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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-17239-4 - White Creole Culture, Politics and Identity during the Age of Abolition David Lambert Index More information

Index

Abolition Act (1807) 5, 6, 44, 74, 112, 113, as imperial intervention 5, 8, 140, 141, 143, 208 146–8, 163, 168, 176, 184 abolitionism 3, 113, 115–18, 139, 209 see also: Buxton, McQueen, Bathurst abolitionist campaign 111, 118, 122 America, North 11, 39 as form of internal orientalism 11 comparison of white culture 4, 16, 20, 80, 176 as metropolitan import 65, 73–5, 83, 103, loss of colonies 33 209 revolution 3, 13, 14, 28, 45, 146, 168, 209 opposition to 111, 115–19, 166 America, South 39 promotion of improved plantation Americas 22, 23, 29 management and 45 Anglicanism 36, 141, 142 see also: Dickinson, antislavery Antigua 148, 185 absenteeism 3, 29, 65, 125, 172 anti-Methodism 8, 142, 154, 172–3, 209 accommodationism 210 concern over metropolitan attitude to rebellion 125 interpretations 160, 161, 169 compensation from emancipation and 187, as defence of white identity 161 188 discourses of 153–7 disagreement with Barbadian whites 147, 186 elite white response to 169–72, 211 low numbers of Barbadian 4, 18, 20 as locus for Barbadian anxieties 154, 157–65 see also: Alleyne (Sir Reynold), Simmons metropolitan response 165–8, 169, 188 Act for Encouraging Mechanic Industry as opposition to ameliorative reformism 153, (1783) 59, 60, 62 165 see also: poor whites as reaction to antislavery 153, 154 Africa 23, 25, 29–31, 146 as response to Bathurst 151 African Institution 116, 120, 121 antislavery campaign 15, 29, 34–5, 39, 134, Alleyne, John Foster 93 176, 193, 209 Alleyne, Sir Reynold (militia commander) 169, accounts of rebellion by 7, 111, 115–16, 118, 171, 189 127 manager for absentee planters 169 blame for unrest and revolt on 113, 114, 122, amelioration, see: plantation management, 176, 189, 195 ameliorative proposals and policy, fears of inﬂuence on enslaved of 210 anti-Methodism, Parliament, Colonial focus of strategy Congress, Bathurst on abolition 6, 51, 73, see abolitionist ameliorative proposals and policy (c. 1823) campaign Barbadian proposals and opposition 145–6, on Barbados as site of intervention 7, 40, 169, 172, 186–7, 209 107, 141–2, 144, 209

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© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-17239-4 - White Creole Culture, Politics and Identity during the Age of Abolition David Lambert Index More information

236 Index

antislavery campaign, focus of strategy (cont.) colonisation and 55, 56 on emancipation 51, 140, 142–4, 150, 160 debate of Steele’s reports 52–5 on plantation slavery 6, 41, 42, 44, 51 diversiﬁcation of economy 56, 62 Methodism and 8, 163, 165, 172 Miscellaneous Committee 53, 60, opposition to 141–2 68 see also: resistance, white colonial to resistance to Steele’s ideas 59–60, 63–4, 68 antislavery Bathurst, Henry (secretary of state for the see also: Buxton, Wilberforce, Slave Registry colonies) Bill, slave laws, slave world/free world ameliorative instructions (of 1823) 146–8, division 149, 150, 151, 156–7 Antislavery Society 143 response to Consolidated Slave Act Appeal on behalf of the negro slaves, see (1825) 169, 170–1 Wilberforce Battle of Trafalgar (1805) 157–8 apprenticeship 206, 207 Bayleys plantation 105, 133, 136 Armitage, D. 21 Beckles, Hilary McD. 99, 104, 107 Asia 23 Beckles, John 60, 68, 84, 96–7, 114 Assembly of Barbados Bell, Francis 64 Act for Encouraging Mechanic Industry Berbice 113 (1782) 59 Best, John Rycroft 112, 119, 122–3, 125–6 bill to marginalise free people of colour 93, Bhabha, Homi 81, 100 94–5, 97 bishop of London 18 Consolidated Slave Act (1825) 170 black peril, white supremacist fears of (sexual) elections (of 1819) 170–1 violence 131–3, 189–95, 199, 205, Emancipation Bill 204 208 imperial intervention and 28, 147, 155, 156, see also: freedom 157, 195, 209, 211 blackness 1, 31, 63, 203 petitions to 195, 198 Blunt, Alison 191, 192 planter role and domination of 18, 61, 73 Bourbon Regiment 136 report into 1816 rebellion 109, 113, 119–20, Bowland, James (rebel) 127 122–4, 125, 126, 153, 171 Brathwaite, Edward Kamau 37 Slave Registry Bill 114 Brathwaite, John 69 tensions with council 155, 170 Bridgetown tensions within 125 commercial rooms, Shrewsbury’s letter 151 see also: Council of Barbados, governors, free people of colour living in 79, 88 Pumpkins, Salmagundis history of 25 Association for the Purpose of Affording meetings about James case 195 Religious Instruction to the Slave Methodist chapel 148, 152–3 Population 169, 173 response to Denny’s acquittal 83, 84, 89 Atlantic world 2, 5, 7, 20–9 sites of sexual transgression 88 Steele’s landholdings near 48 Baker, Alan 21 Bristol 29, 167 Banks, Joseph (president of the Royal Society), British Guiana, comparison with 185, 186, 187, correspondence with Steele 48, 50, 54, 188 57 see also: slave world/free world division Barbadian, The 150, 156, 172 Britishness 17, 36, 122, 164, 166 Barbados Chronicle 76 see also: Englishness Barbados Mercury and Bridgetown Gazette 56, Burnard, Trevor 72 69, 113, 114, 125 Bussa’s Rebellion see rebellion (of 1816) Barbados Society for the Encouragement of Buxton, Thomas Fowell 143, 158, 166–7, 168, Arts, Manufactures and Commerce 6, 170 41, 50–1, 57–9 Byde Mill estate 52

Index 237

Campbell, Mavis 80 Cotton Act (1788) 68–9 Canning, George 146, 160, 168 see also: Steele capitalism 180 Council of Barbados Captain Rock 158–60 anti-Methodist proclamations 153 Catholic Emancipation Act 176 bill to marginalise free people of colour Chapman, Matthew James, Barbados 178–81, (1803) 93, 94–5, 96, 97 184, 187, 191–2, 201, 202 challenge to imperial authority 155 Charles II 27 Consolidated Slave Act (1825) 170 Charter (1652) 27 plantocracy in 18, 70, 154 Christ Church (parish) 117, 123 Slave Registry Bill 114 Christ Church battalion 105, 123 tensions with Assembly of Barbados 155, Christian Observer 116, 120 170 christianisation 160 see also: Assembly of Barbados Christophe, King of Haiti 136 craneology 182 Civil War, American 203 Craton, Michael 117, 119 Civil War, English 18, 27, 162, 165 creolisation 6, 17, 33, 37–8, 39, 171, 173, 211 see also: Cromwell criminal trials 5 Clarke, Richard 111 Cromwell, Oliver 19, 27, 100, 155, 162, 164 Clarkson, Thomas 41, 51, 71, 143–4, 145, 168 Cropper, James 144 Codd, Colonel Edward 118, 125, 126, 134 Cuba 138 Coleridge, Henry Nelson 102, 140, 141, 172, 173 dancing 123 Coleridge, William Hart (Anglican Davis, David Brion 5, 10–11, 12, 33, 168 bishop) 140–1, 156, 170 Dayan, Joan 111 colonial agents 28, 34, 119, 161, 172, 177 Demerara 108, 109, 113, 142, 150, 152, 160, see also: Mayers 165 Colonial Congress (1831) 177, 185, 204 Denny, Joseph, trial of 83–90, 91, 94, 103, 175, Colonial Ofﬁce 190 appeals for compensation to 178, 186, 187, Denny, Joseph, case of 194, 201 204 Dickinson, William 47, 51, 66, 99 governors’ correspondence with 84 domestic space, black violation of 192–3 (Denny), 195 (James), 196 Drescher, Seymour 175 reform of slavery and 73, 157, 169, 194, Dutch, the 25, 164 196 see also: colonial agents Easel, Theodore, Desultory sketches and tales of colonialism, discourse of 5, 46, 144, 145 Barbados 207–8, 211 Steele’s vision as 52, 55–6 East India Company 144, 145 Committee of West Indian Planters and East Indies see India, East India Company Merchants 186 Edwards, Bryan 77 compensation, metropolitan 184–9, 194, 204–5, Emancipaion Act (1833) 2, 5, 142, 186, 203 209 English Civil War see Civil War, English see also: planter ideal, loyalty Englishness 2, 7, 209 Consolidated Slave Act (1825) 157, 169 anti-Methodism as 167 Barbadian 172 tensions between metropolitan and colonial Barbadian response to 170 versions 2, 38, 115, 142, 154, 155–6, see also: Colonial Ofﬁce 210 constables 152 whiteness and 17, 36, 101, 118 Continental Congress (1774) 177 see also: Britishness Conventicles Act (1664) 162, 164, 173 Enlightenment, geographies of 45–6, 47, 70, 72 copyhold system 56–9, 63–4, 143 enslaved resistance see resistance resistance to 60, 68–9, 70–2 environmental determinism 182

238 Index

eroticisation 86 rebel representations and hopes for 131, 137, Essay on the treatment and conversion of 139, 154 African slaves 51 as reward for crime 193–5, 196 Essequibo 113 social control of 97, 132, 172, 175, 183–4, Europe 3, 23, 25 199–203, 204–6, 208 evangelicalism 33, 118, 168, 172 Steele’s ideas of 51 white 27, 36, 141, 176 feminisation 86, 191–3, 197 womanhood and 191 Fenwick, Elizabeth 124 French Revolution 74 fire 116 Frere, Applewhaite 59 First West Indian Regiment see West Indian Regiment Galloway, J. H. 45–6 flags 109, 130–1, 132–3, 134, 135, 137 Gascoigne, J. 45–6 Ford, Francis 69 Gay, Sir John Alleyne (Speaker of Fox, George 33 Assembly) 60 France 28, 90, 103, 158 gender 191 Barbadian fear of invasion by 27 structure of society 20 Franklin, Benjamin 48 Genovese, Eugene 175 Franklin, George Pitt Washington (rebel) 138 George III 134 free blacks 20, 207, 208 Gibbes, Philip 69 labour 183 Gibbes, Philip Junior (chief justice) 83–4, 85, see also: free people of colour 88, 89, 90 free people of colour 20, 31, 74–6, 78–80, 208, Giddens, Anthony 175 211 Gill, Sarah Ann (Methodist leader) 161–2, actual and perceived role in 1816 165 rebellion 105, 120, 121, 138 Glasgow Courier 145 children 95, 96 Goodwin, Betsey 86, 90 elsewhere in the Caribbean 137 see also: Ricketts feminisation of 85–9 Goveia, Elsa 84 inter-racial alliance with white governors see: Leith, Ricketts, Seaforth, Smith plantocracy 104 (Lionel), Skeete, Warde marginalisition of 6–7 Grainger, James The Sugar Cane 180 Methodism and 93, 142, 148, 161 Great Hurricane (of 1831) 175, 204 responses to white supremacism 7, 83, 93–8 anti-pastoral discourse and 181–3 role in creolisation 39 militia and 182 support for Governor Skeete 198–9 as precursor to freedom 177–8, 189 white supremacism and 73, 91, 104, 107, 125 Greene, Jack 28, 114 women 85, 91, 92, 93 Grenada 74–5, 96, 137, 145, 156 free world/slave world division see slave Griffith, William (barrister) 195 world/free world division see also: James (Robert) freedom 40, 174, 175–6, 203–4, 206 Grig, Nanny (rebel) 137 cultural expressions of 123, 131, 133–5 Groom, Jack (rebel) 127 dangers of 174, 189–95, 196, 202 Guinea plantation 48 see also: black peril dramatic representation of 199 Hackett, George (case of) 194, 201 duty and 69, 199–203 Haiti 7, 32, 183 economic costs of 174, 177–89, 202, 204 revolution and 74, 83, 111, 112, 136–9 free people of colour 79, 80, 81, 95 see also: St Domingue from white violence 175 Hall, Catherine 12, 167 negative representations of black 175, 178, Haraway, Donna 35 182–3, 198, 204 Hartman, Saidiya 31, 197, 203

Index 239

Haynes, Robert 94 improvement 45–6, 48, 50, 54, 55, 59, 66, 70, 72 Higginbotham, Mary 8, 190–3, 195, 196, 202, see also: Enlightenment, plantation 204 management History, civil and commercial, of the British Ince, John 97 Colonies in the West Indies 77 India 141, 144, 145, 176, 181 History of Barbados 6, 76–8 inter-racial sex 38, 102, 132–3, 190, 205, 208 History of Jamaica 77 links to disease and immorality 88, 90 Hobsbawn, Eric 134 in plays 199 Holder, Rev. Henry Evans 63–4, 66 see also: women, black peril Holder, William Thorpe 69 Ireland 158 House of Lords 185 Irish, the 19–20, 102, 187 Hughes, Griffith 80 Italy, case of (enslaved man) 194, 201 humanitarianism, metropolitan 1, 10, 38, 91, 171, 193 Jacobinism 74, 148, 158 abolitionist identity 112, 118 Jamaica Barbados as aberrant space 1, 12, 135, 141, colour, definitions of 80 209 Emancipation Rebellion (1831–2) 108, 109, discourse 37, 40, 118, 167 176, 189, 205 freedom, understanding of 175 histories of 77 intervention as threat 141, 146, 147 House of Lords investigation into slavery press 33 and 185, 186 rebel representation of metropolitan imperial importance of 4, 25, 185, 188 figures 134 radical tradition in 13, 32 religion and 142, 166 slave registration 113 slave world/free world division and 141, resistance to antislavery 157, 172 144 secessionism 177 white colonial response to 91, 107, 122, 139, white identity in 20, 192 170, 209 James, C. L. R. 108 see also: antislavery campaign, proslavery James, Robert 8–9, 190–3 discourse, slave world/free world white response to case 195–7, 201–2, 205, division, imperial intervention 208 hybridity 17, 39, 76, 81, 111 see also: Higginbotham, domestic space, see also: liminality rape, public meetings and Hyde, Samuel, Refractory account of the demonstrations, white supremacism slaves 189 Jansson, David 11 Jones, Cecily 99, 102 Impartial Expositor 76 Jordan, Gibbes Walker 114–15, 119 imperial discourses 37 see also: antislavery campaign, slave Kendal’s plantation 48, 59, 62–3, 70, 71 world/free world division, Kennedy, Dane 82, 191, 193, 198 humanitarianism Kenya 82 imperial intervention see Parliament, Assembly Klinkett, Abel (editor of Barbadian) 172 of Barbados, Colonial Office, colonial agents, metropole, ameliorative Leeward parishes 189 proposals and policy, Skeete, antislavery Leith, James (governor) 119, 124, 134–5 campaign, humanitarianism, loyalty, Lester, Alan 122 McQueen Lewis, Gordon 12, 14, 39, 142 imperialism 16 liminality 81–3, 85, 91, 92, 98 improved estate management as 72 Little Englandism, discourse of 2, 13–15, 39, networks 22, 27–9 40, 102, 103, 141, 155, 163, 188, 209, religion and 144, 166 210

240 Index

Little Englandism, discourse of (cont.) target of antislavery campaign 36–7 as call for protection 122, 187 white mastery and 35, 36–7 as challenge to humanitarianism 107 Masters and Servants Act (1840) 205 contestation of 17, 107, 134, 135, 167, 169, Mauritius 136 188 Maycock, Dottin 68 as defence of established church 155 Mayer, Colonel 126 familial symbolism 14 Mayers, John Pollard (colonial agent) 188–9 shared trans-Atlantic identity 172 case of slave, Robert James 194 see also: loyalty concern with Barbados’s image 185, 188, Liverpool 29 193, 201, 209 Livingstone, David N. 46 efforts to win compensation 185–7, 193 London merchants 29 as lobbyist for slaveholders 177 London Society for the Encouragement of Arts, M’Callum, Pierre 103 Manufactures and Commerce (London McGlynn, Frank 175 Society of Arts) 41, 47–8, 49, 50 McKinnen, Daniel, Tour Through the British see also: Steele West Indies 13, 99 Long, Edward 77 McQueen, James 71, 145–6 lower classes see poor whites dangers of metropolitan intervention 146 Lowthers estate 105, 123 Melish, J. P. 11, 103 loyalty, discourse of 8, 36, 39, 103, 208, Methodism 148, 173, see also: 210–11 anti-Methodism ambiguous relation to colonial resistance 8, Methodist chapels 155, 172 15, 39, 103, 141, 142, 146, 158, 163–4, destruction of Bridgetown chapel 140, 142, 172, 210–11 152–3 as articulation of sameness 122, 209 aftermath 153, 156, 165, 166–7, 170 centrality to empire and 13, 14, 102, 103 anniversary of 157, 158 as defence of established church 155–6 blame for 160 deserving compensation and protection 122, identity of perpetrators 154, 155, 171, 172 187, 188, 204, 205 Methodist Magazine 150, 152, 165 enslaved 202, 203, 209 metropole (British) 14–15 fear of intervention and 146, 163 colonial bonds with 14, 184, 209, see also: see also: Pumpkins loyalty free coloured 96, 97, 161 colonial tensions with 5, 131, 133–5, 142, metropolitan contestation of 167 164, 173, 208, 211 see also: Englishness, Steele, Mayers, Little comparison with religion in 143 Englandism identity 11, 16, 22, 38, 166 Lucas, Nathaniel 47–70, 71, 72, 163, 164–5 as location of blame for rebellion 112, 119 magistrates 152, 153, 161 see also: absenteeism, abolitionism, Malchow, Howard 86 Parliament, imperial intervention, Mansﬁeld, Lord, court ruling 12 antislavery manumission 134–5 middle class (white) 19–20, 35, 36 free people of colour 31, 78–9, 86 blame for Methodist persecution 171 increasing access to 147 identity 76 restriction of 92, 144 Poyer as member of 89 as reward for loyalty 202 Salmagundis and 170 Steele’s family 64 see also: Salmagundis masculinity 191, 196–7 militia 19, 30, 182, 209 black contestation of white 132 commanders 112, 121, 122, 125, 139 danger of black 132, 190 control by plantocracy 18, 19 defence of white femininity and 191 drills as demonstration of power 198

Index 241

participation by free people of colour 93 Osborn, Sarah Hopkins 47, 48 participation by poor whites 92, 102 Overton, Loveless 138 rebellion of 1816 and 105, 137, 139 portrayal as bloodthirsty 120, 122 Parliament 27, 33–4, 141, 169 violence of 117–18, 124, 125–6 antislavery campaign in 51, 188 tenancies 36, 78 see also: Wilberforce, Consolidated Slave tensions with imperial forces 90 Act also see Christ Church battalion, Best Barbadian challenge to 166, 169 mimicry 83, 92 see also: West India Interest, West India missionaries 33, 140, 161 Committee absence during revolt 148 denunciation of anti-Methodism 168, 169 activity 150, 153, 161, 165–6, 170, 172 intervention of 114, 147 antislavery and 149, 173 see also: Colonial Office, imperial freedom and 175 intervention, metropole Jamaican Rebellion (1831–2) and 189 planter feeling of enslavement by 146 persecution 5, 142, 153, 165, 167, 168, 172 select committee on ending slavery 176–7 press and propaganda 165–6, 168 see also: Emancipation Act ‘war of representation’ 165–6 see also: House of Lords see also: Shrewsbury, Rayner, Parry, David (governor) 50, 51, 59 anti-Methodism pastoralism 71, 178–81, 183, 201, 209 Missionary Society (London) 150, 156, anti-pastoral discourse 181–3, 192 165–6 paternalism 66 Mitigation of slavery 51 as counter to Steele 71–2 mixed race, people of 31, 52, 80, 81, 83 plantation pastoral and 180, 201 also see: free people of colour as planter ideal 6, 67, 185, 199, 201, 205, Moe, Cheesman 147, 171 209, 210 monarchy 134, 135 portrayal of slaves 121 Morris, Robert 125 post-revolt white ambivalence 125, 126, 127 Mullin, Michael 109 as specific to Barbadian society 187 Murray, George (secretary of state for the threat from antislavery campaign 114 colonies) 193 threat from interference 107, 122 violence of 66 Napoleon 74 white supremacism and 107, 125, 126, 205, Napoleonic Wars (France) 27, 158 210 nationalism 20, 39, 103, 142, 177, 178, petitions 34 209 demonstration of white unity 197, 198–9 English 39 Denny’s appeal for clemency 83, 85, 89 European 15, 35 free people of colour 7, 83, 93–4, 95–6, 97, Navigation Acts 27 104 Nelson, Horatio 157–8 metropolitan 1 network, international scientific 43 white challenge to imperial authority 174, new bourgeois subjectivity 12 190, 195–6 newspapers, English 120, 121, 134 white masculinity, channel of 197 Newton, Melanie 79 Philosophical Transactions 48 Nonconformists 33 Pinckard, George 99, 102 see also: Methodism, Quakers plantation management 8, 36, 45–6 discipline through 30 Orderson, Isaac William, The fair Barbadian limits to improvement 6 and faithful Black 199–203, 205 planter ‘enlightened’ improvement 8, 43–7, Orient 12 60–1, 66–7, 72, 183, 185, 188 Osborn, R. 47 as defence of slavery 45

242 Index

plantation management (cont.) postcolonialism 2, 5, 109 slave ‘breeding’ 61 power, white 62–3, 197–9, 208 Steele’s ‘rational’ 41–2, 43, 47, 72 Poyer, John (settler historian) 6–7, 76–8, 167, see also: Steele, paternalism, plantocracy, 171 Enlightenment, planter ideal opposition to free people of colour 6–7, 93, planter ideal 6, 8, 65–72, 104, 210 94, 97–8 control of plantation system 183 patriotism in writing 102 discourses of 8, 23, 65–72, 185, 188, 199, support for poor whites 8, 98–9, 101, 103–4, 204, 205, 209 164 pastoralism and 178 using race in defence of slavery 80, 83, 84, white identity and 43, 126, 178, 181 209 white supremacism and 32, 65, 124 see also: Denny trial, free people of colour, see also: Pumpkins, absenteeism poor whites, History of Barbados, white plantocracy 18–20, 27 unity, white supremacism avoiding reform 176, 206 prince regent 134 discipline of black people 205 Pringle, John 48 fear of black violence 135, 192 pro-natalist policies 44 identity 69 proslavery discourse 34–5, 119–27, 139 inﬂuence of elite free people of colour on 97 pastoralism 178 opposition to abolitionism 40 paternalism 66, 70–1 opposition to Steele 59, 60–1, 69 representation of revolt 107, 111, 112, 113, as paternalistic 125, 169 121–2 political struggle 162, 170–1 shaping emancipation process 174 relationship with liminal groups 77, 80, 97, weakening of 176, 177 103 white identity 39, 40, 133 religion 33, 148, 149, 154 see also: Orderson tensions within 123 prostitution 90 see also: white elite, anti-Methodism, planter public meetings and demonstrations ideal, paternalism free people of colour, disruption of 198 plays 199–203 white masculinity 197 political system of Barbados 170–1 white response to James case 174, 190, 195, see also: Assembly, Council, governors, 196, 198–9 Salmagundis, Pumpkins public space 198 poor relief 36, 54, 99, 101 Pumpkins 170, 171 poor whites 6–7, 19–20, 73, 74–6, 125 puritanism 163 attempts to assist 55, 62 blame for anti-Methodism 154 Quakers 33 free people of colour and 78–80, 83, 85 liminality 81 Ramsay, Rev. James 51, 70–1 marginalisation of 73 rape (cases of) 175, 190, 192, 196 poor white industry 50, 56, 59, 61–2, 64 see also: black peril see also: Act for Encouraging Mechanic Rayner, Moses (Methodist missionary) 140–1, Industry 150, 156, 158, 160, 165, 166, 172 recovering place in society 89, 92–3, rebellion (of 1816) 5, 7–8, 105–11, 139, 198 98–103 abolitionist discourse of 107, 115–18, 144, struggle for power 125 166, 167 support for Salmagundis 170 Afro-Caribbean representations of 127–39 undermining dominant discourse 39, 83 economic cost of 119 see also: redleg, Poyer, Denny trial free people of colour and 93, 97, 161 Portugal 25 Methodist mission and 148

Index 243

metropolitan support for, discourses of 137 Seven Years War 27 as premonition of freedom 175 sexuality proslavery discourse of 107, 118–27, 150, black mistresses 52, 85–9 191–2, 208, 209 see also: Steele, women redleg, discourse of 100–3, 210–11 black violence 191–3, 194, 208 see also: poor whites see also: black peril Reform Act (1832) 176 hyper- 55 reformism 1905, 1964, 2020. intervention with slaves’ 61 see also: plantation management, Steele, possession and exploitation 31, 36 ameliorative proposals and policy see also: white supremacism registration of slavery 112, 113–15, 116, 120, white fear of attack 34, 131, 191–2 133, 139, 209 see also: Higginbotham, Denny, black Remarks on the insurrection in peril Barbados 116–17, 118, 120, 135, 137 see also: women, white elite see also: Slave Registry Bill Shaw, Carolyn 82 resistance Sheppard, Jill 99 enslaved 7, 75, 111, 123, 124, 131, 211 Shipley, William 48 after 1831 hurricane 182, 184, 189 Shirley, Admiral 52 using discourses of whiteness 108–9 Shrewsbury, Rev. William (Methodist in West Indies 3, 32, 33, 174, 176–7 missionary) 140, 142, 150–2, 154, 156, see also: creolisation, petitions, ﬂags, black 160, 165–6, 171 peril, rebellion (of 1816) Sierra Leone 183 to Steele’s colonising agenda see Steele Simmons, Henry Peter 174, 177, 182, 184, 185, white colonial to antislavery 141, 142, 157, 187, 192 164, 173, 210 Skeete, Robert Brathwaite (acting as commitment to English liberties 15 president) 190, 193 see also: anti-Methodism criticism of 193, 195–7 revolt 32, 96–7, 119 metropolitan intervention in duties of 194 see also: rebellion (of 1816) support for 198, 211 Revolutionary War (France) 27, 158 Sketches and recollections of the West Indies 13 Revolutionary War (USA) see America, North Slatia, Anna 52 Ricketts, George Poyntz (governor) 83–4, 85–6, Slave Code (1661) 30–1 90, 93, 94 slave laws, Barbadian 53 Roach, Joseph 29, 196 targeted by antislavery campaign 53 Roediger, David 108–9, 126 Slave Registry Bill 113–15, 116, 120, 123, 124, romanticism 92 127, 139, 150 see also: pastoralism slave society, formation of 30–3 Rose, Gillian 35 slave world/free world division 10–12, 13, 40 royal family 29 contestation of 146, 164, 173, 184, 185 Royal Society 48, 50 imaginative geography of 141, 144, 145, royalism 36 154 pro/antislavery struggle over 107, 139, 204 Salmagundis 149, 170–1, 173, 210, 211 slavery, histories of 5 Sandiford, Keith 14–15, 39, 173, 182 Smith, Adam 55 Scotland (Barbados) 78, 100 Smith, George, case of 194, 201 Scotland (Great Britain) 100, 187 Smith, Rev. John 150, 165 Scott, James 197 Smith, Lionel (governor) 187, 190 Seaforth, Francis Humberstone Mackenzie 73, Smith, William (opponent of slavery) 167–8 77, 81, 97 Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Poyer’s letter to 76, 93 Trade 33

244 Index

Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition Stoler, Ann Laura 82, 98 of Slavery Throughout the British Stroud, John 83, 89, 90 Dominions 143 sugar revolution 18, 25, 30, 43 Society of Arts (Barbados) see Barbados Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Taylor, Bruce 188 Manufactures and Commerce Thomas, Will (case of) 193–5, 201 Society of Arts (Dublin) 50 Thoughts on the Necessity of Improving the Society of Arts (London) see London Society for Condition of Slaves in the British Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures Colonies 143, 144, 145 and Commerce Titus, Noel 15, 150 Society of West Indian Merchants and Tobago 156 Planters 49, 145 Toleration Act (1689) 152, 156, 162 Somerville, Peter 193 Towne, Richard 80 South Africa 122 transculturation 17, 39 Southern Rhodesia 82 see also: creolisation Spain 25 travel writing 80, 207 Speightstown 83 Trinidad 113, 156, 185 Spooner, John 124–5 Spurr, David 54, 86 United States of America see America, North St Andrew (parish) 78 upper class 35, see white elite St Domingue 32, 74–5, 96, 108, 136, 189 venereal disease 88–94 see also: Haiti vestry board see poor relief St George (parish) 59, 117 Vidal de la Blache, Paul 21 St James (parish) 197 St John (parish) 78, 117, 197 Warde, Henry (governor) 152–3, 156, 161, St Kitts 25, 185 171 St Lucia 185 opposition to 155, 160, 166 St Peter (parish) 197 Watson, Karl 125 St Philip (parish) 105, 117, 125, Wesley, John 149 190 West India Committee 29, 146, 147 St Vincent 152, 156, 165 West India Interest Stanley, Edward George (Secretary of State of ameliorative proposals (c. 1823) and 146, the Colonies) 188 184, 186 Steele, Joshua 6, 41–3, 47–60, 70–2 influence in Parliament 29 economic diversification 56–9, 143, see also: proslavery lobbying by 29, 34, 176 copyhold system publications 145 external intervention as solution 55–6 tensions between metropole and colony 29, London Society of Arts 54, 57 147 planter ideal and 65–72 West Indian Colonies 145 on poor whites 99 West Indian Regiment 105, 136 reports on Barbados 52–5, 56, 60 whip, as instrument of control 6, 36, 41, 59, on slavery 51–2, 53, 68–9 62–3, 147, 189 white opposition to 60–1, 63, 65, 68–9, 104, white elite 4, 18–20, 101, 211 209 ambivalent relationship with poor see also: Barbados Society for the whites 98–9 Encouragement of Arts, influence of elite free people of colour on 96, Manufactures and Commerce, 97 Banks, improvement masculinity 85–90, 91 Stephen, James (antislavery campaigner) 143, relationships with liminal groups 73, 74, 78, 144 83, 169, 173

Index 245

response to metropolitan criticism white unity 91, 93 (accommodationism) 8, 169–72 in Poyer’s supremacist vision 98, response to Poyer’s supremacist views 7, 97, 104 104 public demonstrations of 196–7, 198–9 supremacism and loyalty 211 violence as expression of 126 white female slavery 145 white violence 7, 66, 111, 126 white freedom see freedom epistemic 127 white lower class see poor whites role of militia in 117–18, 125, 126, 127, 133 white purity 107, 132–3 whiteness studies 2, 16–18 white resistance, to metropolitan authority see Wilberforce, William 33, 121, 130, 134, 144 resistance Appeal...onbehalf of the negro white supremacism 6, 31–2, 99, 183, 208–9, slaves 142–3 210 rebellion (1816) 115, 116 anti-Methodism as focus for 8, 142 Slave Registry Bill 113, 139 contestation of 130 Williamson, J. 100 fears of black peril 9, 189–92, 195, Wiltshires plantation 105 205–6 Withers, Charles 46 ideas of black inferiority 43 women 37 ideas of home 193 body as site for intervention 44, 66, 67 post-emancipation 205 case of rape (1832–3) 190, 191, 195, 202 public meetings as demonstrations of 195–7, see also: Higginbotham 198 free women of colour 79, 124 relationship to paternalism 107, 205 inﬂuence over elite white men 85–9 relationship to planter ideal 31–2, 104, 124, representations of relations with black 204, 210 men 130, 132–3, 134, 135, 138 suppression of rebel insurgency 125 resistance by black 108 see also: inter-racial sex, black peril, resistance by poor white 102 rebellion (1816), militia, James, Poyer, as slaveholders 36 Salmagundis, freedom as reward for see also: feminisation, sexuality crime, white unity, white violence Woodville, Marshall 177