not have any association with any “individuals whose activities are demonstrably important within a local, State, or national historic context” (National Park Service 1997:14). Site 42EM004656 does not have any features or structures; therefore, it does not reflect any distinctive architectural or engineering characteristics, patterns, types, or styles. The site overall does not “embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction; represent the work of a master; possess high artistic values; or represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction” (National Park Service 1997:17). Therefore, 42EM004656 is recommended not eligible for the NRHP under Criterion A, B, or C.

Given that 42EM004656 dates to the Formative period, the site has the potential to address research questions pertaining to subsistence in the San Rafael Swell, along with site pattern and distribution across varying landscapes, and possible associations with the use of seasonal water sources during this prehistoric time period. The site is located in an alcove atop a mesa with a high potential for subsurface cultural materials; good deposition, due to sedimentation caused by animal inhabitants, was observed in the alcove portion, thus retaining the original integrity of the potential buried deposits. Additional investigations at the site are likely to yield information important to our understanding of prehistoric activity during the Formative period in the San Rafael Swell. Site 42EM004656 is likely to “have, or have had, information to contribute to our understanding of human history or prehistory, and the information

21 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah must be considered important” (National Park Service 1997:21). Therefore, 42EM004656 is recommended eligible for the NRHP under Criterion D.

In summary, SWCA recommends 42EM004656 eligible for the NRHP under Criterion D.

SITE 42EM004657

Site Type/Function: Prehistoric artifact scatter

Period: Unknown prehistoric

Eligibility: Recommended eligible under Criterion D

Site 42EM004657 is a newly documented prehistoric lithic scatter located on a dune atop a mesa north of Red Hole Draw and west of Bellevue Flats in the San Rafael Swell in Utah. The site measures 45 × 33 m. Vegetation consists of shadscale, yucca, sage, various grasses, rabbitbrush, and cactus, with shadscale and sagebrush in the surrounding areas. Surface sediment consists of light tan coarse-grained sand with medium compaction and approximately 10 percent gravels. The site is located on a dune with eolian deposition. The site is mostly undisturbed and in fair condition, but is being impacted by eolian and alluvial processes based on its location in a dunal area in close proximity to an active wash.

The artifact assemblage consists of two bifaces (P-01 and P-02) and approximately 14 pieces of debitage. The flakes are all tertiary. The lithic material consists primarily of brownish gray CCS with other materials and colors present (red, white, translucent and reddish yellow CCS). Maximum density observed was three flakes per square meter. No features or temporally diagnostic tools were observed.

NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES ELIGIBILITY

Site 42EM004657 is a newly recorded prehistoric lithic scatter located on a mesa top near Red Hole Draw in the San Rafael Swell. The site is in fair condition due to its proximity to an active wash and location in a dunal area. It has been impacted by eolian and alluvial processes. No temporally diagnostic artifacts were observed; therefore, the general site assemblage indicates an unknown aboriginal cultural affiliation. Site 42EM004657 is not associated with either “a specific event marking an important moment in American prehistory or history and a pattern of events or a historic trend that made a significant contribution to the development of a community, a State, or the nation” (National Park Service 1997:12). Site 42EM004657 does not have any association with any “individuals whose activities are demonstrably important within a local, State, or national historic context” (National Park Service 1997:14). Site 42EM004657 does not have any features or structures; therefore, it does not reflect any distinctive architectural or engineering characteristics, patterns, types, or styles. The site overall does not “embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction; represent the work of a master; possess high artistic values; or represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction” (National Park Service 1997:14). Therefore, 42EM004657 is recommended not eligible for the NRHP under Criterion A, B, or C.

Site 42EM004657 is located in a dunal area; therefore, there is potential for subsurface cultural material; however, alluvial processes may have compromised the original integrity of these potential artifacts. Although the site’s assemblage is relatively small and does not contain temporally diagnostic artifacts, its location amid dunes means that there is at least some potential for buried cultural deposits. Site 42EM004657 may “have, or have had, information to contribute to our understanding of human history or prehistory, and the information must be considered important” (National Park Service 1997:21). Therefore, 42EM004657 is recommended eligible for the NRHP under Criterion D.

22 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

In summary, 42EM004657 is recommended eligible for the NRHP under Criterion D.

SITE 42EM004658

Site Type/Function: Prehistoric artifact scatter

Period: Unknown prehistoric

Eligibility: Recommended not eligible

Site 42EM004658 is a newly documented prehistoric artifact scatter on the slope of a mesa top west of Bellevue Flats and north of Red Hole Draw in the Red Ledges area of the San Rafael Swell. The site measures 37 × 11 m. The site is primarily barren, on a sandstone rock outcrop; however, vegetation surrounding the site consists of rabbitbrush and shadscale. Surface sediment consists of light brown coarse-grained sand with approximately 5 percent gravels. The site is located on a rock outcrop, exposed, and heavily impacted by eolian and alluvial processes. The majority of observed artifacts are located on a sandstone cliff ledge with very little potential for depth because m were deposited by natural processes.

The artifact assemblage consists of approximately 31 pieces of debitage. The flakes are primarily tertiary with some shatter as well as minimal secondary flakes present. The lithic material consists primarily of white, light brown, gray, translucent, and light red CCS. Maximum density observed was 13 flakes per square meter. No features or temporally diagnostic tools were observed. The artifacts on-site do not appear to have been deposited anthropogenically.

National Register of Historic Places Eligibility

Site 42EM004658 is a newly recorded prehistoric lithic scatter on a sandstone outcrop of a mesa top in the Red Ledges area of the San Rafael Swell. The site is in fair condition due to eolian and alluvial processes moving materials from their original context. Given that no temporally diagnostic tools were observed, the general debitage assemblage indicates an unknown aboriginal cultural affiliation. Site 42EM004658 is not associated with either “a specific event marking an important moment in American prehistory or history and a pattern of events or a historic trend that made a significant contribution to the development of a community, a State, or the nation” (National Park Service 1997:12). Site 42EM004658 does not have any association with any “individuals whose activities are demonstrably important within a local, State, or national historic context” (National Park Service 1997:14). Site 42EM004658 does not have any features or structures; therefore, it does not reflect any distinctive architectural or engineering characteristics, patterns, types, or styles. The site overall does not “embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction; represent the work of a master; possess high artistic values; or represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction” (National Park Service 1997:14). Therefore, 42EM004658 is recommended not eligible for the NRHP under Criterion A, B, or C.

Site 42EM004653 is a surface manifestation on a mesa-top ledge outcrop in the Red Ledges area of the San Rafael Swell with no potential for subsurface cultural fill due to its location on sandstone bedrock. No temporally diagnostic artifacts were observed; therefore, the debitage assemblage cannot provide important temporal technological information associated with specific prehistoric research questions. Site 42EM004658 is unlikely to “have, or have had, information to contribute to our understanding of human history or prehistory, and the information must be considered important” (National Park Service 1997:21). Therefore, 42EM004658 is recommended not eligible for the NRHP under Criterion D.

In summary, 42EM004658 is recommended not eligible for the NRHP under any criterion.

23 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

MANAGEMENT SUMMARY

In October 2014, SWCA conducted intensive-level pedestrian survey of twelve 40-acre survey blocks selected by stratified random sampling from the 28,428-acre Castle Valley Class II study area. The primary objectives of the survey’s probabilistic sampling design were to provide information about site distribution on the landscape, site type potentials, and landform use for the general study area. Accordingly, survey blocks were selected to investigate areas with rugged topography conducive to the presence of rock art, areas with access to water, and, as a control group, areas exhibiting neither of the aforementioned characteristics. In all, this survey identified six previously undocumented archaeological sites. Three sites (42EM004653, 42EM004657, and 42EM004658) were found in survey blocks selected for rugged topography. Two sites (42EM004654 and 42EM004655) were found in survey blocks selected for the presence of water, and one site (42EM004656) was located in a survey block selected as a control block, with neither rugged topography nor nearby water.

The reported ubiquity of rock art in and around the Castle Valley study area is a primary management concern for the BLM. Unfortunately, much of the information regarding rock art does not come from systematic study and formal documentation of rock art localities, thus rendering evidence-based management of this important cultural resource a challenge. Four survey blocks with rugged topography conducive to the presence of rock art were randomly selected for archaeological investigation. Although three of the six sites documented during SWCA’s survey of the Castle Valley study area were found in survey blocks selected for rugged topography, none of these sites contained rock art. Two previously recorded sites identified during SWCA’s file search for the study area contain rock art (42EM001775 and 42EM001776); however, neither of these are located in the 40-acre survey blocks that were classified as containing rugged topography.

During SWCA’s field survey in October 2014, field crews noted that large portions of the Castle Valley study area identified for the possible presence of rock art, including all four survey blocks selected for rugged topography, are dominated by geologic exposures of conglomerate, a rock type not commonly associated with the presence of rock art. Available information regarding the surface geology of the Castle Valley study area indicates that exposed rocks are generally middle to late Jurassic in age and not composed of early Jurassic sandstones more commonly associated with the presence of rock art. The two documented rock art sites identified in SWCA’s file search for the study area are both in the deeply incised Red Hole Draw area, where stream cutting has exposed early Jurassic sandstones.

24 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

Figure 7. Close-up of the rock types associated with the geologic layer in the study area (Area 6); shows a conglomerate form that is not conducive to rock art, facing north.

Across much of the Arid West, the availability of water has been a significant constraint on regional land use patterns. To explore the importance of available water to the distribution of archaeological site types in the Castle Valley study area, SWCA randomly selected four survey blocks that are intersected by water features on the National Hydrology Dataset. In the study area, this included almost exclusively intermittent streams. Only two sites (42EM004654 and 42EM004655), both prehistoric artifact scatters of unknown age, were discovered and documented during SWCA’s field survey. The presence of water, however, is a common characteristic of the immediate area surrounding previously documented sites in the study area; eight sites (42EM000177, 42EM000896, 42EM000899, 42EM000901, 42EM001775, 42EM001776, 42EM002175, and 42EM002176) are in survey blocks intersected by a water feature.

The presence of rugged topography conducive to the presence of rock art and areas with at least intermittent nearby water were selected as the two key variables to be explored by the Castle Valley Class II sampling design. As a control group, four survey blocks were randomly selected that exhibit neither rugged topography nor available water. One site, 42EM004656, was identified in one of these four control blocks. Of the previously documented sites, two (42EM000898 and 42EM000900) are similarly located in blocks exhibiting neither characteristic.

All six sites documented by SWCA’s survey are prehistoric artifact scatters, and none contain rock art. One site, 42EM004656, contains gray ware ceramic sherds, which suggest Formative period use. The remaining five sites do not have temporally diagnostic artifacts that facilitate their chronological placement. In a general sense, the range of site types identified during SWCA’s survey is consistent with previously documented site types in the region, with the notable exception of rock art sites. The results of SWCA’s survey, coupled with existing information from previously documented sites, suggests that the region saw moderate use throughout prehistory, with evidence for Archaic- and Formative-era occupation. Given the paucity of permanent water and the ubiquity of non-diagnostic artifact scatters without evidence for substantive investment in occupation features (e.g., residential structures, storage

25 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah structures, or hearths), it is likely that much of the study area was used primarily for fairly short-term logistic forays to gather resources.

Immediately west of the Castle Valley study area is the Molen Reef, an area well known locally for its abundance of rock art. Also nearby are segments managed by the BLM as ACECs, primarily for a reported but not formally documented abundance of rock art. Given the apparent regional abundance of rock art, it was initially surprising that SWCA’s survey did not discover any rock art sites. However, close examination of the surface geology common across the Castle Valley study area brings some insight as to why no such sites were found. Areas where rock art is known to exist are dominated primarily by exposures of early Jurassic sandstone, as is the case along the Molen Reef and in the Red Wash area. Field observations and available surface geology maps suggest that much of the Castle Valley study area is instead dominated by middle and late Jurassic rock types not conducive to the presence of rock art. The documented presence of rock art sites in the Castle Valley study area clearly suggests that such sites can indeed be found in the region, but also suggests that these sites are likely limited to areas with appropriate surface geology. Rugged topography is common across the Castle Valley study area; however, such topography is not an effective predictor for the presence of rock art. Instead, identification of areas sensitive for the presence of rock art would likely be more effective if focused on identification of exposures of early Jurassic sandstone and not simply on topography.

26 Class II Cultural Resources Inventory of Castle Valley Oil and Gas Lease Areas in Emery County, Utah

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