http://www.realm-of-shade.com/sweetlady/cuisine/page1.html The images of emperors, aristocrats and paramours feasting in decadent banquet style are the enduring images most have of Roman cuisine. Rich "dainties", flowing purple robes and Chian wines are glamorous to be sure. But the story of ancient dining is a story that begins in the fields of Italy and from the sea. It reaches from the farthest corners of the Empire, to the stews of the Subura and even down through the centuries to Colonial America.

Customs and diet mostly depended upon the geographical location and the stanrd of living. Most Romans ate lightly, frugally on a diet based uopn grains, oil and water, the more exotic foods gracing the tables of the wealthy.

Cereal grains were the staple food. Husked wheat (far) was cooked as a gruel/porridge (puls). Later, the another species of wheat (frumentum) was used to make bread. In addition to the foods listed here, strongly flavored sauces, such as garum, as well as spices and herbs were used generously by the Romans.

Evidence of food uses and types generally comes to us from ancient authors, archaeology (seeds, animal bones, etc), and paintings of the times. The only work of any length about ancient Roman cooking is the cookbook of Apicius.

Vegetables: carrots, onions, radishes, celery, polenta, lentils, centaury, mushrooms, truffles, flax seeds, chick peas, broad beans, spinach, lettuce (watercress, chicory, endive, leek leaves), artichokes, asparagus Fruits: figs, olives, apples, plums, pears, cherries, dates, quinces, grapes nuts: hazelnuts, pistachioes, chestnuts, pine nuts, walnuts and almonds Fish: sole, sea bass, sturgeon, tuna, mackeral, whitting fish and red mullet,sharks, whales, sardines, sea eels, anchovies, gilthead, etc. lobster, crabs, shrimp, prawns, sea urchins, squid, cuttlefish, octopus, oysters, clams, carp, trout, salmon Meat: kid, lamb,mutton, veal, beef, pork,hare, rabbit, guinea fowl, chickens and capons, goose, ducks, pigeons, turkeys and pheasant, deer, gazelle, goat, hare, rabbit, eggs, cheeses, milk (sheep, goat, cow) Spices and seasonings: juniper, dill, onion, saffron, mint, fennel, mustard, cumin, oil, vinegar, garum (a fermented fish paste),honey, salt and lard

The city, the Italian peninsula, the Empire...many mouths to feed and many miles to cross to get food stuffs to market in Rome. The necessity to preserve their food supply for transport and for market, gave rise to many preservation methods.

It is known that the Romans, as well as many other ancient cultures, used many methods to preserve foods. Smoking Columella comments in the 1st century AD about eating "smoked" cheese. A hardened cheese, brined and smoked. Drying Except for those foods pickled, "brined", all methods of preservation was based upon desiccation (dehydration). Honey There is evidence that the ancients used honey for short term preservation of fruits.

Cheesemaking Due to the rural nature of the early empire, and the expanse of the Imperial Empire, many methods were employed to prolong the life of the available foods. Cheesemaking is a prime example. Milk, goats milk, sheep and cows milk were successfully preserved in this fashion. Salting The salinae (saltflats) at the mouth of the Tiber provided a good deal of the salt needed in theis most popular form of food preservation. Salt was also was imported from Gaul and Britian. It was produced by evaporating sea water in earthen jars. many good brine sporings around the empire were put to constant good use.

Many writers from Ancient Rome spoke of food and its preservation. Cato, the outspoken proponent of the austere, early republican practices, wrote of preserving hams.

Cooking The evidence shows that breads, pastries, cakes and such were commercially produced as well as made at home. The ovens used were domed, circular ovens mainly employed for the breads. A fire was made inside the oven and raked out before the food was put in them.

From the ruins in Pompeii, it is obvious to see that most foods were cooked over a brazier or open hearth, with a caldron suspended from a chain. Also used were cooking vessels and pots set upon trivets and or gridirons.

Cooking was done inside as well as outside. Kitchens in the larger domii, apartment dwellers likely had no personal cooking facilities, allowed smoke to escape through vents in the roof or outer walls. it is believed that communal ovens were used by the poor and tenement dwellers.

A sweet and sour flavor was a favorite of the Romans and vinegar, honey and fruit was often used in cooking. Spicy sauces were enjoyed with meats that were boiled than roasted. Honey was an important item for sweetening.

There were many variations throughout the empire. Each region had it's "specialty" according to traditions and availability of foods in the area. Meals It is known that the Roman generally ate one main meal a day. Breakfast (ientaculum) was not always eaten. If it was, it consisted of perhaps only a piece of yesterday's bread, and water.Originally at midday, a main meal of dinner (cena), and supper (vesperna) in the evening.

Later, dinner came to be taken later in the day, eventually becoming the evening main meal. Supper was omitted and a light lunch (prandium) became popular between breakfast and dinner. This made for two light meals during the day and a heavier main meal (cena) at sunset.

Most meals for the poorer general population consisted mostly of porridge or bread, with meat and vegetables when available. For those with more means, the main meal was of three courses...ab ovo usque ad mala from the egg to the apples.

The first course, gustatio or promulsis was an appetizer. This was generally eggs, raw vegetables, shell fish.

The came the main course, prima mensa. Depending on what the family could afford, this course was cooked meats, vegetables.

Then the sweet course, secunda mensa. Pastries, fruits, or prepared sweet dishes brought to the tables, usually prettily decorated.

The everyday Roman often sat upright to eat. The wealthy reclined on couches, especially at parties, often dining outdoors in their private gardens.

The poorer classes generally used tableware consisting of coarse pottery, but there were many available types of vessels of glass, shaped and painted pottery, bronze, silver, pewter and gold. Food was eaten with the fingers. To cut the food, knives with iron blades and handles of bone, antler, wood or bronze. Silver, bone and bronze spoons were also known to have been used by diners for eating liquids, eggs and often had pointed handles for use in extracting shellfish or snails from their shells. Special Ingredients Caroenum: Boiled must (you have to boil the new wine or grape juice until it is only half the amount you started with). Defritum: Either thick fig syrup, or must that's boiled until you have only a third of the amount with which you started. Liebstoeckl: An umbelliferous plant with yellowish flowers. Its dried roots are used as spice. It seems to be a kind of celery. Liquamen: a salty fish sauce. Most of the time you can replace it by salt. Passum: Very sweet wine sauce, made by boiling the must (new wine or grape juice) to thicken it.