Mount Holyoke College Wildlife Trail: Species of Project Stream

Introduction

Mount Holyoke College, the eldest of the Seven Sisters, is nestled in Western

Massachusetts’ temperate deciduous forests. It features Stony Brook, a stream which has been dammed to create two small reservoirs, referred to as Upper and Lower Lake by students. Since the institution’s founding in 1837, there have been multiple methods of environmental management implemented. Currently, the area around Upper Lake is under the stewardship of

Mount Holyoke College’s Restoration Ecology Program, also known as Project Stream. Started in 2012 by the Environmental Studies department’s Restoration Ecology course, Project Stream aims to improve water quality and encourage native plant growth. The effort is led by course instructor and shining goddess Professor Kate Ballantine. Restoring the wetland means improving the habitat of countless species that call the area home, inviting them to seek refugee on the protected land.

The land that Mount Holyoke College is on has an Indigenous history that should be acknowledged. It is with great sensitivity that the Mount Holyoke College Wildlife Trail uses the land. The Pocumtuc peoples who once lived in the area were greatly impacted by European contact, from an epidemic of small pox that drastically reduced the population, to being dispossessed by Euro-American settlers seeking fertile agricultural land.

Rapid development of the New England area quickly gave way to destructive environmental actions. The lumber industry became extremely profitable, and mass logging began to reduce the density and diversity of mature forests. Wildlife species that are favorable for trapping, primarily for fur, rapidly were extirpated in areas for some time before

Stephanie Bennett, 1 reintroduction. Intensive agriculture, modeled after European methods rather than the land management used by the Indigenous inhabitants, depleted the soil and forced farmers to continue clearing plots for new fields and pastures.

This paper contains a brief summary of the conservation status, geographical range, diet, and behavior of fifteen different species that inhabit the land surrounding the Project Stream site.

Images are from wildlife cameras at the Project Stream site, students of Mount Holyoke College, and online resources. Information regarding wildlife conservation and rehabilitation can be found starting on page 21.

Fifteen Species of Mount Holyoke College

Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias)

The Great Blue Heron is an iconic American species, especially popularized by iconic artistic renderings by the Nation Audubon Society. They can be seen across the Mount Holyoke

College campus, with resident birds frequenting the lower dam affectionately called “Spider

Bridge” by students to feed. Their geographic range consists of marshes and shores in the United

States, Canada, Mexico, and Central America (Audubon 2018). Breeding flocks primarily congregate in the North Midwest US and Canada. Northern populations over-winter in Mexico and Central America (Cornell 2018).

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Figure 1. Great Blue Heron, courtesy of Kate Ballantine.

The heron is a carnivore that forages in shallow water by striking prey with its sharp bill

(Audubon 2018). They feast on fishes, amphibians, turtles, small mammals, and small water birds (Cornell 2018).

Figure 2. Great Blue Heron, in flight, courtesy of the Macaulay Library.

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Great Blue Herons primarily nest in trees and shrubs off of the ground. The males choose the nest site and collect building material, displaying both to females. If females do not respond to those actions, they elongate their necks in order too finally woo a mate. Clutches typically on average contain 3-5 eggs, but can range from 2-7. Herons breed in large colonies but forage alone outside of nesting season. They reproduce with new mates each year, strengthening the genetic diversity of the population. Herons defend their feeding territories from other herons by spreading their wings and pointing their bill skywards to appear larger (Cornell 2018).

Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma maculatum)

The Spotted Salamander is a characteristic species of the Mount Holyoke area, actively protected by the Hitchcock Center for the Environment in Amherst. They are categorized as least concern by the IUCN (2018) and have a stable population. Spotted salamanders dwell in freshwater forest rivers and wetlands in the Eastern US and Canada (NatureServe 2018).

Figure 3. Spotted Salamander, courtesy of Kate Ballantine.

Spotted salamanders are carnivores, feeding on aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates such as, insects, tadpoles, worms, and zooplankton. They use their sticky tongues to grab food, much like frogs (Hammond and Stout 2007).

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Salamanders hide in the leaf litter most of their adult lives and are rarely seen. When threatened, they will release a sticky milky toxic liquid from glands located on their back and tail. In the larval stage, they live in the water and have gills, and appear a dull greenish color with a mottled tail (NWF 2018). Spotted salamanders migrate to breeding ponds during the first rain after the winter snow melts. Sometimes this means crossing roads, making volunteer work to stop traffic during these events essential to species survival around human habitats. Salamanders reach sexual reproduction in 2-3 years (Hammond and Stout 2007).

Common Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina)

Common snapping turtles appear to be some kind of ancient reptile that once roamed the

Earth alongside dinosaurs. Female snapping turtles can be seen on the Mount Holyoke campus in the spring, travelling to nesting locations. They are of least concern according to the IUCN

(2018) and have a stable population. Snapping turtles live in freshwater lakes and ponds in the

US and Canada, with a preference for murky muddy waters (NatureServe 2018, Bosch 2008).

Figure 4. Common snapping turtle, courtesy of Elena Kraus.

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Snapping turtles are omnivores, enjoying a selection of fish, small mammals, amphibians, eggs, and aquatic vegetation such as algae. From time to time, they will kill other turtles by decapitation (Bosch 2008).

Even in the wild, snapping turtles can live up to 30 years, attempts to keep them in captivity as pets has shown lifespans of 60-80 years. They bury themselves in muddy water to ambush prey, camouflaged by their brown and uneven shell. Snapping turtles communicate to mates with leg movements while the turtles face each other. Social interaction is limited to breeding, despite that many individuals may share a territory (Bosch 2008). Snapping turtles are vicious when taken out of water forcefully, and are more docile when in water, but still aggressive.

Wood Duck (Aix sponsa)

The wood duck is a species with a lot of character, especially present in the colors and morphology of the males. They are easily distinguishable from other duck species. Wood ducks are of least concern according to the IUCN (2018), with an increasing population. They live in woodland ponds and river swamps in the Eastern US and Canada (Audubon 2018).

Figure 5. Wood duck, adult male, courtesy of the Audubon Society.

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Wood ducks are omnivores, eating aquatic plants, seeds, and insects. Their diet consists of acorns, soybeans, smartweed, water primrose, panic grass, duckweed, millet, waterlily, blackberries and wild cherries, as well as flies, beetles, caterpillars, isopods, and snails. Like many ducks, they forage on the surface of water, taking short dives, as well as on land (Audubon

2018).

Figure 6. Wood duck, adult female, courtesy of the Audubon Society.

Wood ducks nest in tree cavities, containing clutches of on average 6-11 tannish white eggs.

However, up to 29 eggs have been found in a nest, as the result of egg-dumping by other females to avoid parental care. Breeding pairs search for nest location together, and prefer cavities over 2 ft. from the ground (Cornell 2018). Their nests are lined with down feathers, plucked by the female from her own breast during construction. The wood duck’s closest relative is the mandarin duck of eastern Asia (Audubon 2018).

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Rusty Crayfish (Orconectes rusticus)

The rusty crayfish is a freshwater macro invertebrate that is native to the Great Lakes region. It was introduced as live bait, and populations were able to establish themselves in many freshwater systems across the US (NatureServe 2018). Species of crayfish native to New

England have been out competed for resources and subsequently displaced, and are considered invasive, making their conservation in the area a non-issue, but rather their removal is the effort being undertaken, to rejuvenate the biodiversity of native species.

Figure 7. Rusty crayfish, courtesy of Kate Ballantine.

Crayfish are detritivores, feasting on aquatic debris and plants, invertebrates, fish eggs

(Pappas 2002). A single female can lay 80 to 575 eggs at a time (Pappas 2002). They have an average life span of 3 to 4 years. Crayfish live in shallow burrows under rocks and debris. They are highly aggressive and will force other crayfish out of their hides during the day, fighting when they come across other crayfish of their own kind (Pappas 2002). They communicate using urine when engaged in fights, as a cue of recognition of victory or defeat.

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Northern Raccoon (Procyon lotor)

The Northern Raccoon, also known as the Masked Bandit, is a highly adaptable species that has learned to survive in urban environments. Their population is of least concern according to the IUCN (2018), with an increasing population. Raccoons live in forests, wetlands, and cities in the contiguous US and Canada, preferably moist woodlands (Fox 2001).

Raccoons are omnivores, feeding on fish, fruit, eggs, nuts, and insects (Fox 2001). Their diet is also supplemented by foraging through dumpsters and litter.

Figure 8. Northern raccoon, courtesy of Cal Gray.

They are highly adaptable to habitat and diet. Raccoons are crepuscular, with most activity and foraging occurring at dusk and twilight (NatureServe 2018). They live for an average of 5 years but can live to 16 years in captivity (Fox 2001). The primary cause of death for raccoons is human activity, such as trapping for fur, and being hit by cars, with 15 million individual being

Stephanie Bennett, 9 killed by vehicle collisions in the United States annually (Fox 2001). Raccoons typically eat with their hands, not directly with their mouth and will “wash” their food in water if it is available.

White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus)

White-tailed deer are a popular hunting species in the US, and their antlers have become the iconic symbol for many an outdoor brand. Recently, populations have been impacted by chronic wasting disease, with contraction accelerated by feeding grounds established to attract them for game and lack of natural predators such as wolves. Their population is of least concern according to the IUCN (2018), and is stable. The range of white-tailed deer covers the majority of the Mainland US and Canada (NatureServe 2018).

Figure 9. White-tailed deer, adult male, courtesy of Kate Ballantine.

Deer are herbivores, primarily eating the buds of young maple, aspen, and birch trees.

Deer further southwest than Mount Holyoke also enjoy yucca plants and prickly pear cactus

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(Dewey 2003). The over-population of deer in an area may be observed by fern dominated ground cover, as small woody species are eaten too quickly to mature.

Figure 10. White-tailed deer, adult female, courtesy of Kate Ballantine.

White-tailed deer on average live 2 to 3 years but can live to 10 years in the wild. In captivity, they can live up to 16 years (Dewey 2003). Deer can run up to 30 mph through forests, bounding through trees with ease. Does, female deer, will graze together in herds of hundreds, while males will travel in small groups of 2 to 4 in summer but disband before mating season, when battles for mates can turn violent. Scent glands located between hoof sections are used to communicate with other deer, with an odor that becomes especially strong during mating season

(Dewey 2003). Parasitic worms dispersed by white-tailed deer are fatal to moose and caribou, impacting competition for food resources, as they share very similar diets (NatureServe 2018).

This is an example of an evolutionary trait that increases species fitness, with the deer unknowingly negatively impacting competitors.

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Monarch Butterfly (Danaus plexippus)

The monarch is possibly the most well-known butterfly in the United States, with viceroy butterflies commonly mistaken for them. This is of course not an accident, as assuming the appearance of the poisonous monarch deters predators through mimicry. The monarch population is apparently secure according the NatureServe (2018), which is similar the listing of near threatened from the IUCN. Monarchs live in open country fields and forests in the Mainland

US, Canada, Mexico, and Central America.

Figure 11. Monarch butterfly, courtesy of Kalyndi Martin.

Butterflies are nectarivores, feeding on flower nectar. Monarchs have a preference for native milkweed species (Kane 1999). The poison that monarchs have is produced by consuming milkweed, and is toxic to most vertebrates, such as birds, their main predator.

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Monarchs migrate seasonally. There are two distinct populations in North America, those that breed in the East and those that breed in the West (Kane 1999). The eastern population overwinters in the volcanic mountains of eastern Michoacán in central Mexico. The western monarchs spend their winters along the California coast.

North American Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)

North American porcupines is the only mammal in North America with quills to deter predators. According the IUCN (2018) they are of least concern with a stable population.

Porcupines live in grasslands and forests of the Mainland US & Alaska, Canada, and Northern

Mexico (NatureServe 2018).

Figure 12. North American Porcupine, from behind, courtesy of Kate Ballantine.

Porcupines are herbivores, enjoying an array of bark, evergreen needles, leaves, berries, and seeds (NatureServe 2018). They can live up to 18 years in the wild. Porcupine habitat varies geographically between being primarily arboreal (in trees) and terrestrial (on land). In the state of

Massachusetts they spend only 13% of their time on the ground.

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Figure 13. North American Porcupine, courtesy of the Corel Photography Collection.

Microscopic barbs on the end of their quills make them very hard for predators to remove, causing more tissue damage. When threatened, a porcupine will chatter its teeth and produce a chemical odor before releasing quills, as it is an energy intensive mechanism (Weber 2004).

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

Bobcats are North America’s most abundant wild cat. Many will attempt to keep bobcat babies they find as pets, learning quickly that they are indeed a wild animal. Being raised in captivity however means that the cat has no hunting and survival skills, and must be surrendered to a wildlife sanctuary for the remainder of its life. According to the IUCN (2018), they are of least concern with a stable population. The live in shrubland, forests, and grasslands in the

Mainland US, Southern Canada, and Northern Mexico (NatureServe 2018).

Bobcats are obligate carnivores, meaning they must eat meat to survive, although they may graze on grasses or fruits occasionally. Their diet primarily consists of rodents, rabbits, birds,

Stephanie Bennett, 14 and lizards (Ciszek 2002). People who live near bobcat populations often complain of unattended small animals kept as pets being preyed upon.

Figure 14. Bobcat, from behind, courtesy of Kate Ballantine.

Bobcats can live up to 12 years in the wild, and up to 32 years in captivity, much like domestic cats (Ciszek 2002). They are very territorial, male territories will overlap with multiple females for breeding, however males and females rarely overlap with individuals the same sex.

Bobcats and Canadian lynx can be distinguished in areas that their habitat range overlaps by their tails. The bobcat tail has a black tip with a white underside, while the Canadian lynx had a solid black tip (Kays and Wilson 2009).

Eastern Gray Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis)

Eastern gray squirrels are the most commonly seen mammals in the United States (Kay and Wilson 2009). According to the IUCN (2018) they are of least concern, with an increasing population. They preferably live in forests in the Eastern US and Southern Canada, however, they thrive well in suburbs, urban areas, and college campuses (NatureServe 2018).

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Figure 15. Eastern Gray Squirrel, courtesy of Kate Ballantine.

Squirrels are omnivores, feasting on nuts, flowers, insects, seeds, fungi, and bark (Lawniczak

2002). They communicate to each other through high-pitched vocalizations and tail-flicking.

Squirrels enjoy over 24 species of oak as their favorite variety of tree. Forgotten winter seed and acorns caches are essential to seed dispersal. Squirrels also help to distribute truffle spores, as they frequently munch on them.

American Copper Butterfly (Lycaena phlaeas)

The American Copper butterfly is a species that prefers areas that have been disturbed.

Their population is secure according to NatureServe (2018), similar to the classification of least concern by the IUCN. American coppers primarily live in prairies in the Eastern US and Canada

(Barton 2005).

American copper butterflies a nectarivores, preferring the nectar from flowers of rumex species, buttercup, clover, daisy, and wild strawberry (Barton 2005).

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Figure 16. American Copper butterfly, courtesy of Sal Cosmedy.

American coppers are active all day, visiting plants and sunning. They can live for up to a full year if they find suitable wintering locations. They are the smallest of the coppers, which belong to the genus Lycaena (Barton 2005). Butterflies communicate with each other visually through body movement.

Gray Fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus)

The gray fox is an interesting canine, who can be seen climbing low trees. They are of least concern according to the IUCN (2018), with a stable population. Recently, there have been slight declines in eastern populations due to the expansion of coyotes, a competitor food prey.

Gray foxes live in forests and shrubland in the Mainland US (NatureServe 2018).

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Figure 17. Gray Fox, courtesy of Kate Ballantine.

Foxes are highly omnivorous, eating birds, small Mammals, eggs, nuts, and fruit (Vu 2011).

Gray foxes are solitary and predominantly nocturnal. Their short legs and retractable claws make them more the primitive species of the Canidae family (Vu 2011). Foxes communicate by barking and growling.

Ruby-throated Hummingbird (Archilochus colubris)

The ruby-throated hummingbird is a small bird commonly predated by house cats that are allowed outside unsupervised. Their population is of least concern according to the IUCN

(2018), with an increasing population. They live in forests in the Eastern US and Canada, and may travel as far south as Costa Rica to overwinter (Harris and Naumann 2000).

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Figure 18. Ruby-throated Hummingbird, adult male, courtesy of the Macaulay Library.

Hummingbirds are nectarivores, eating primarily floral nectar and occasionally small insects

(Harris and Naumann 2000).

Figure 19. Ruby-throated Hummingbird, adult female, courtesy of the Macaulay Library.

Ruby-throated hummingbirds on average live 5 to 9 years old in the wild (Harris and

Naumann 2000). Their nest is the size of a large sewing thimble, and can fit 3-4 small eggs

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(Cornell 2018). Hummingbirds can see in the blue-violet range and near UV wavelengths 370 to

570 nm, making the detection of bright flower easy (Harris and Naumann 2000). They emit high- pitched chirps to warn other hummingbirds when they enter their territory, and will defend their territory with a fierceness that is larger than their body (Harris and Naumann 2000).

Virginia Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

Last, but certainly to least, is the o’mighty opossum. The Virginia Opossum dwells in forests and shrublands of the Eastern and Central United States, Southern Canada, Mexico, and Central

America (IUCN 2018, NatureServe 2018). According to the IUCN (2018) they are currently at the conservation status of least concern, with an increasing population.

Figure 20. Virginia Opossum, from behind, courtesy of Kate Ballantine.

Opossums are omnivores that enjoy a wide variety of food items. They predominately feed on small mammals, fruits, seeds, snails, and insects (Siciliano 2013). Their diet is also supplemented by foraging in human trash in urban areas.

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Figure 21. Virginia Opossum, courtesy of the University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

Opossums are crepuscular creatures, mostly active at dusk and dawn. They change their den sites every few days unless mothers have young, then they may remain in the same location for some time for convenience. They are well known for going into a state called “playing opossum” for defense, where they feign death for a span of as little as 1 minute to up to 6 hours. They are very slow and clumsy creatures, with a stout body on short legs (Siciliano 2013). A single mother will birth an average of 13 babies, who live in the pouch for 2 months to continue development, and then cling to their mothers back for 2 more months before living on their own

(NatureServe 2013).

Wildlife Conservation and Rehabilitation

What is it? Why is it important?

Wildlife conservation is practicing habits that preserve the historical ranges and populations of native wildlife. This in conjunction with other environmental efforts increases ecosystem fitness and health.

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What are some steps that can be taken to contribute?

1) Don’t litter food waste: It can decompose but attracts wildlife to the roadside

where they may be injured or killed.

2) Do NOT feed wildlife regularly: Feeding wild animals can make them less afraid

of people and they will come closer to homes. Not all humans appreciate wildlife

the same, and animals that approach homes may be mistaken as being sick and

subsequently euthanized. Even crepuscular raccoons and opossums may come out

during the day to forage it they are new mothers and need to increase their food

intake.

3) Exchange your fence for a hedgerow! This allows wildlife to pass through without

being accidentally stuck in traditional fencing and reduces habitat fragmentation,

while providing increased available habitat for some bird species.

4) Don’t use poisons for pests! It travels up the food chain. A poisoned mouse that

leaves your home after being contaminated can kill a fox or hawk who eats it.

Encourage predator presence responsibly to provide natural pest control. It is not

recommended to use domesticated cats for this purpose as they will also hunt

songbirds and lizards.

5) Keep a lid on bins: Prevent wildlife from falling in and becoming trapped in trash

cans and dumpsters, and to discourage scavenging unhealthy garbage and human

waste. Instead, plant a garden that CAN feed wildlife! Replace decorative plants

with native types that produce nourishing leaves and fruits.

6) Provide shelter! Have large and stable rocks or structures that can act as hides in

your garden. Typical attractants include: bird feeders & houses & nesting material

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bundles, hummingbird feeders, windowsill flower boxes, toad houses, bat boxes,

and water sources.

What do I do if I find injured or orphaned wildlife?

A directory of licensed wildlife rehabilitators in the state of Massachusetts can be found here.

Most state-level Fish & Wildlife departments will have a similar list available online. Also try searching for larger animal rescue center operations, as their websites will have much of the information that rehabilitators will initially give in an attempt to keep wildlife wild (ex: how to reunite an uninjured baby squirrel with a living mother).

References

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November 2018.

Barton, Barb. 2005. Lycaena phlaeas. Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan. Museum

of Zoology. Web. Accessed 1 December 2018.

Bosch, A. 2003. Common snapping turtle. Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan.

Museum of Zoology. Web. Accessed 29 November 2018.

Ciszek, Deborah. 2002. Bobcat. Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan. Museum of

Zoology. Web. Accessed 1 December 2018.

Cornell. 2018. All About Birds. The Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Cornell University, Ithaca.

Web. Accessed 29 November 2018.

Crocker, Denton W. 1979. The Crayfishes of New England. Proceedings of the Biological

Society of Washington 92(2):225-25.

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Dewey, Tanya. 2003. White-tailed deer. Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan.

Museum of Zoology. Web. Accessed 29 November 2018.

Fox, Rebecca. 2001. Northern raccoon. Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan. Museum

of Zoology. Web. Accessed 29 November 2018.

Hammond, George, and Stout, Nichol. 2007. Spotted salamander. Animal Diversity Web.

University of Michigan. Museum of Zoology. Web. Accessed 29 November 2018.

Harris, M., and Naumann, R. 2000. Ruby-throated hummingbird. Animal Diversity Web.

University of Michigan. Museum of Zoology. Web. Accessed 2 December 2018.

IUCN. 2018. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2018-2. International Union

for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Web. Accessed 24 November 2018.

Kane, Ethan. 1999. Monarch Butterfly. Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan. Museum

of Zoology. Web. Accessed 1 December 2018.

Kays, Roland W., and Wilson, Don E. 2009. Mammals of North America. Princeton University

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Lawniczak, Mara. 2002. Eastern gray squirrel. University of Michigan. Museum of Zoology.

Web. Accessed 1 December 2018.

Massachusetts Butterfly Club. 2018. Massachusetts Butterfly Species List. North American

Butterfly Association. Web. Accessed 24 November 2018.

NatureServe. 2018. NatureServe Explorer. NatureServe, Inc. Web. Accessed 24 November 2018.

NWF. 2018. Wildlife Guide. National Wildlife Association. Web. Accessed 29 November 2018.

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Pappas, Janice. 2002. Rusty Crayfish. University of Michigan. Museum of Zoology. Web.

Accessed 29 November 2018.

Siciliano, Leila. 2013. Virginia opossum. University of Michigan. Museum of Zoology. Web.

Accessed 2 December 2018.

Vu, Long. 2011. Gray fox. University of Michigan. Museum of Zoology. Web. Accessed 1

December 2018.

Weber, Christopher. 2004. North American porcupine. University of Michigan. Museum of

Zoology. Web. Accessed 1 December 2018.

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