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22094-1442-4-30.Pdf 1 Rafael Loayza Bueno Halajtayata RACISMO Y ETNICIDAD EN BOLIVIA Rafael Loayza Bueno Halajtayata RACISMO Y ETNICIDAD EN BOLIVIA C UA R T A E D I C I Ó N R E V I S A D A Y A C T U A L I Z A D A © Por Rafael Loayza Bueno Cuarta edición: noviembre 2014 Tercera edición: noviembre 2010 Segunda edición: Diciembre de 2006 Primera edición: diciembre de 2004 Prefacio: Iván Velásquez Castellanos Coordinador en Bolivia de la Fundación Konrad Adenauer Autor: Rafael Loayza Bueno Editor responsable: Iván Velásquez Castellanos Edición: Valery Gismondi Revisión y corrección: Stefany Diez de Medina Diseño tapa: Rafael Loayza Fotografía: Herbert Müller D.L.: 4-1-948-15 Fundación Konrad Adenauer (KAS), oficina Bolivia Av. Walter Guevara No. 8037, Calacoto (Ex av. Arequipa, casi esquina Humboldt) Teléfonos: (+591-2) 2786910 • 2786478 • 22125577 Fax: (+591-2) 2786831 Casilla No. 9284 La Paz – Bolivia E mail: [email protected] Página Web: www.kas.de/bolivien Impresión: Gama Azul "Impresores & Editores" Teléfono 222-0611 • 224-0359 E-mail: [email protected] Impreso en Bolivia 2014 - DISTRIBUCIÓN GRATUITA Esta públicación se distribuye sin fines de lucro, en el marco de la cooperación internacional de la Fundación Konrad Adenauer (KAS). Los textos que se publican a continuación son de exclusiva responsabilidad del autor y no expresan necesariamente el pensamiento de los editores y/o de la Fundación Konrad Adenauer (KAS). Se autoriza la reproducción total o parcial del contenido con la inclusión de la fuente. A la memoria de Juan Cruz Vargas García, amado tío, amigo, hermano y padre de mis hijos. A la memoria de Salvador Romero Pittari por el obsequio de la sociología y el aula universitaria, por el de la investigación y el de los libros CONTENIDO PREFACIO .........................................................................9 PRÓLOGO A LA IV EDICIÓN ..........................................11 Agradecimientos .........................................................14 ESTUDIO CUALITATIVO SOBRE PERCEPCIONES ÉTNICAS Y RACIALES .......................................................... 17 INTRODUCCIÓN .............................................................21 I. APROXIMACIÓN HISTÓRICA Indígenas en la Región Andina y Estado nacional ........ 31 1. Estado pre-colonial y pueblos indígenas en la Región Andina ................................................ 32 2. Estado colonial y pueblos indígenas en la Región Andina ................................................ 38 3. Indígenas y modernidad en la Región Andina .......... 45 II. IDEOLOGÍAS DE IDENTIFICACIÓN EN BOLIVIA Definiciones y aproximación al problema de la diferenciación racial y étnica .............................. 55 1. Bases de identidad ................................................... 58 1.1. Identidad .....................................................59 1.2. Lo cultural, lo étnico, lo racial ....................60 1.3. Relaciones raciales .......................................62 1.4. Relaciones étnicas ........................................64 2. Bolivia, una sociedad compleja ................................. 64 2.1. Gobierno, poder y autoridad en el contexto de la diferencia ...........................................65 2.2. Pobreza, exclusión y segregación .................69 2.3. Trayectorias históricas y diferenciación ..........72 3. Ideologización de las bases de identidad étnicas y raciales ...................................................... 74 3.1. De la contradicción de clase a la contradicción racial ......................................78 3.2. La etnicidad y la racialidad como bases de la identidad nacional ..............................81 III. CATEGORIZACIÓN Y PODER EN BOLIVIA Competencia étnica y tensiones raciales ........................ 85 1. Distinción entre las dimensiones nominales y virtuales de la identidad en Bolivia ........................ 86 1.1. Geografía censal de la etnicidad, lengua materna y pobreza ...........................89 1.2. Competencia étnico-racial ...........................102 1.3. Racismo y etnicidad ...................................103 2. La importancia de las relaciones de poder y autoridad: categorización y poder ....................... 111 2.1. Contextos de la categorización étnica .........115 IV. RACIALIZACIÓN, ETNICIDAD E IDEOLOGÍA Construcción social e ideologización de las bases de identidad ...................................................... 231 1. Racialización de la etnicidad .................................. 232 2. Ideologías de identificación ..................................... 240 2.1. Categorización vs. auto identificación .........243 2.2. Competencia étnica e impacto de la identidad en las percepciones de bienestar ....259 2.3. Raza minoritaria y etnicidad mayoritaria .....260 2.4. Identidad étnica, nacionalismo y Estado ......262 2.5. Etnicidad política (movimientos sociales, socialización política y nacionalismo) ..........266 2.6. Políticas multiculturales ................................274 V. ETNICIDAD EN PERSPECTIVA COMPARADA Del indigenismo, a la etnicidad política, al etno-nacionalismo ¿Cómo el indigenismo se transforma en un poderoso principio organizador de la etnicidad política? .............................................. 279 1. Indigenismo y política: etnicidades políticas ............. 280 1.1. Estudio comparativo de casos .....................281 1.2. Norte América ...........................................282 1.3. América Latina ..........................................284 1.4. Australia y Nueva Zelanda ........................287 1.5. India .........................................................288 1.6 Mauritania .................................................289 1.7. Fiji ............................................................289 8 Rafael Loayza Bueno 2. Explicaciones y discusión sobre movimientos etno-nacionalistas en España y Bolivia .................... 290 2.1. La formulación de una nación. ..................290 2.2. Nacionalismo, etnicidad y violencia ............292 VI. CONCLUSIONES Las mayorías despojadas y la revancha histórica ....... 295 BIBLIOGRAFÍA ................................................................... 303 ÍNDICE DE TEMAS ............................................................ 313 9 PREFACIO A nivel regional, Bolivia es uno de los países con población indígena importante, por ello la temática relacionada con las naciones y pueblos indígenas es uno de los pilares de trabajo de la Fundación Konrad Adenauer (KAS) en Bolivia. En este sentido, consideramos que pocas son las obras y los autores que han podido elaborar trabajos serios en el ámbito de las ciencias sociales con un especial énfasis en temas de etnicidad y/o indígenas. Uno de los investigadores más sobresalientes en el ámbito de la sociología política contemporánea en Bolivia es, sin ninguna duda, Rafael Loayza, quien con su importante investigación titulada Halajtayata. Racismo y Etnicidad en Bolivia, que entre otras cosas está categorizada como una de las diez mejores obras de la ciencia política en nuestro país, hace una profunda radiografía social a uno de los principales problemas que aquejan a todo el país y sus ciudadanos: el racismo. En esta interesante obra en su cuarta edición, Loayza analiza los complicados procesos históricos en Bolivia que explican cómo se han desarrollado los patrones de convivencia entre ciudadanos, blancos, indígenas, mestizos, hombres y mujeres; por qué estos casos, a través de la socialización política, como explica el autor, llegan a tener un complejo proceso de identidad étnica que determinará al fin su relación y comportamiento frente al Estado Plurinacional. Como podemos entender, los procesos de identidad y etnicidad pueden ser constantemente confundidos y probablemente contrapuestos. Resumiendo, lo que el autor propone como tesis central es el axioma que existe entre etnicidad y pobreza en nuestro país. 10 Rafael Loayza Bueno Si bien en Bolivia se siguen practicando acciones racistas de una clase en desmedro de otra (k´aras vs. t´aras), éstas se han grabado como prácticas culturales fuertemente arraigadas según la clase y/o la etnicidad a la que responda él o los afectados. ¿Pueden ser ambas interpoladoras de lo político en nuestro país? Lo complejo puede ser que las respuestas políticas a estos hechos puedan pasar por alto las verdaderas preocupaciones que contraen las prácticas racistas con efectos devastadores para las generaciones futuras. Esta cuarta edición tiene un valor mucho mayor al de anteriores ediciones, ya que el autor y la KAS pudieron actualizar la entrega incluyendo en un capítulo un estudio cualitativo sobre Etnicidad llevado a cabo por la empresa IPSOS Bolivia en el 2014. En este cometido, IPSOS realizó cuatro grupos focales con hombres y mujeres de 30 a 45 años, en las ciudades de La Paz, El Alto y Santa Cruz. Además, en los grupos se realizó la evaluación de tres discursos políticos y dos grupos (indígenas y no indígenas) de imágenes de candidatos ficticios a la presidencia, lo que se pretendía era explorar las tensiones étnico-raciales existentes en el país, así que el lector podrá contar con una serie de datos actualizados sobre racismo y etnicidad en los últimos 12 años. Una de las cosas interesantes de este estudio es que el ser indígena hoy en día tiene dos connotaciones: positiva, por ser usada a manera de reivindicación influyendo en las oportunidades de progreso y empleo, pero también negativa porque aún lamentablemente se la usa con tonos discriminativos y/o peyorativos. Para finalizar, sólo me queda agradecer
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