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The Mariner's Mirror The International Quarterly Journal of The Society for Nautical Research

ISSN: 0025-3359 (Print) 2049-680X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rmir20

THE DESIGN OF USED AT SEA IN THE 1800s

John H. Harland

To cite this article: John H. Harland (1991) THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800s, The Mariner's Mirror, 77:2, 151-165, DOI: 10.1080/00253359.1991.10656346

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00253359.1991.10656346

Published online: 22 Mar 2013.

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Download by: [New York University] Date: 11 February 2016, At: 09:07 The Mariner's Mirror, Vol. 77, No. 2 (May 1991), 151-165 151

THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800s

By John H. Harland

HAT follows is not an attempt to describe the development of the ship's and windlass in any definitive way, but rather an effort to Wsystematize the answers to some questions that presented themselves during several years of desultory research on the topic. Although, in passing, mention is made of winches that were in use as recently as thirty years ago, our attention is mainly focused on developments in design over the century 1750-1850.

CLASSIFICATION I use the word 'winch' non-specifically, as a handy generic term including both capstans and windlasses - a capstan being a winch whose axis is vertical while the barrel, or drum, of a windlass is horizontal. Broadly speaking, winches may be divided into Type A, 'reel-winches', and Type B, 'traction-winches'. In a reel-winch, the end of the is firmly secured to the barrel and as it is wound on, the number of turns on the drum increases until at some point the drum or barrel can take no more, i.e. the winch has a finite capacity (Fig. 1: A, B, F). With a Type B traction-winch two or three turns of the rope are taken round the barrel, and the grip depends solely on the friction between rope and barrel. As the barrel rotates the number of turns remains constant, and in theory there is no limit to the length of rope which can be handled by the device. In practice limits are imposed by the space available to store the rope (Fig. 1: D, E, G). With this kind of winch, tension has to be applied to the 'hauling', or 'inboard', end, technically known as 'holding on', 'holding off, or 'hauling off (Fig. 1: L). Type C, the early type of steering wheel, is a special variant of the reel-winch, one in which the number of turns of rope remains constant. This difference is explained because it in fact comprises two-reel winches, back to back. As the wheel is turned the Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016 rope coming off one end of the drum is balanced by that coming on at the other end, hence the number of turns remains the same: three and a half in our sketch (Fig. 1: C). Type D, used only with chain, uses a specially shaped chain-flange to grip the links, and might be considered a special non-slip kind of traction-winch. The chain can be engaged for as little as half a turn or so, on the barrel, and an infinite length of chain can be handled (Fig. 1: I, J, K).

SHAPE OF DRUM In all four types the barrel need not be a true cylinder. With the non-cylindrical variations of Types A and B, this shape is commonly the frustum of a cone, while in the case of Type C the drum may be ovoid or biconcave in section (Fig. 1: F, G. H). In Types A and C a helical groove may be found on the barrel. These, however, are 152 THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800S never found in Type B winches, although circumferential grooves are found in one particular sub-group of Type B winches, the 'double-drum non-surging' type. Drums of non-cylindrical shapes are adopted for a variety of reasons. Shaw & Hastie's patent -halliard winch (Type A) had a conoid barrel, to equalize the force that had to be applied to the hand-crank, at and bottom of the 's travel, the greatest effort being required when the yard was almost up (Fig. 1: F; Fig. 2: E). Type B was cone-shaped, or sometimes of biconcave section to facilitate 'surging', of which more in a moment (Fig. 1: G). Type C was specially shaped in the hope of approximately matching the shift of rope off and on the barrel (which, with a cylindrical barrel, would have been essentially linear) to the movement of the end of the , which was arciform (Fig. 1: H).1 The reel-type winch was ideal for any task involving short repetitive lifts, for example the cargo-winch, but could be adapted for applications involving substantial lengths of wire, for example the trawl-winch, the minesweeping-winch, or the Dutch whaling-winch, which began to displace the traditional Norwegian pattern in the early 1950s.

SURGING We have noted that with Type B the number of turns remain constant, although the position of these on the barrel changes as the winch turns. If the rope does not slip on the barrel and one turn does not ride up over another, the turns 'walk' along the barrel, eventually coming to one end. At this point, before rotation can continue, the load has to be secured in some way, the turns slackened off and shifted to the other end. This shifting of the turns corresponds to the fleeting of a tackle and is called 'surging'. A taper facilitates this shifting and actually encourages the turns to shift spontaneously in the proper direction, in small increments, thus postponing the necessity of a major movement (Fig. 1: D, E, G). The inconvenience of surging, as it applied to the hemp -cable, became irrelevant with the introduction of chain-cable and the Type D anchor-winch. This had a solid grip on the anchor-chain, and by using appropriate guide-rollers the necessity of holding off the inboard end was obviated. In the case of a cylindrical traction-winch with a smooth surface we intuitively realize that the ability of the rope to grip the barrel is inversely proportional to the load, and depends on its coefficient of friction with the material of the barrel, the

Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016 number of turns taken, and the tension applied to the 'inboard' end. In fact there is a nice mathematical relationship between these factors, which may be expressed:

T n6 ~T = e

where T = tension on the loaded end; t = holding off tension; e = base of Napierian logarithms; (X = coefficient of friction; G = wrap-angle in radians.

'WRAP-ANGLE' 'Wrap-angle' or 'lap-angle' measures the contact between the rope and barrel, a full turn amounting to 2pi (6.28) radians, with each turn increasing the grip exponentially, THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800S 153 Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016

Fig. 1 154 THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800S i.e. two turns are not just twice but many times as effective as a single turn. However in a great many applications capstan barrels are not smooth but ridged or fitted with 'whelps'. It is clear that in such a whelped capstan the wrap-angle is very much diminished, and therefore it is reasonable to ask why whelps would ever be fitted (Fig. 1:M,N).

WHELPS For some practical advice on this point I sought help from two firms well known as manufacturers of winches: Thomas Reid & Sons, Paisley, and NEI Clarke Chapman Ltd, Gateshead. It appears, as a practical matter, that a capstan with whelps simply gives a better grip than one with a smooth barrel, and although the number of turns and the coefficient of friction no doubt are significant factors, in the working of the whelped version the equation above does not apply with the same exactitude as when we have continuous contact between contiguous surfaces. The whelps act as a sort of primitive sprocket, biting into and internally deforming the rope; we might compare their action with the improved road traction that a car would have with treaded tyres on a rough road. This principle can be carried to extremes. In 1838 a locomotive was built in Boston which had wheels with 105 flats milled on them, the intention being to prevent slipping.2 Nowadays, where capstans are handling wire and synthetic fibre , replaceable whelps are sometimes fitted, but this lies outside our present study.

BEND-RADIUS The capstan has to be large enough to match the bend-radius of the rope, something which increases with the cable's size and stiffness. In the case of Victory, the main capstan was about 4 feet in diameter and capable of handling a hemp messenger 15 inches in circumference. Had the capstan been completely solid instead of built up, using whelps around a central spindle, it would have been inconveniently heavy and the task of heaving round extremely difficult.

WINDLASS In smaller merchantmen of the 1700s and 1800s, the anchor was hove up with a windlass. Two full turns of hemp cable were taken round the barrel, which was tapered down towards the sides. Surging was done from the centre outwards, i.e. the Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016 outboard end was towards the centre. In earlier days the barrel was of octagonal section, the faces mortised to take the handspikes, and until about 1800, the pawl also. With the introduction of chain cable the faces were fitted with whelps, which acted like primitive snugs (Fig. 1: K). I think it would have been usual to continue taking two turns of chain around the barrel, even though one turn would have sufficed, if the inter-whelp distance matched the links of the chain. In the case of hemp cable the rope came on and off the top, to facilitate hauling off, while chain was sometimes led round the bottom of the barrel (Fig. 2: C, D).

DIRECTION OF TAPER The ship-capstan is invariably tapered upwards, narrow above, and hence the turns are fleeted upward. We can suggest two reasons for this. First, it would be easier to THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800S 155 Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016

Fig. 2 156 THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800S off at waist rather than at foot level. Second, the men heaving round would have to step over the cable. The 'inboard' end of the rope was held off by a few hands as there was not much tension on it. The 'outboard' end, however, took the whole strain of the anchor and cable, and would be bar-taut. Consequently things were best arranged when this end was below to start with, and moving lower as the turns worked their way down the barrel (Fig. 2: A). An exception to the rule of upward taper is provided by what I have called 'the upside-down capstan' in the Museo delPOpera del Duomo, in Florence (Fig. 2: B).3 This was set up on a scaffold platform to drag blocks of stone up an inclined plane, the latter being pitched at a sufficiently low angle to render any type of pawl unnecessary. If the rope had been arranged in the ordinary way, it would have fouled the angle between the platform and the plane as the turns worked down. This could have been obviated by using a leading , but tapering the barrel the 'wrong' way and fleeting the turns up offered an even simpler solution. With the windlass the pawl-bitt is centrally placed. When the strain comes on the pawl it is best if this were applied at the thickest part of the windlass barrel. So the barrel was thickest at the centre, and the turns were fleeted towards the sides of the windlass.

GEARED CAPSTANS Although there is a geared capstan in the Model collection in the Tekniska Museet, Stockholm, I do not believe anything of this sort was used at sea (Fig. 3: A). The second barrel is intended to gear down the capstan and increase its power, and this capstan is unrelated to the double-drum winches to be discussed later. The Rijks Museum, Amsterdam, has a fine collection of model capstans, which includes several geared versions. In 1771 A. G. Eckhard, a Dutchman, devised a capstan with sun- and-planet gears connecting two drumheads, which rotated in opposite directions. If the bars were used to turn one the machine acted as a common capstan, but if the other head were employed the power increased threefold (Fig. 2: A; Fig. 3: D; Fig. 6: E). In 1772 a capstan of this type was installed on board HMS Defiance in England. A capstan with a double head of the Eckhard type is shown in W.H. Harfield's patent no. 1347 as late as 1860, although referred to as 'Brown's patent power capstan' rather than mentioning Eckhard.

PHILIPPS CAPSTAN Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016 Shifting the bars from one set of pigeon-holes to another was a nuisance, and in 1819 Philipps improved the original Eckhard capstan by fitting it with a single head and moving the gears below . The gear ratio was selected by connecting and disconnecting the appropriate parts of the machine with drop pins, two in the head and two below between the whelps. To use as a simple capstan the upper pins were lifted out and the lower ones dropped in. In 1832 no fewer than 230 English ships were fitted with the Philipps capstan (Fig. 3: C). An example of the Philipps capstan is to be seen in Foudroyant, and on page 153 of Peter Goodwin's Construction and Fitting of the Sailing Man-of-War 1650-1850 there is a picture of the chain control- ling one of its lower drop pins. James Brown patented a crank-driven capstan in 1833 (pat. no. 6385). My sketch is of a model in the Rijks Museum (Fig. 3: B). In the same collection there is a similar version which could be driven by either cranks or bars. THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800S 157

IB Bi Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016

Fig. 3 158 THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800S GEARED WINDLASSES The traditional windlass, found in merchantmen of the 1700s, was turned with handspikes thrust into square holes in the barrel. As early as 1794 William Hutchinson was suggesting using levers and a ratchet - 'ragged-wheels' as he called them. There were versions with fore-and- levers, and patents were applied for using various arrangements for driving the horizontal windlass with a geared vertical capstan (Fig. 2: C). A very common arrangement in the latter half of the 1800s, occurring in many forms, was an athwartship lever that worked after the fashion of a pump-handle (Fig. 2: D; Fig. 6: F). One version was known as 'Tysack and Dobinson's compound lever windlass'. In the early 1900s this kind of windlass was commonly known as the 'Armstrong patent'. This was a jocular reference to the way it was powered (the poor step-sister of the steam-windlass) rather than a surname.4

THE NON-SURGING CAPSTAN When a sailing warship hove up its anchor, with a messenger nippered to the cable, the messenger 'walked' down the barrel until it could go no further. At that point the cable was stoppered, the turns slackened off and shifted up the tapered barrel before heaving-in could continue. Contemporary accounts indicate that this repeated interruption of the heaving-in process lasted about 15 minutes. In 1741 the French Academy of Sciences offered a prize for the best way of obviating this difficulty: the development of a cabestan sans choquer, or 'non-surging capstan'. Non-surging capstans can be assigned one of two families, 'double-drum' or 'inclined plane', and overwhelmingly the proposals submitted to the Academy belonged to the first category, embodying an inclined ramp that 'jogged' the turns continually upward. In effect the messenger was surged, but this was done in small increments rather than all at once.

INCLINED PLANE VERSIONS There are examples in the Rijks Museum collection representing capstans designed by Asmus, du Sahy, and Forfait (in Fig. 4, respectively A, B, and C). Du Sahy uses a rod, with a caster on the lower end and two hooks that protruded out of the whelps. The lower hook nudged the turns up while the upper one could be used to Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016 push the rod down if it failed to drop of its own weight. Asmus used L-shaped wooden chocks to accomplish the same thing. Forfait's elegant design used roller- bearings to support a ring or collar, which lay beneath the lowest turn of the rope. A capstan using a similar principle was invented and built by Louis Frederic Francois David, of Havre, and patented in the name of John Henry Johnson, in London in 1855 (pat. no. 2677). An example is still to be seen on the terrace of the port at Biarritz (Fig. 4: D). This machine is referred to in Bonnefoux, Dictionnaire de Marine a Voiles. M David du Havre a imagine d'adapter aux cabestans ordinaires, aux treuils, et aux guindeaux, une rondelle de bois ou de metal taille en helice, au moyen de laquelle, virer indefimment au Cabestan, sans qu'il y ait ni secousses, ni risques, ni arrets. Un collier en fonte et une came en fer que, plus rec,emment, M David a fixe a la cloche du Cabestan au-dessus de l'helice, relevent le cable ou le grelin a mesure qu'il s'enroule . . .'.5 THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800S 159 Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016

Fig. 4 160 THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800S In England Thomas James Plucknett in 1801 likewise suggested castered lifters (pat. no. 2483), more or less on the du Sahy principle, but I do not believe his capstan was ever built.

DOUBLE-DRUM VERSION Although capstans using the inclined plane offered one practical solution to the problem, there was another way round the difficulty. If one could somehow 'split' the single barrel into two halves the turns could remain in the same position, and this can be achieved simply and elegantly by introducing a second, or supplementary, barrel, giving us the 'double-drum non-surging capstan'.

DOUMET Among the many unsuccessful submissions to the Academy was one made by a grena- dier officer called Doumet. He proposed a capstan with two grooved barrels, arranged as shown (Fig. 5: A). This is his 'geared' version in which the drums rotate in opposite senses. He also proposed an alternative 'free-wheel' version in which the grooves keep the individual turns from shifting sideways and rubbing against each other. In the event the ingenuity and elegance of his proposal was not recognized and his submission mouldered forgotten in the files of the Academy. As we shall see, however, other inventors were to arrive at the same solution independently, and apply it successfully.

BOSWELL In 1807 in England the Society of Arts voted its Gold Medal to Mr J.W. Boswell, for his solution to the problem.6 It will be seen that, in principle, it is essentially a reinvention of Doumet's capstan but using collars rather than grooves to prevent the turns rubbing against each other (Fig. 5: B, C). In both Doumet and Boswell capstans the barrels were geared together and rotated in opposite directions, so the ropes passed between the barrels in a cross-cross fashion.

BETANCOURT The French engineer Augustin Betancourt (1760-1826) devised and built a double- drum capstan for use in the construction of large buildings. This was in fact enclosed Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016 in a sturdy framework, which I have omitted for clarity (Fig. 5: D). Not only did he arrive at this idea independently rather than through any knowledge of Doumet's suggestion but his invention very likely antedates BoswelPs proposal also. The French engineer further refined things in a significant fashion. By introducing a third gear-wheel he caused the drums to rotate in the same direction, with the rope passing directly from one to the other, in parallel fashion (Fig. 5: G). This plan was followed in all subsequent versions of the double-drum winch, mentioned below (Fig. 5: B).

ASHTON AND SVEND FOYN As far as the technological development of non-surging winches goes, it was in fact the double-drum version, initially disregarded by the pundits of the Academy, which was to have the longer life. In 1862 J.P. Ashton exhibited the double-drum winch shown, THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800S 161 Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016

H bulL =Q Illllll

Fig. 5 162 THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800S at the Industrial Exhibition in London (Fig. 5: F). This was a steam-driven version of Betancourt's winch, turned on its side. In its turn Ashton's winch was almost certainly the inspiration for the double-drum whaling winch, developed by the Norwegian Svend Foyn, and shown in his patent application of 1873. It is in this incarnation that it will be familiar to those who have visited the museum-ship Ran IX at Bremerhaven (Fig. 5: J, K). Although a Dutch reel-type whaling-winch began to displace them in the 1950s, winches using this principle remained in use in catchers until the last days of large-scale commercial whaling, in the early 1960s. Over the century 1860-1960 several hundred of these winches were manufactured, and this constituted the single most important application of the principle.

OTHER APPLICATIONS It turns up in other guises as well. In the late 1800s small winches of the type shown in Fig. 5: G were in use on building sites in Belgium.7 Models in the Deutsches Schiffahrts Museum, Bremerhaven, and the Sjohistoriska Museet, Stockholm, prove that double-drum capstans were fitted in German light cruisers, and Swedish -boats in the early 1900s (Fig. 5: E). The sweep-winch fitted in German minesweepers of the late 1930s also featured the double-drum idea (Fig. 5: H, I). There are two ironies in the Doumet story. First, that after so much ingenuity had been expended on methods of avoiding the labour of fleeting hemp anchor cable, the introduction of chain cable and chain-flange capstans executed a technological end- run round the difficulty, so to speak, and rendered the 'surging problem' academic. Imagine the disappointment of a brilliant engineer-inventor who, after years of work, has just perfected the absolutely unimprovable slide-rule, whereupon some other genius patents the electronic pocket calculator! Second, an engineer of, say, 1800 would have predicted that future evolution of the ship's capstan would demand further refinement of the inclined plane principle. In fact Doumet's double-drum idea, totally neglected in 1741, represented the direction in which the non-surging capstan was to develop over the next 150 years.

CHAIN-CABLE In the early 1800s the technology of handling chain anchor-cable was being worked out independently on both sides of the Channel. In France the development of a Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016 capstan capable of handling chain was so closely associated with a naval officer named Barbotin that the device was called a 'Barbotin' in his honour. In England the names Brown and Harfield were preeminent. Initially a chain-messenger was used, the unstudded links of which were engaged by the teeth of a sprocket wheel at the base of the capstan (Fig. 6: B, D). This was shortly followed by the introduction of a capstan with recesses or 'snugs' that grasped the links of the anchor-cable itself. In theory one link would be enough but in fact a half-turn of chain was wrapped around the capstan, contact being ensured by strategically placed rollers (Fig. 6: A, C).

GRYLLS The capstan still to be seen on board Foudroyant, sketched in Fig. 6: A, was built by Brown and could handle chain in two ways. The upper section featured armoured THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800S 163 Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016 164 THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800S whelps around which could be taken a turn or two of chain messenger. Whelps of this particular shape were patented by John Isaiah Grylls in 1840, pat. no. 8767 (also seen in the windlass model Fig. 2: D). He claimed that this pattern allowed smoother spontaneous shifting of the turns compared with a whelp of curved shape. A capstan model in the Amsterdam collection nonetheless refers to them as 'Brown whelps'. In pat. no. 15, 1854, Grylls proposed working a hollow in the base of the whelp, the better to grip the links of chain.

BROWN AND HARFIELD The base of the Foudroyant capstan is fitted with what we would today call a 'gypsy' or 'wildcat', allowing it to handle the anchor-cable directly without using a messen- ger. Again this is associated with the name Brown; in one of Harfield's patent applications he refers to it as 'Brown's chain-flange'. Moveable rollers were an essential adjunct to this type of arrangement, guiding the chain round the capstan, the links being gripped in the snugs and stripped out by a chain-lifter. The type of capstan in Foudroyant was sometimes known as the 'Brown-Harfield' capstan. William Horatio Harfield applied for several patents in this line, two in 1859, no. 1629, for a capstan and riding- made of wrought-iron, and no. 1695 for a chain- messenger using studded-links instead of 'unstayed (unstudded) chain, as heretofore'. The same year he patented a chain-flange (no. 1726) with adjustable stops, which could grip , with links of different proportions, an idea which is repeated in pat. no. 1347 in 1860. Harfield also patented the idea of having two chain-flanges, one small for the messenger, and one large for the cable. I think Brown, with whom Harfield was associated, was the same Thomas Brown who in 1847 patented (no. 11,666) a chain stopper. This device is referred to as the 'Brown stopper' by Dutch writers such as G.P.J. Mossel, for example.8 However the said Thomas was not the only person with the same or similar surname, who made proposals to do with capstans and chain. We have earlier mentioned James Brown and his geared capstan of 1833. Samuel Browne, as a lieutenant, was instrumental in the Royal Navy's adoption of chain cable in the early 1800s.9 Joseph Browne, in pat. no. 2564 (1856), suggested using a capstan to turn parallel cams to provide up and down oscillating motion, and so drive a windlass.

PAWLS Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016 We will briefly consider how one prevented slip-back. In some applications, for instance Fig. 2: B, friction is sufficient to prevent the load sliding back, but mostly some sort of ratchet mechanism was necessary. Fig. 6: E is an instructional model of an Eckhard capstan in the Naval Museum at Karlskrona. Below are two pairs of old- fashioned 'sliding pawls', while four 'drop-pawls' hang from the deck-head and engage teeth on the trundle-head. The rotation of the capstan pushed the sliding-pawl to the side, and it had to be booted into position, at the order Heave and Pawl! The drop-pawls were 'automatic', engaging by their own weight, and the pair not in use were secured to the beams by hooks. Another type of drop-pawl came into fashion later on, once the manufacture of a cast serrated collar became possible. This type of pawl was fitted at the base of the capstan, and they could be rested on pull-out pins if they needed to be disengaged. THE DESIGN OF WINCHES USED AT SEA IN THE 1800S 165 The pawls on the windlass models in the Rijks Museum are of interest. Fig. 6: G shows a rather old-fashioned windlass, with a pair of simple pawls engaging notches cut in the barrel. This type of pawl, which engaged only every eighth of a turn, was potentially dangerous when weighing anchor in bad weather. If the men just failed to catch the pawl they were in danger of being catapulted forward by their hand-spikes as the vessel rose to the next swell. Consequently William Hutchinson, writing in 1794, considered the invention of a ratchet designed to catch every sixteenth of a turn a great improvement.10 Fig. 6: F shows a more sophisticated device, with three pawls, one or more of which was continually engaged.

Acknowledgements

In preparing this account I must acknowledge chief hydraulics engineer of NEI Clarke Chap- the generous help of the following people. man Ltd, Gateshead. Thanks are also due to Prof. Richard S. Hartenberg of Northwestern Michael J. Whitley for help in the matter of the University, Evanston, Illinois, has been ex- German sweep-winch; Mr Bas Kist of the Rijks tremely kind and patient, in a correspondence Museum, Amsterdam, for much kind assistance of several years' duration, in sorting out many regarding the capstan models; Ole Lisberg tangled points about winch design. For assis- Jensen who showed me round the attic of the tance on the practical aspects of whelped versus Karlskrona Museum; the staff of the Science unwhelped capstans, I would like to thank Mr Reference & Information Service of the British Edwin Cain of North Yorkshire, and Mr Library, London, for unearthing the patents Thomas Reid, technical director of Thomas mentioned above; and Dr Michael Lindgren of Reid & Sons, Paisley, and Mr. K. Henderson, Stockholm, and Robert C. Leavitt, Jr of Miami.

References

1 Harland and Myers, 'Early History of 6 W. Burney, New and Universal the Steering Wheel', Mariner's Mirror 58 Dictionary of the Marine (London, 1830), plate (1972), 41-68. VII. 2 Scientific American, Jan. 1988. 7 The Engineer, Dec. 1889, 519. 3 Mariner's Mirror 73 (1987), 418. 8 G.P.J. Mossel, Het Schip (Amsterdam, 4 Harold A. Underhill, Deep-water 1859). (Glasgow, 1952), 36. 9 B. Lavery, Arming and Fitting of English 5 See also letters from M. Xavier Lacrambe Ships of War 1600-1815, 49. and M. Michael Turpin in Le Modele Reduit de 10 W. Hutchinson, Naval Architecture Bateau 292 (1987) and Le Chasse-Maree no. (Liverpool, 1794), 138. Downloaded by [New York University] at 09:07 11 February 2016 32/45F, 61.