Canola Oil Nutritional Properties

The Lyon Diet Heart Study - the “Mediterranean Diet” Summary

One of the anomalies of the dietary fat-coronary heart The fatty acid composition of canola oil is consistent with disease relationship has been the finding that although the nutrition recommendations aimed at reducing the amount of CanolaCanola Oil:Oil: Cretan (“Mediterranean”) diet in the Seven Countries Study saturated fat in the diet. Canola oil is characterized by a was a high-fat diet, it was associated with a relatively low very low level of saturated fatty acids (< 7% of total fatty mortality rate due to coronary heart disease. The so-called acids). It contains a relatively high level of oleic acid (61%) NutritionalNutritional PropertiesProperties Mediterranean diet is generally characterized as a high and an intermediate level of PUFA (32%) of which α- oleic acid (i.e., monounsaturated fatty acid) diet. However, linolenic acid makes up approximately one-third (i.e., 11% by Dr. Bruce E. McDonald the Cretan diet also was relatively high in linolenic acid of total fatty acids). Diets containing canola oil have been content, particularly in relation to the level of linoleic acid. found equally as effective as those containing corn oil, In addition, it was rich in fruits and vegetables and thus safflower oil, soybean oil and sunflower oil in reducing provided a relatively high intake of antioxidants. plasma total and LDL cholesterol in both normal and hyperlipidemic subjects. Consumption of canola oil also A clinical study by de Lorgeril et al. (35) Ð the Lyon Diet resulted in an increase in long-chain omega-3 fatty acid Heart Study Ð which compared the effect of the (viz., EPA) levels of plasma and platelet phospholipids. Developments over the past few years on the nutritional There has been a major shift away from fats of animal origin Mediterranean diet to that of a prudent post-infarct diet, Ingestion of canola oil also has been found to alter platelet properties of dietary fats has created considerable excitement, to fats from vegetable sources over the past 30 years. In not only in medicine and health care but in the vegetable oil Canada this shift has been accompanied by a marked increase found a remarkable reduction in mortality due to coronary activity and thrombogenesis although the research industry as well. Several of these developments have in the consumption of canola oil which currently accounts for heart disease for those on the Mediterranean diet. The supporting these observations is not as convincing as the important implications for the canola industry in Canada nearly 75% of all vegetable oils processed in Canada. The number of non-fatal coronary events also was markedly effectiveness of canola oil in lowering plasma cholesterol and worldwide. Of particular significance to the canola shift to vegetable oils has resulted in a modest reduction in the reduced for those on the Mediterranean diet. Canola oil and level. Preliminary studies in animal models also suggest industry are: intake of saturated fat but it also has resulted in an associated canola oil-based margarine was used in the Lyon Study to that canola oil may protect against cardiac arrhythmias. increase in the intake of trans fatty acids. Trans fatty acids are provide the level of linolenic acid in the Cretan diet. The ¥ the recommendation that dietary fat be reduced to 30% produced during the hydrogenation of vegetable oils, a study was terminated after a mean of 27 months follow-up The effectiveness of canola oil in reducing plasma total and and saturated fat to less than 10% of the total energy in process used to convert liquid vegetable oils into solid fats on the diets. However, a recent report (36) of an extended LDL cholesterol levels and the observation that it may alter the diet; such as margarine and shortening. Like saturated fatty acids, follow-up (mean of 46 months per patient) of the subjects clotting activity and protect against cardiac arrhythmias ¥ the finding that monounsaturated fatty acids are as trans fatty acids increase plasma cholesterol level, especially in the original study found the benefits of the indicate a beneficial role for canola oil as part of a effective as polyunsaturated fatty acids in lowering blood low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. Mediterranean diet were maintained (14 primary coronary nutritious diet. cholesterol; and events - combined cardiac deaths and nonfatal myocardial ¥ the finding that omega-3 fatty acids are essential nutrients Fatty Acid Composition of Canola Oil infarction Ð on the Mediterranean diet versus 44 on the Dr. Bruce McDonald is Executive Director of the Manitoba and that they may help prevent coronary heart disease. prudent Western-type diet). The results of this study Health Research Council. Canola oil is characterized by a very low level of saturated Dietary fat serves several important functions. It is an illustrate the importance of a cardio-protective diet. fatty acids, a relatively high level of monounsaturated fatty important source of energy. For example, it makes up 45 to However, there is need to verify the results in further trials. acids and an intermediate level of polyunsaturated fatty acids, 50% of the calories for the breast-fed infant. Fat also serves as with a good balance between the omega-6 and omega-3 fatty References 19. Nydahl M, Gustafsson I-B, Ohrvall M and Vessby B. 1995. J Am Coll Nutr the source of essential fatty acids and as a carrier for the fat- acids (see dietary fat chart). 1. Barr SL, Ramakrishnan R, Johnson C, et al. 1992. Am J Clin Nutr 55:575-81. 14:643-651. soluble vitamins. It contributes to the palatability of food 2. Mattson FH and Grundy SM. 1985. J Lipid Res 26:194-202. 20. Miettinen TA and Vanhanen H. 1994. Am J Clin Nutr 59Z:356-363. and to the feeling of satiety. In addition, it has important Saturated Fatty Acids. 3. Keys A, Anderson JT and Grande F. 1965. Metabolism 14:776-787. 21. Eskin NAM, McDonald BE, Przybylski R, et al. 1996. in Bailey’s Industrial culinary properties. 4. Hegsted DM, McGandy RB, Myers ML and Stare FJ. 1965. N Engl J Med Oil and Fat Products. Vol 2 Edible Oil and Fat Products: Oils and Oil Seeds. Canola oil contains only 7% saturated fatty acids; about half 321:436-441. YH Hui ed., John Wiley & Sons Inc, pp 1-95. the level present in corn oil, olive oil and soybean oil and No one disputes the importance of fat in the diet. Until 5. Mensink RP and Katan MB. 1989. N Engl J Med 321:436-441. 22. McDonald BE, Bruce VM, Murthy VG and Latta M. 1995. Proc 9th Int’l about one-quarter the level present in cottonseed oil. 6. Chan JK, Bruce VM and McDonald BE. 1991. Am J Clin Nutr Rapeseed Congress, vol 3, pp 849-851. recently, however, most of the interest in dietary fat stemmed 53:1230-1240. 23. Dyerberg J. 1986. Nutr Rev 44:125-13. from its implication in the etiology of chronic diseases such Monounsaturated Fatty Acids. 7. Kestin M, Clifton P, Belling GB and Nestel PJ. 1990. Am J Clin Nutr 24. Renaud S, Godsey F, Dumont E, et al. 1986. Am J Clin Nutr 43:136-150. as cardiovascular disease, cancer, hypertension and obesity. The most abundant fatty acid in nature is the monounsaturated 51:1028-1034. 25. Chan JK, McDonald BE, Gerrard JM, et al. 1993. Lipids 28:811-817. Interest has centered on the role of both the amount and type fatty acid (MUFA), oleic acid. It is present in virtually all fats 8. Mutanen M. 1997. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 51:314-317. 26. Weaver BM, Corner EJ, Bruce VM, McDonald BE and Holub BJ. 1991. Am of fat in the development of these diseases. 9. Mensink RP and Katan MB. 1990. N Engl J Med 323:439-445. J Clin Nutr 51:594-598. and oils and in some, such as olive oil and canola oil, it is the 10. Zock PL and Katan MB. 1992. J Lipid Res 33:399-410. 27. Kwon J-S, Snook JT, Wardlaw GM and Hwang DH. 1991. Am J Clin Nutr major fatty acid. Oleic acid makes up 61% of the total fatty 11. Judd JT, Clevidence BA, Muesing RA, et al. 1994. Am J Clin Nutr 54:351-358. Recommended Level of Fat in the Diet acids in canola oil. Among the common vegetable oils, canola 59:861-868. 28. Mutanen M, Freese R, Valsta ML, Ahola I and Ahlstrom A. 1992. Thromb oil is second only to olive oil in oleic acid content. Studies 12. Lichtenstein AH, Ausman LM, Jalbert SM and Schaefer. 1999. N Engl J Med Haemostasis 67:352-356. Nutrition recommendations in North America and Europe call over the past 15 years have shown dietary oleic acid is equally 340:1933-40. 29. Li D, Sinclair A, Wilson A, et al. 1999. Am J Clin Nutr 69:872-82. 13. Pietinen P, Ascherio A, Korhonen P, et al. 1997. Am J Epidemiol 145:876-87. 30. McLennan PL, BridleTM, Abeywardena MY and Carnock J. 1988. Am Heart for a reduction in total fat intake to 30% and saturated fat as effective in lowering plasma cholesterol level as dietary 14. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, et al. 1997. N Engl J Med 337:1491-99. J 116:709-717. intake to less than 10% of total energy. Fat intake has polyunsaturated fatty acids (viz., linoleic acid). Humans and 15. McDonald BE, Gerrard JM, Bruce VM and Corner EJ. 1989. Am J Clin Nutr 31. McLennan PL and Dallimore JA. 1995. J Nutr 125:1003-1009. decreased over the past decade. Recent nutrition surveys in other species are able to synthesize oleic acid so it is not 50:1382-1388. 32. Parathasarathy S and Rankin SM. 1992. Prog Lipid Res 31:127-143. Canada indicate the average intake may be as low as 34 to required in the diet; in other words, it is not an essential fatty 16. Valsta LM, Jauhianinen M, Aro A, Katan MB and Mutanen M. 1992. 33. Reaven P, Parthasarathy S, Grasse BJ, et al. 1992. Am J Clin Nutr 35% of the total energy intake. Dietary fat occurs in two acid. Arterioscler Thromb 12:50-57. 54:701-706. forms: visible fat (e.g., margarine, butter, salad dressings, etc.) 34. Abbey M, Belling GB, Noakes M, Hirata F and Nestel PJ. 1993. Am J Clin 17. Wardlaw GM, Snook JT, Lin M-C, Puangco MA and Kwon JS. 1991. Am J and invisible fat (e.g., fat in meats, cheese, nuts, eggs, potato Clin Nutr 54:104-110. Nutr 57:391-398. 18. Lichtenstein AH, Ausman LM, Carrasco W, et al. 1994. Arterioscler and 35. de Lorgeril M, Renaud S, Mamelle N, et al. 1994. Lancet 343:1454-59. CANOLA COUNCIL OF CANADA chips, milk, etc.). Invisible fat accounts in large part for the Thromb 13:1533-1542. 36. de Lorgeril MD, Salen P, Martin J-P, et al. 1999. Circulation 99:779-85. 400-167 Lombard Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3B 0T6 • Phone: (204) 982-2100 • Fax: (204) 942-1841 difficulty compiling accurate data on consumption. email: [email protected] • www.canola-council.org

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids. Katan (10) with lower intakes of trans fatty acids confirmed had no effect on HDL. The lack of effect on HDL in the Interest in the physiological effects of the omega-3 fatty acids 3 fatty acids in the diet. Chan et al. (25) found that changes Canola oil is intermediate among the vegetable oils in The significance of the low level of saturated fatty acids, the the earlier results. A study by Judd et al. (11) confirmed the studies summarized in Table 1 is consistent with the finding by stemmed from the observation of a marked difference in the in plasma and platelet fatty acid composition varied with polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content. It contains high level of MUFA and the balance among PUFA in canola results by Katan and his associates. In addition, the two studies Mensink and Katan (5) that relatively high intakes of PUFA, incidence of CHD among Danes and Greenland Eskimos even both the level of linolenic acid in the diet and its ratio to appreciably higher levels of PUFA than palm oil or olive oil oil in relationship to chronic diseases, in particular coronary by Zock and Katan (9,10) suggested that there is a linear compared to intakes on the average diet, had no effect on though both consumed relatively high fat diets (23). The long- linoleic acid (i.e., linoleate/linolenate ratio). It is perhaps but lower levels of PUFA than corn oil, cottonseed oil, heart disease, is discussed in the following sections. relationship between the dietary intake of trans fatty acids and serum HDL levels. chain omega-3 fatty acids of fish oils, namely EPA and DHA, worth noting, however, that an effect of dietary linolenic safflower oil, soybean oil and sunflower oil. Interest in PUFA their effect on plasma LDL and HDL cholesterol. Lichtenstein have been found to inhibit clot formation (viz., platelet acid on thrombotic risk factors has not been established stems from their role as essential fatty acids and their Dietary Fat and Coronary Heart Disease et al. (12) also found a linear increase in plasma total and LDL Canola oil also has been found effective in reducing the aggregation). The mechanism of this effect of the long-chain (29) even though dietary linolenic acid and its ratio to effectiveness in lowering plasma cholesterol level, a major risk cholesterol levels with increased trans fatty acid intakes. These plasma total and LDL cholesterol levels in hyperlipidemic omega-3 fatty acids is thought to relate to their effect on the linoleic acid have been found to affect some of the factors factor in coronary heart disease. Linoleic acid has long been studies and other studies (13, 14) suggest that hydrogenated subjects (i.e., subjects with elevated blood lipid levels). formation of “hormone-like” substances called eicosanoids. A major reason for the current interest in dietary fat relates to associated with thrombosis. recognized as an essential fatty acid. Animals, including fats do not offer a benefit over saturated fats Lichtenstein et al. (18) found that canola oil, corn oil and rice One of these compounds, thromboxane A , which is formed the evidence linking high fat intakes, especially saturated fat, 2 humans, are unable to synthesize it and, therefore, it is in terms of their effects on plasma cholesterol and bran oil were equally effective in lowering plasma total (18% from arachidonic acid, causes platelet “stickiness” and thus to coronary heart disease (CHD). High levels of blood required in their diets. However, they are able to convert lipoprotein levels. decrease) and LDL (23% decrease) cholesterol in subjects fed clot formation. By contrast, the thromboxane formed from Dietary Fat and Cardiac Arrhythmias cholesterol, in particular LDL cholesterol, constitute a major linoleic acid to arachidonic acid and other members of the a low fat (30% of energy), low saturated fat (< 7% of energy), EPA (TxA ) is a weak aggregating agent. The prostacyclins risk factor in CHD. Dietary recommendations in Canada and 3 omega-6 (also known as the n-6) family of fatty acids. low cholesterol diet where the test fat provided two-thirds of PGI and PGI , other eicosanoids formed from arachidonic Studies with an experimental (rat) model (30) have shown the United States supported dietary modification as the Hypocholesterolemic Effect of Canola Oil 2 3 Arachidonic acid is important in membrane structures and is the dietary fat. Olive oil also resulted in a decrease in plasma acid and EPA, respectively, both inhibit clot formation. These principal intervention for lowering blood cholesterol levels and that diets enriched in long chain omega-3 fatty acids (viz., the starting material for the synthesis of “hormone-like” total and LDL cholesterol but the decrease was less (-14% and developments have led to an interest in the possible effect of the risk of CHD. Nutrition recommendations call for a EPA and DHA) protected against induced arrhythmias. substances, such as prostaglandins, thromboxanes, Studies in Canada, Finland, Sweden and the United States -19%, respectfully) than for the other fat sources. By contrast, linolenic acid on these processes. Several studies found canola reduction in total fat intake to 30% and saturated fat intake to Sunflower oil, a rich source of omega-6 fatty acids, also prostacyclins and leukotrienes. These substances, which are have found canola oil equally as effective as vegetable oils rich Nydahl et al. (19) found canola oil and olive oil equally oil alters parameters that have been linked to clot formation less than 10% of total energy intake. Although there is provided partial protection against induced arrhythmias in referred to collectively as eicosanoids, are intimately involved in PUFA in reducing blood total and LDL cholesterol levels effective in lowering plasma total and LDL cholesterol levels (Table 2). appreciable evidence supporting the beneficial effects of a the rat model. Likewise, antiarrhythmic effects were in a wide variety of physiological reactions ranging from (Table 1). These studies found canola oil as effective as in hyperlipidemic subjects. Miettinen and Vanhanen (20) also reduction in saturated fat intake, a reduction in total fat intake observed when experimental animals were fed diets blood clotting to immune response. sunflower oil (15, 16), soybean oil (6) and safflower oil (17) in found canola oil effective in lowering blood lipid levels in Table 2: Effect of Canola Oil on Parameters was not found to result in lower blood cholesterol levels unless containing canola oil (31). By contrast, feeding diets reducing total and LDL cholesterol levels in subjects with hyperlipidemic subjects; replacing 50 g of fat in the regular there was an accompanying reduction in saturated fat intake (1). Affecting Clot Formation containing olive oil, soybean oil and sunflower oil did not Recent studies have indicated that α-linolenic acid and other normal blood lipid levels. All diets resulted in significant diets of the subjects with 50 g of canola oil mayonnaise significantly decrease the incidence of induced cardiac members of the omega-3 (also known as n-3) family of fatty decreases in plasma total cholesterol (mean of -0.47 to -0.88 resulted in a decrease in serum total and LDL cholesterol Dietary Fat and Plasma Cholesterol. arrhythmia in the experimental animals in this study. These acids likewise are essential. Like, linoleic acid, linolenic acid mmol/L) from the levels on the baseline diets. This decrease in levels. Effect of Canola Interest in dietary fat and CHD centered primarily on saturated can be converted to other members of the omega-3 family, total cholesterol was due primarily to a decrease in LDL Parameter Oil on Parameter Reference findings suggest that the balance between the dietary and polyunsaturated fatty acids until 1985 when Mattson and namely, eicospentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid cholesterol (mean of -0.43 to -0.74 mmol/L). These changes The low level of saturated fatty acids and the relative high omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid content may be important Grundy (2) reported that monounsaturated fatty acids, namely (DHA). DHA is a major constituent of lipids in the brain and are consistent with the primary objective of intervention level of MUFA are undoubtedly major factors in the because the soybean oil diet provided essentially the same oleic acid, were as effective as PUFA in reducing plasma total Omega-3 fatty acid (viz., EPA) the retina of the eye. In addition, the long-chain, highly programs aimed at reducing the risk of coronary heart effectiveness of dietary canola oil in lowering plasma level of α-linolenic acid as the canola oil diet but 2.5 times and LDL cholesterol levels. These observations coincided with content of platelet phospholipids Increased 24, 25, 26 unsaturated members of the omega-3 family act as precursors disease--elevated plasma cholesterol level, in particular LDL cholesterol. Its primary effect is on LDL cholesterol, which is as much linoleic acid. the relatively low incidence of CHD observed among for the synthesis of an analogous but different series of cholesterol, is a major risk factor in CHD. a major risk factor in CHD. Canola oil has been found equally populations consuming the so-called “Mediterranean diet,” Arachidonic acid content of eicosanoids. Canola oil contains an appreciable amount (11%) as effective in reducing plasma cholesterol levels as corn oil which is characterized by a high intake of fat but primarily platelet phospholipids Decreased 24, 27, 28 Dietary Fat and Oxidative Stability of LDL of linolenic acid. Hence, there is a very favorable balance Table 1: Comparison of the Effect of Canola Oil and (18), safflower oil (17), soybean oil (6) and sunflower oil (15, from olive oil. The prevailing theory at the time argued that (approx. 2:1) between linoleic acid (omega-6 PUFA) and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Sources on Plasma Total 16) when each replaced saturated fats in the diet. Low saturated fatty acids raised blood cholesterol, PUFA lowered In vitro platelet aggregation Reduced 24, 25 There is evidence to support the hypothesis that oxidative linolenic acid (omega-3 PUFA) in canola oil. Soybean oil is and Lipoprotein Cholesterol Levels of Human Subjects linolenic acid canola oil, which has greater oxidative stability blood cholesterol and MUFAs were neutral, they neither raised changes to LDL increase its atherogenicity (32). There is the only other major edible oil that contains a significant (better “shelf-life”) than regular canola oil (21), also is nor lowered blood cholesterol (3, 4). The demonstration that also growing evidence that MUFAs protect LDL against amount of linolenic acid (approx. 8%). However, the ratio of Dietary effective in reducing blood cholesterol levels (22)--it was Eicosanoid production vegetable oils high in oleic acid were effective in reducing oxidation. The LDL fraction from subjects fed diets rich in linoleate-to-linolenate in soybean oil is nearly 7:1. The found equally as effective as regular canola oil and sunflower - Thromboxane A2 Decreased 15 blood cholesterol (2, 5) sparked interest in the nutritional PUFA* Plasma Lipid Baseline Change From Baseline importance of the linoleate/linolenate ratio in the diet is yet to oil in lowering plasma total and LDL cholesterol levels. - Prostacyclin Increased 15 oleic acid has been found more stable to oxidation than the properties of canola oil. Source Parameter (mmol/L) Canola Diet PUFA Diet Reference be firmly established but concern has been expressed with the LDL fraction from subjects fed diets enriched with PUFA relatively high intake of linoleic acid in some diets. Sunflower Total cholesterol 4.42 -20% -15% Clotting time Increased 15 (33, 34). Thus ingestion of canola oil might be expected to Considerable interest has been expressed in the effect of fish Dietary Fat and Thrombosis LDL** cholesterol 2.76 -25% -21% 15 result in LDL that is more stable to oxidative change than oils, which are rich sources of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids diets containing high levels of PUFA. In fact, experimental Comparison of Dietary Fats (viz., EPA and DHA), on plasma cholesterol levels. Although Sunflower Total cholesterol 5.35 -15% -12% Cardiovascular disease is characterized by three major events: POLYUNSATURATED FAT Ingestion of canola oil has been shown to alter the fatty results (22) have shown LDL from subjects fed a sunflower Linoleic acid MONOUNSATURATED EPA and DHA are effective in reducing blood triglyceride LDL cholesterol 3.17 -23% -17% 16 SATURATED FAT FAT ¥ the formation of atherosclerotic plaques on the intima of acid composition of plasma and platelet phospholipids. In oil diet to be more susceptible to oxidation than LDL from Alpha-linolenic acid levels, they are not particularly effective in reducing blood (an Omega-3 Fatty Acid) Soybean Total cholesterol 4.40 -18% -16% subjects fed a mixed fat diet or diets in which regular Fatty acid content normalized to 100% total cholesterol or LDL levels. By contrast, α-linolenic acid, blood vessels which decrease the size of the lumen general, canola oil resulted in higher levels of EPA and of the vessel; lower levels of arachidonic acid in platelet phospholipids canola oil or low linolenic acid canola oil was the primary Canola oil 7% 21% 11% 61% the plant source of omega-3 fatty acids, has been found LDL cholesterol 2.98 -25% -18% 6 equally as effective as oleic acid and linoleic acid in reducing ¥ thrombosis, the formation of a clot which, if it blocks a compared to sunflower oil, soybean oil or safflower oil. source of fat. Although sunflower oil is a very rich source Safflower oil 10% 76% Trace 14% Safflower Total cholesterol 5.39 -9% -15% α plasma total and LDL cholesterol levels (6, 7, 8). major vessel, can lead directly to a coronary attack or a However, not all studies reported higher levels of EPA (27, of -tocopherol, no differences were found in plasma Sunflower oil 12% 71% 1% 16% LDL cholesterol 3.71 -12% -15% 17 stroke; and 28) or lower levels of arachidonic acid (25). Similarly, vitamin E levels in subjects fed the different diets. Vitamin Corn oil 13% 57% 1% 29% Trans Fatty Acids and Plasma Cholesterol. ¥ cardiac arrhythmias, uncoordinated contractions of the Renaud et al. (24) and Kwon et al. (27) reported that canola E has been reported to protect against the oxidation of Olive oil 15% 9% 1% 75% * PUFA = polyunsaturated fatty acid Trans fatty acids are produced when fats and oils are heart muscle resulting in irregular and ineffective heartbeats LDL. It is perhaps worth noting that canola oil is a Soybean oil 15% 54% 23% oil reduced in vitro platelet aggregation whereas Mutanen 8% hydrogenated (hardened) for use in the manufacture of ** Low-density lipoprotein and in some cases death. relatively rich source of vitamin E (21). Although canola oil Peanut oil 19% 33% Trace 48% et al. (28) found that canola oil stimulated platelet margarines and shortenings. The report by Mensink and Katan contains about half the level of α-tocopherol present in Cottonseed oil 27% 54% Trace 19% aggregation. In addition, sunflower oil was found to (9) that high intakes of trans fatty acids not only increased Atherosclerosis is a relatively slow process that develops over sunflower oil (270 vs 610 µg/g), it contains twice the level Lard* 43% 9% 1% 47% It is generally accepted that HDL protects against CHD. None produce similar effects to canola oil in terms of platelet plasma LDL cholesterol levels but lowered plasma high- several years. By contrast, clot formation and cardiac present in corn oil (130 µg/g) and soybean oil (120 µg/g). Beef tallow* 48% 2% 1% 49% of the diets in the studies cited in Table 1 had any effect on function (24, 28), clotting time (15) and eicosanoid density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels triggered an arrhythmias occur in a matter of minutes. The latter two events Palm oil 51% 10% Trace 39% plasma HDL cholesterol levels even though PUFA provided 13 production (15). There is no obvious explanation for the intense debate over the physiological effects of hydrogenated to 22% of the total energy intake on the PUFA diets. Very high have only recently received the attention of researchers even Butterfat* 68% 3% 1% 28% marked differences among studies, although part of the fats, particularly in relation to CHD. The study also brought intakes of PUFA (29% of energy) have been reported (2) to though dietary fat is implicated in all of these processes. Coconut oil 91% 2% 7% explanation for the apparent discrepancy among studies into question the wisdom of replacing saturated fats with decrease HDL levels whereas a similar high intake of MUFA * Cholesterol Content (mg/Tbsp): Lard 12; Beef Tallow 14; Butterfat 33. No cholesterol in any vegetable-based oil. may relate to the balance between the omega-6 and omega- Source: POS Pilot Plant Corporation, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, June 1994 hydrogenated products. A subsequent study by Zock and The Lyon Diet Heart Study - the “Mediterranean Diet” Summary

email: [email protected] • www.canola-council.org

hydrogenated products. A subsequent study by Zock and Zock by study subsequent A products. hydrogenated

Source: POS Pilot Plant Corporation, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, June 1994 June Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Corporation, Plant Pilot POS Source:

may relate to the balance between the omega-6 and omega- and omega-6 the between balance the to relate may

* Cholesterol Content (mg/Tbsp): Lard 12; Beef Tallow 14; Butterfat 33. No cholesterol in any vegetable-based oil. vegetable-based any in cholesterol No 33. Butterfat 14; Tallow Beef 12; Lard (mg/Tbsp): Content Cholesterol *

decrease HDL levels whereas a similar high intake of MUFA of intake high similar a whereas levels HDL decrease

into question the wisdom of replacing saturated fats with fats saturated replacing of wisdom the question into

Coconut oil Coconut 2% 7% 91% explanation for the apparent discrepancy among studies among discrepancy apparent the for explanation

intakes of PUFA (29% of energy) have been reported (2) to (2) reported been have energy) of (29% PUFA of intakes

fats, particularly in relation to CHD. The study also brought also study The CHD. to relation in particularly fats,

though dietary fat is implicated in all of these processes. these of all in implicated is fat dietary though

Butterfat* %1% 3% 28% 68%

marked differences among studies, although part of the of part although studies, among differences marked

to 22% of the total energy intake on the PUFA diets. Very high Very diets. PUFA the on intake energy total the of 22% to

intense debate over the physiological effects of hydrogenated of effects physiological the over debate intense

have only recently received the attention of researchers even researchers of attention the received recently only have

Palm oil Palm 0 Trace 10% 39% 51%

production (15). There is no obvious explanation for the for explanation obvious no is There (15). production

plasma HDL cholesterol levels even though PUFA provided 13 provided PUFA though even levels cholesterol HDL plasma

density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels triggered an triggered levels cholesterol (HDL) lipoprotein density

arrhythmias occur in a matter of minutes. The latter two events two latter The minutes. of matter a in occur arrhythmias

Beef tallow* Beef

%1% 2%

49% 48%

function (24, 28), clotting time (15) and eicosanoid and (15) time clotting 28), (24, function

of the diets in the studies cited in Table 1 had any effect on effect any had 1 Table in cited studies the in diets the of

g/g). (120 oil soybean and g/g) (130 oil corn in present

plasma LDL cholesterol levels but lowered plasma high- plasma lowered but levels cholesterol LDL plasma µ µ

several years. By contrast, clot formation and cardiac and formation clot contrast, By years. several

Lard* %1% 9%

47% 43%

produce similar effects to canola oil in terms of platelet of terms in oil canola to effects similar produce

It is generally accepted that HDL protects against CHD. None CHD. against protects HDL that accepted generally is It

g/g), it contains twice the level the twice contains it g/g), 610 vs (270 oil sunflower fatty acids not only increased only not acids fatty trans of intakes high that (9) Atherosclerosis is a relatively slow process that develops over develops that process slow relatively a is Atherosclerosis

Cottonseed oil Cottonseed 4 Trace 54% 19% 27%

aggregation. In addition, sunflower oil was found to found was oil sunflower addition, In aggregation.

margarines and shortenings. The report by Mensink and Katan and Mensink by report The shortenings. and margarines -tocopherol present in present -tocopherol of level the half about contains

Peanut oil Peanut 3 Trace 33% 48% 19%

et al. (28) found that canola oil stimulated platelet stimulated oil canola that found (28) al. et

hydrogenated (hardened) for use in the manufacture of manufacture the in use for (hardened) hydrogenated

relatively rich source of vitamin E (21). Although canola oil canola Although (21). E vitamin of source rich relatively and in some cases death. death. cases some in and

** Low-density lipoprotein Low-density **

Soybean oil Soybean 54%

23% 15%

platelet aggregation whereas Mutanen whereas aggregation platelet vitro in reduced oil

fatty acids are produced when fats and oils are oils and fats when produced are acids fatty Trans

heart muscle resulting in irregular and ineffective heartbeats ineffective and irregular in resulting muscle heart LDL. It is perhaps worth noting that canola oil is a is oil canola that noting worth perhaps is It LDL.

* PUFA = polyunsaturated fatty acid fatty polyunsaturated = PUFA *

Olive oil Olive %1% 9% 75% 15%

Renaud et al. (24) and Kwon et al. (27) reported that canola that reported (27) al. et Kwon and (24) al. et Renaud

. Cholesterol Plasma and Acids Fatty Trans

¥ cardiac arrhythmias, uncoordinated contractions of the of contractions uncoordinated arrhythmias, cardiac ¥

E has been reported to protect against the oxidation of oxidation the against protect to reported been has E

Corn oil Corn 7 1% 57% 29% 13%

28) or lower levels of arachidonic acid (25). Similarly, (25). acid arachidonic of levels lower or 28)

D hlseo .1-2 1%17 -15% -12% 3.71 cholesterol LDL stroke; and and stroke;

vitamin E levels in subjects fed the different diets. Vitamin diets. different the fed subjects in levels E vitamin

Sunflower oil Sunflower 1 1% 71% 16% 12%

plasma total and LDL cholesterol levels (6, 7, 8). 8). 7, (6, levels cholesterol LDL and total plasma

However, not all studies reported higher levels of EPA (27, EPA of levels higher reported studies all not However,

major vessel, can lead directly to a coronary attack or a or attack coronary a to directly lead can vessel, major

-tocopherol, no differences were found in plasma in found were differences no -tocopherol, of

afoe oa hlseo .9-%-15% -9% 5.39 cholesterol Total Safflower α

Safflower oil Safflower 14% 10% 6 Trace 76%

equally as effective as oleic acid and linoleic acid in reducing in acid linoleic and acid oleic as effective as equally compared to sunflower oil, soybean oil or safflower oil. safflower or oil soybean oil, sunflower to compared

¥ thrombosis, the formation of a clot which, if it blocks a blocks it if which, clot a of formation the thrombosis, ¥

source of fat. Although sunflower oil is a very rich source rich very a is oil sunflower Although fat. of source

7% 61% oil Canola 1 11% 21%

D hlseo .8-5 1%6 -18% -25% 2.98 cholesterol LDL the plant source of omega-3 fatty acids, has been found been has acids, fatty omega-3 of source plant the

of the vessel; vessel; the of lower levels of arachidonic acid in platelet phospholipids platelet in acid arachidonic of levels lower canola oil or low linolenic acid canola oil was the primary the was oil canola acid linolenic low or oil canola

-linolenic acid, -linolenic contrast, By levels. LDL or cholesterol total

Fatty acid content normalized to 100% to normalized content acid Fatty blood vessels which decrease the size of the lumen lumen the of size the decrease which vessels blood

general, canola oil resulted in higher levels of EPA and EPA of levels higher in resulted oil canola general, α

oba oa hlseo .0-8 -16% -18% 4.40 cholesterol Total Soybean

(an Omega-3 Fatty Acid) Fatty Omega-3 (an subjects fed a mixed fat diet or diets in which regular which in diets or diet fat mixed a fed subjects

Alpha-linolenic acid Alpha-linolenic

levels, they are not particularly effective in reducing blood reducing in effective particularly not are they levels,

¥ the formation of atherosclerotic plaques on the intima of intima the on plaques atherosclerotic of formation the ¥

acid composition of plasma and platelet phospholipids. In phospholipids. platelet and plasma of composition acid

FAT

oil diet to be more susceptible to oxidation than LDL from LDL than oxidation to susceptible more be to diet oil

SATURATED FAT SATURATED D hlseo .7-3 1%16 -17% -23% 3.17 cholesterol LDL

Linoleic acid Linoleic MONOUNSATURATED

EPA and DHA are effective in reducing blood triglyceride blood reducing in effective are DHA and EPA

Ingestion of canola oil has been shown to alter the fatty the alter to shown been has oil canola of Ingestion

results (22) have shown LDL from subjects fed a sunflower a fed subjects from LDL shown have (22) results POLYUNSATURATED FAT POLYUNSATURATED

(viz., EPA and DHA), on plasma cholesterol levels. Although levels. cholesterol plasma on DHA), and EPA (viz.,

ufoe oa hlseo .5-5 -12% -15% 5.35 cholesterol Total Sunflower Cardiovascular disease is characterized by three major events: major three by characterized is disease Cardiovascular Comparison of Dietary Fats Dietary of Comparison

it otiighg eeso UA nfc,experimental fact, In PUFA. of levels high containing diets

oils, which are rich sources of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids fatty omega-3 long-chain of sources rich are which oils,

D* hlseo .6-5 2%15 -21% -25% 2.76 cholesterol LDL**

result in LDL that is more stable to oxidative change than change oxidative to stable more is that LDL in result

Considerable interest has been expressed in the effect of fish of effect the in expressed been has interest Considerable

Dietary Fat and Thrombosis and Fat Dietary

relatively high intake of linoleic acid in some diets. some in acid linoleic of intake high relatively ltigtm nrae 15 Increased time Clotting

(33, 34). Thus ingestion of canola oil might be expected to expected be might oil canola of ingestion Thus 34). (33, ufoe oa hlseo .2-0 -15% -20% 4.42 cholesterol Total Sunflower

be firmly established but concern has been expressed with the with expressed been has concern but established firmly be

LDL fraction from subjects fed diets enriched with PUFA with enriched diets fed subjects from fraction LDL

properties of canola oil. canola of properties

orePrmtr(mlL aoaDe UADe Reference Diet PUFA Diet Canola (mmol/L) Parameter Source oil in lowering plasma total and LDL cholesterol levels. cholesterol LDL and total plasma lowering in oil importance of the linoleate/linolenate ratio in the diet is yet to yet is diet the in ratio linoleate/linolenate the of importance

rsaylnIcesd15 Increased Prostacyclin -

oleic acid has been found more stable to oxidation than the than oxidation to stable more found been has acid oleic

blood cholesterol (2, 5) sparked interest in the nutritional the in interest sparked 5) (2, cholesterol blood

PUFA* Plasma Lipid Baseline Change From Baseline From Change Baseline Lipid Plasma PUFA*

found equally as effective as regular canola oil and sunflower and oil canola regular as effective as equally found linoleate-to-linolenate in soybean oil is nearly 7:1. The 7:1. nearly is oil soybean in linoleate-to-linolenate

- Thromboxane A Thromboxane - erae 15 Decreased

oxidation. The LDL fraction from subjects fed diets rich in rich diets fed subjects from fraction LDL The oxidation.

vegetable oils high in oleic acid were effective in reducing in effective were acid oleic in high oils vegetable

Dietary

effective in reducing blood cholesterol levels (22)--it was (22)--it levels cholesterol blood reducing in effective amount of linolenic acid (approx. 8%). However, the ratio of ratio the However, 8%). (approx. acid linolenic of amount

Eicosanoid production Eicosanoid

also growing evidence that MUFAs protect LDL against LDL protect MUFAs that evidence growing also

nor lowered blood cholesterol (3, 4). The demonstration that demonstration The 4). (3, cholesterol blood lowered nor

(better “shelf-life”) than regular canola oil (21), also is also (21), oil canola regular than “shelf-life”) (better the only other major edible oil that contains a significant a contains that oil edible major other only the

changes to LDL increase its atherogenicity (32). There is There (32). atherogenicity its increase LDL to changes blood cholesterol and MUFAs were neutral, they neither raised neither they neutral, were MUFAs and cholesterol blood

linolenic acid canola oil, which has greater oxidative stability oxidative greater has which oil, canola acid linolenic linolenic acid (omega-3 PUFA) in canola oil. Soybean oil is oil Soybean oil. canola in PUFA) (omega-3 acid linolenic

and Lipoprotein Cholesterol Levels of Human Subjects Human of Levels Cholesterol Lipoprotein and

In vitro platelet aggregation Reduced 24, 25 24, Reduced aggregation platelet vitro In saturated fatty acids raised blood cholesterol, PUFA lowered PUFA cholesterol, blood raised acids fatty saturated There is evidence to support the hypothesis that oxidative that hypothesis the support to evidence is There

16) when each replaced saturated fats in the diet. Low diet. the in fats saturated replaced each when 16) (approx. 2:1) between linoleic acid (omega-6 PUFA) and PUFA) (omega-6 acid linoleic between 2:1) (approx.

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Sources on Plasma Total Total Plasma on Sources Acid Fatty Polyunsaturated

from olive oil. The prevailing theory at the time argued that argued time the at theory prevailing The oil. olive from

(18), safflower oil (17), soybean oil (6) and sunflower oil (15, oil sunflower and (6) oil soybean (17), oil safflower (18), of linolenic acid. Hence, there is a very favorable balance favorable very a is there Hence, acid. linolenic of

Table 1: Comparison of the Effect of Canola Oil and and Oil Canola of Effect the of Comparison 1: Table

which is characterized by a high intake of fat but primarily but fat of intake high a by characterized is which platelet phospholipids Decreased 24, 27, 28 27, 24, Decreased phospholipids platelet

Dietary Fat and Oxidative Stability of LDL of Stability Oxidative and Fat Dietary

as effective in reducing plasma cholesterol levels as corn oil corn as levels cholesterol plasma reducing in effective as eicosanoids. Canola oil contains an appreciable amount (11%) amount appreciable an contains oil Canola eicosanoids.

populations consuming the so-called “Mediterranean diet,” “Mediterranean so-called the consuming populations Arachidonic acid content of content acid Arachidonic

a major risk factor in CHD. Canola oil has been found equally found been has oil Canola CHD. in factor risk major a for the synthesis of an analogous but different series of series different but analogous an of synthesis the for

cholesterol, is a major risk factor in CHD. CHD. in factor risk major a is cholesterol,

the relatively low incidence of CHD observed among observed CHD of incidence low relatively the

cholesterol. Its primary effect is on LDL cholesterol, which is which cholesterol, LDL on is effect primary Its cholesterol. unsaturated members of the omega-3 family act as precursors as act family omega-3 the of members unsaturated as much linoleic acid. acid. linoleic much as

disease--elevated plasma cholesterol level, in particular LDL particular in level, cholesterol plasma disease--elevated

and LDL cholesterol levels. These observations coincided with coincided observations These levels. cholesterol LDL and

content of platelet phospholipids Increased 24, 25, 26 25, 24, Increased phospholipids platelet of content

effectiveness of dietary canola oil in lowering plasma lowering in oil canola dietary of effectiveness h eiao h y.I diin h ogcan highly long-chain, the addition, In eye. the of retina the

-linolenic acid as the canola oil diet but 2.5 times 2.5 but diet oil canola the as acid -linolenic of level

programs aimed at reducing the risk of coronary heart heart coronary of risk the reducing at aimed programs

oleic acid, were as effective as PUFA in reducing plasma total plasma reducing in PUFA as effective as were acid, oleic

Omega-3 fatty acid (viz., EPA) EPA) (viz., acid fatty Omega-3

level of MUFA are undoubtedly major factors in the in factors major undoubtedly are MUFA of level (DHA). DHA is a major constituent of lipids in the brain and brain the in lipids of constituent major a is DHA (DHA).

are consistent with the primary objective of intervention of objective primary the with consistent are because the soybean oil diet provided essentially the same the essentially provided diet oil soybean the because

rny()rpre htmnustrtdftyais namely acids, fatty monounsaturated that reported (2) Grundy

The low level of saturated fatty acids and the relative high relative the and acids fatty saturated of level low The namely, eicospentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid docosahexaenoic and (EPA) acid eicospentaenoic namely,

cholesterol (mean of -0.43 to -0.74 mmol/L). These changes These mmol/L). -0.74 to -0.43 of (mean cholesterol omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid content may be important be may content acid fatty omega-6 and omega-3

and polyunsaturated fatty acids until 1985 when Mattson and Mattson when 1985 until acids fatty polyunsaturated and

aaee i nPrmtrReference Parameter on Oil Parameter can be converted to other members of the omega-3 family, omega-3 the of members other to converted be can

total cholesterol was due primarily to a decrease in LDL in decrease a to primarily due was cholesterol total findings suggest that the balance between the dietary the between balance the that suggest findings

Interest in dietary fat and CHD centered primarily on saturated on primarily centered CHD and fat dietary in Interest

levels. acids likewise are essential. Like, linoleic acid, linolenic acid linolenic acid, linoleic Like, essential. are likewise acids Effect of Canola of Effect

mmol/L) from the levels on the baseline diets. This decrease in decrease This diets. baseline the on levels the from mmol/L) arrhythmia in the experimental animals in this study. These study. this in animals experimental the in arrhythmia

. . Cholesterol Plasma and Fat Dietary

resulted in a decrease in serum total and LDL cholesterol LDL and total serum in decrease a in resulted members of the omega-3 (also known as n-3) family of fatty of family n-3) as known (also omega-3 the of members

decreases in plasma total cholesterol (mean of -0.47 to -0.88 to -0.47 of (mean cholesterol total plasma in decreases

significantly decrease the incidence of induced cardiac induced of incidence the decrease significantly

-linolenic acid and other and acid -linolenic that indicated have studies Recent diets of the subjects with 50 g of canola oil mayonnaise oil canola of g 50 with subjects the of diets α

normal blood lipid levels. All diets resulted in significant in resulted diets All levels. lipid blood normal

there was an accompanying reduction in saturated fat intake (1). intake fat saturated in reduction accompanying an was there containing olive oil, soybean oil and sunflower oil did not did oil sunflower and oil soybean oil, olive containing

Affecting Clot Formation Formation Clot Affecting

hyperlipidemic subjects; replacing 50 g of fat in the regular the in fat of g 50 replacing subjects; hyperlipidemic

reducing total and LDL cholesterol levels in subjects with subjects in levels cholesterol LDL and total reducing

was not found to result in lower blood cholesterol levels unless levels cholesterol blood lower in result to found not was containing canola oil (31). By contrast, feeding diets feeding contrast, By (31). oil canola containing

Table 2: Effect of Canola Oil on Parameters Parameters on Oil Canola of Effect 2: Table

found canola oil effective in lowering blood lipid levels in levels lipid blood lowering in effective oil canola found blood clotting to immune response. immune to clotting blood

sunflower oil (15, 16), soybean oil (6) and safflower oil (17) in (17) oil safflower and (6) oil soybean 16), (15, oil sunflower

reduction in saturated fat intake, a reduction in total fat intake fat total in reduction a intake, fat saturated in reduction observed when experimental animals were fed diets fed were animals experimental when observed

in hyperlipidemic subjects. Miettinen and Vanhanen (20) also (20) Vanhanen and Miettinen subjects. hyperlipidemic in in a wide variety of physiological reactions ranging from ranging reactions physiological of variety wide a in

(Table 1). These studies found canola oil as effective as effective as oil canola found studies These 1). (Table

appreciable evidence supporting the beneficial effects of a of effects beneficial the supporting evidence appreciable the rat model. Likewise, antiarrhythmic effects were effects antiarrhythmic Likewise, model. rat the

effective in lowering plasma total and LDL cholesterol levels cholesterol LDL and total plasma lowering in effective referred to collectively as eicosanoids, are intimately involved intimately are eicosanoids, as collectively to referred (Table 2). (Table

in PUFA in reducing blood total and LDL cholesterol levels cholesterol LDL and total blood reducing in PUFA in

less than 10% of total energy intake. Although there is there Although intake. energy total of 10% than less

provided partial protection against induced arrhythmias in arrhythmias induced against protection partial provided

Nydahl et al. (19) found canola oil and olive oil equally oil olive and oil canola found (19) al. et Nydahl prostacyclins and leukotrienes. These substances, which are which substances, These leukotrienes. and prostacyclins oil alters parameters that have been linked to clot formation clot to linked been have that parameters alters oil

have found canola oil equally as effective as vegetable oils rich oils vegetable as effective as equally oil canola found have

reduction in total fat intake to 30% and saturated fat intake to intake fat saturated and 30% to intake fat total in reduction

ufoe i,arc oreo mg- at cd,also acids, fatty omega-6 of source rich a oil, Sunflower

-19%, respectfully) than for the other fat sources. By contrast, By sources. fat other the for than respectfully) -19%, usacs uha rsalnis thromboxanes, prostaglandins, as such substances, linolenic acid on these processes. Several studies found canola found studies Several processes. these on acid linolenic

Studies in Canada, Finland, Sweden and the United States United the and Sweden Finland, Canada, in Studies

the risk of CHD. Nutrition recommendations call for a for call recommendations Nutrition CHD. of risk the

EPA and DHA) protected against induced arrhythmias. induced against protected DHA) and EPA

total and LDL cholesterol but the decrease was less (-14% and (-14% less was decrease the but cholesterol LDL and total the starting material for the synthesis of “hormone-like” of synthesis the for material starting the developments have led to an interest in the possible effect of effect possible the in interest an to led have developments

principal intervention for lowering blood cholesterol levels and levels cholesterol blood lowering for intervention principal

that diets enriched in long chain omega-3 fatty acids (viz., acids fatty omega-3 chain long in enriched diets that the dietary fat. Olive oil also resulted in a decrease in plasma in decrease a in resulted also oil Olive fat. dietary the Arachidonic acid is important in membrane structures and is and structures membrane in important is acid Arachidonic acid and EPA, respectively, both inhibit clot formation. These formation. clot inhibit both respectively, EPA, and acid

the United States supported dietary modification as the as modification dietary supported States United the

Hypocholesterolemic Effect of Canola Oil Canola of Effect Hypocholesterolemic

3 2 Studies with an experimental (rat) model (30) have shown have (30) model (rat) experimental an with Studies low cholesterol diet where the test fat provided two-thirds of two-thirds provided fat test the where diet cholesterol low omega-6 (also known as the n-6) family of fatty acids. fatty of family n-6) the as known (also omega-6 PGI , other eicosanoids formed from arachidonic from formed eicosanoids other , PGI and

risk factor in CHD. Dietary recommendations in Canada and Canada in recommendations Dietary CHD. in factor risk

a low fat (30% of energy), low saturated fat (< 7% of energy), of 7% (< fat saturated low energy), of (30% fat low a linoleic acid to arachidonic acid and other members of the of members other and acid arachidonic to acid linoleic EPA (TxA EPA ) is a weak aggregating agent. The prostacyclins The agent. aggregating weak a is )

cholesterol, in particular LDL cholesterol, constitute a major a constitute cholesterol, LDL particular in cholesterol,

decrease) and LDL (23% decrease) cholesterol in subjects fed subjects in cholesterol decrease) (23% LDL and decrease) required in their diets. However, they are able to convert to able are they However, diets. their in required lipoprotein levels. lipoprotein clot formation. By contrast, the thromboxane formed from formed thromboxane the contrast, By formation. clot Dietary Fat and Cardiac Arrhythmias Cardiac and Fat Dietary

to coronary heart disease (CHD). High levels of blood of levels High (CHD). disease heart coronary to

bran oil were equally effective in lowering plasma total (18% total plasma lowering in effective equally were oil bran humans, are unable to synthesize it and, therefore, it is it therefore, and, it synthesize to unable are humans, in terms of their effects on plasma cholesterol and and cholesterol plasma on effects their of terms in from arachidonic acid, causes platelet “stickiness” and thus and “stickiness” platelet causes acid, arachidonic from

the evidence linking high fat intakes, especially saturated fat, saturated especially intakes, fat high linking evidence the

One of these compounds, thromboxane A thromboxane compounds, these of One Lichtenstein et al. (18) found that canola oil, corn oil and rice and oil corn oil, canola that found (18) al. et Lichtenstein eonzda nesnilftyai.Aias including Animals, acid. fatty essential an as recognized fats do not offer a benefit over saturated fats fats saturated over benefit a offer not do fats , which is formed is which ,

A major reason for the current interest in dietary fat relates to relates fat dietary in interest current the for reason major A associated with thrombosis. with associated

formation of “hormone-like” substances called eicosanoids. called substances “hormone-like” of formation subjects (i.e., subjects with elevated blood lipid levels). lipid blood elevated with subjects (i.e., subjects factor in coronary heart disease. Linoleic acid has long been long has acid Linoleic disease. heart coronary in factor studies and other studies (13, 14) suggest that hydrogenated that suggest 14) (13, studies other and studies

linoleic acid have been found to affect some of the factors the of some affect to found been have acid linoleic

omega-3 fatty acids is thought to relate to their effect on the on effect their to relate to thought is acids fatty omega-3 plasma total and LDL cholesterol levels in hyperlipidemic in levels cholesterol LDL and total plasma effectiveness in lowering plasma cholesterol level, a major risk major a level, cholesterol plasma lowering in effectiveness fatty acid intakes. These intakes. acid fatty trans increased with levels cholesterol

(29) even though dietary linolenic acid and its ratio to ratio its and acid linolenic dietary though even (29) Dietary Fat and Coronary Heart Disease Heart Coronary and Fat Dietary

aggregation). The mechanism of this effect of the long-chain the of effect this of mechanism The aggregation). Canola oil also has been found effective in reducing the reducing in effective found been has also oil Canola stems from their role as essential fatty acids and their and acids fatty essential as role their from stems et al. (12) also found a linear increase in plasma total and LDL and total plasma in increase linear a found also (12) al. et

acid on thrombotic risk factors has not been established been not has factors risk thrombotic on acid

aebe on oihbtco omto vz,platelet (viz., formation clot inhibit to found been have safflower oil, soybean oil and sunflower oil. Interest in PUFA in Interest oil. sunflower and oil soybean oil, safflower their effect on plasma LDL and HDL cholesterol. Lichtenstein cholesterol. HDL and LDL plasma on effect their

worth noting, however, that an effect of dietary linolenic dietary of effect an that however, noting, worth chain omega-3 fatty acids of fish oils, namely EPA and DHA, and EPA namely oils, fish of acids fatty omega-3 chain heart disease, is discussed in the following sections. following the in discussed is disease, heart serum HDL levels. HDL serum but lower levels of PUFA than corn oil, cottonseed oil, cottonseed oil, corn than PUFA of levels lower but fatty acids and acids fatty trans of intake dietary the between relationship

linoleic acid (i.e., linoleate/linolenate ratio). It is perhaps is It ratio). linoleate/linolenate (i.e., acid linoleic though both consumed relatively high fat diets (23). The long- The (23). diets fat high relatively consumed both though oil in relationship to chronic diseases, in particular coronary particular in diseases, chronic to relationship in oil compared to intakes on the average diet, had no effect on effect no had diet, average the on intakes to compared appreciably higher levels of PUFA than palm oil or olive oil olive or oil palm than PUFA of levels higher appreciably by Zock and Katan (9,10) suggested that there is a linear a is there that suggested (9,10) Katan and Zock by

both the level of linolenic acid in the diet and its ratio to ratio its and diet the in acid linolenic of level the both incidence of CHD among Danes and Greenland Eskimos even Eskimos Greenland and Danes among CHD of incidence high level of MUFA and the balance among PUFA in canola in PUFA among balance the and MUFA of level high Mensink and Katan (5) that relatively high intakes of PUFA, of intakes high relatively that (5) Katan and Mensink polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content. It contains It content. (PUFA) acid fatty polyunsaturated results by Katan and his associates. In addition, the two studies two the addition, In associates. his and Katan by results

in plasma and platelet fatty acid composition varied with varied composition acid fatty platelet and plasma in stemmed from the observation of a marked difference in the in difference marked a of observation the from stemmed h infcneo h o ee fstrtdftyais the acids, fatty saturated of level low the of significance The studies summarized in Table 1 is consistent with the finding by finding the with consistent is 1 Table in summarized studies Canola oil is intermediate among the vegetable oils in oils vegetable the among intermediate is oil Canola the earlier results. A study by Judd et al. (11) confirmed the confirmed (11) al. et Judd by study A results. earlier the

3 fatty acids in the diet. Chan et al. (25) found that changes that found (25) al. et Chan diet. the in acids fatty 3 Interest in the physiological effects of the omega-3 fatty acids fatty omega-3 the of effects physiological the in Interest had no effect on HDL. The lack of effect on HDL in the in HDL on effect of lack The HDL. on effect no had Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids. Fatty Polyunsaturated Katan (10) with lower intakes of trans fatty acids confirmed acids fatty trans of intakes lower with (10) Katan The Lyon Diet Heart Study - the “Mediterranean Diet” Summary