Principles of Ichnoarchaeology: New Frontiers for Studying Past Times

Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72 ISSN 0392-0534 © Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali, Trento 2008

Principles of Ichnoarchaeology: new frontiers for studying past times

Andrea Baucon1*, Serena Privitera2, Daniele Morandi Bonacossi3, Alessandro Canci3, Carlos Neto de Carvalho1, Evangelia Kyriazi4, Jacques Laborel5, Françoise Laborel-Deguen5, Christophe Morhange5 & Nick Marriner5

1Geopark Naturtejo Meseta Meridional, Geology and Paleontology Office, Centro Cultural Raiano. Av. Joaquim Morão 6060-101 Idanha-a-Nova, Portugal 2 Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichità, Università di Trieste, Via Lazzaretto Vecchio 6, 34123, Trieste, Italy 3Università di Udine, Via Palladio 8, Palazzo Florio, 33100 Udine, Italy 4Natural History Museum of the Lesvos Petrified Forest, Sigri, Lesvos Island, Greece 5CNRS, CEREGE, Université Aix-Marseille, Europôle de l’Arbois, BP 80, 13545, Aix-en-Provence, France *Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

SUMMARY - Principles of Ichnoarchaeology: new frontiers for studying past times - Since its origins, Archaeology has evolved by interaction with other disciplines, and, in particular, the Earth Sciences have provided major tools for archaeological analysis. Among the branches of Earth Sciences, Ichnology represents a new, promising field for application in Archaeology. The present work explores the application of ichnological methods and themes in Archaeology, as Ichnoarchaeology. Despite case studies on archaeological traces, a uniform, consistent approach has been lacking. As a consequence, archaeologists are still not taking full advantage of traces. This study aims to establish a basis for a coherent, uniform framework by presenting the major themes of Ichnoarchaeology through state-of-the-art case studies. It demonstrates the potential for the study of archaeological traces, and encourages collaboration among scientists of different fields to deepen the knowledge of our cultural heritage.

RIASSUNTO - Principi dell’Icnoarcheologia: nuove frontiere per studiare il passato - Fin dalle sue origini, l’Archeologia si è evoluta interagendo con altre discipline; in particolare le Scienze della Terra hanno fornito importanti strumenti per l’analisi archeologica. Fra i rami delle Scienze della Terra, l’Icnologia rappresenta un nuovo e promettente campo di applicazione in Archeologia. Questo articolo esplora l’Icnoarcheologia, ovverosia l’applicazione di tematiche e metodi icnologici in Archeologia. Sebbene esistano già diversi studi sulle tracce archeologiche, finora manca un approccio uniforme all’argomento: di conseguenza gli archeologi non stanno traendo pieno vantaggio dalle tracce. Questo studio mira a stabilire una base logica e uniforme all’Icnoarcheologia, presentando le sue tematiche principali attraverso casi di studio da manuale. Vuole inoltre dimostrare le potenzialità dello studio delle tracce archeologiche e incoraggia la collaborazione fra scienziati di campi differenti per approfondire la conoscenza del nostro patrimonio culturale.

Key words: Ichnology, Archaeology, Ichnoarchaeology, Geoarchaeology, traces Parole chiave: Icnologia, Archeologia, Icnoarcheologia, Geoarcheologia, tracce

1. INTRODUCTION Thucydides (Vth century B.C.) reports one of the first examples of archaeological analysis: in his “The Pelopon- 1.1 Scientific Archaeology nesian War”, the author reconstructed an historical scenar- io by interpreting ancient weapons buried in the ground. “The islanders, too, were great pirates. These islan- Thucydides himself alluded to this approach using the term ders were Carians and Phoenicians, by whom most α’ ρχαιολογ´iα, “speech or research about ancient things”. of the islands were colonised, as was proved by the Since Thucydides’ times, Archaeology has evolved following fact. During the purification of Delos by by incessant interaction with other disciplines. Branches of Athens in this war all the graves in the island were Earth Sciences have played a fundamental role, Archaeolo- taken up, and it was found that above half their inma- gy greatly benefiting from interactions with Geochemistry, tes were Carians: they were identified by the fashion Geophysics, Palaeontology, Palynology, Pedology, Sedimen- of the arms buried with them, and by the method of tology and Stratigraphy. interment” Among the branches of Earth Sciences, Ichnology rep- (Thucydides, The Pelopponnesian War, I, 8) resent a relatively new field with promise for application in 44 Baucon et al. Ichnoarchaeology

Archaeology. This study focuses on the application of ich- gy), there are many other items falling within a wide grey nological methods and themes in Archaeology, a discipline zone (Fig. 1). termed Ichnoarchaeology. Bivalve borings on an ancient temple typify the grey zone. Such borings are classic ichnological items, althou- 1.2. Archaeology and Ichnology gh they can provide archaeological information (i.e. rela- tionship between civilisation and sea-level fluctuations; ì Archaeology (from greek αρχαιολογìα, αρχαiος Section 2.2). Archaeological coprolites also fall within ì ’ ’ ã “ancient” and λογος “speech”) was considered for a long the grey zone. These biodepositional traces provide ar- time a branch of History, although during the 20th cen- chaeologists with information on the palaeoenvironment tury it developed its own identity. At present, Archaeolo- of archaeological sites (i.e. palaeovegetation and palaeo- gy is regarded as the discipline aiming to reconstruct an- climate), and the diet and palaeopathology of ancient ci- cient human civilisations and cultures through the analy- vilisations (e.g. Panagiotakopulu 1999; González-Sam- sis and documentation of physical evidence found in the périz et al. 2003). soil (structures, artefacts, biological or human remains) This work is aiming to inspect how ichnological me- (after Bianchi & Bandinelli 1976; Pallottino 1980; Straz- thods and themes can find application in Archaeology. zulla 1996: 33-82). The archaeologist’s physical evidence has significant 1.3. Methods analogies with the keystone of Ichnology, i.e. traces. In fact ì ì Ichnology (from greek iχνος “trace” and λογος “speech”) Few archaeological studies have explicitly mentioned is regarded as the study of fossil and recent traces, which Ichnology. Some of the major examples concern insect bo- can be considered as biogenically-produced sedimentary rings in bison bones (West & Hasiotis 2007) and archaeo- structures (Frey 1973). Recently, Bertling et al. (2006) re- logical mammal traces (Higgs 2001; Hasiotis et al. 2007). fined Frey’s (1973) approach and defined a trace (fossil) as Jean-Michel Geneste included Ichnology in his workshop “a morphologically recurrent structure resulting from the about the archaeological study of the Chauvet-Pont d’Arc life activity of an individual organism (or homotypic organ- Cave (see also Garcia 2005). isms) modifying the substrate” (after Blackwelder 1967; Frey From these few examples it would appear that archa- 1973; ICZN 1999: Glossary). However, it must be pointed eological traces have been rarely considered. In reality, ho- out that the definition oftrace is still debated (i.e. Skolithos wever, traces have been commonly studied in Archaeolo- listserver 2003). gy but, in most cases, they have been not referred as Ich- It is not possible to trace a sharp limit between Ar- nology. Archaeologists have often dealt with traces: bur- chaeology and Ichnology. Although the end-terms are cle- rows (e.g. Giacobini 1992; Pierce 1992), borings (in lithic ar (e.g. minoan vase= Archaeology; Zoophycos= Ichnolo- substrates: e.g. Mohrange et al. 2006; in xylic substrates:

Fig. 1 - Ichnoarchaeology represents the transitional zone between ichnology and archaeology. Fig. 1 - L’icnoarcheologia rappresenta la zona transizionale tra icnologia e archeologia. Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72 45 e.g. Fozzati & Scanferla 2002), gnaw and chop marks (e.g. 2.2. Artificial substrates vs natural substrates: the Brain 1983; Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994; Milner & Smith imprinted bricks of Aquileia 2005; Cáceres et al. 2007; McGraw et al. 2006), coprolites (e.g. Billman et al. 2000; Horrocks et al. 2003), bioturbation Although archaeological footprints are uncommon on (e.g. Balek 2002; Fowler et al. 2004; Morin 2006). natural substrates, they have been reported from several si- The above references represent a small fraction of the tes around the world (Tab. 1). vast bibliography on archaeological traces, but they are suf- The occurrence of footprints is intimately linked with ficient to demonstrate the following points. the geotechnical properties of the substrate during the tra- 1. Potential of Ichnoarchaeology. The existing studies on ce-making process. Allen (1997) made use of neoichnolo- archaeological traces show the potential of Ichnoarcha- gical observations and indentation experiments to analy- eology in addressing archaeological problems which are se an ichnoarcheological site on the Severn Estuary (Great not solvable using conventional methods. Britain), where a diverse ichnofauna of Flandrian Intergla- 2. Archaeological traces and ichnologists. Most studies on cial to post Roman times has been found (Tab.1). Diagene- archaeological traces have not been authored by “tradi- sis also plays a role as the occurrence of archeological fo- tional” ichnologists. In fact, experts on archaeological otprints is generally linked to relatively prolonged and/or traces are more often linked with other disciplines (Ar- fast diagenesis. For these reasons, archaeological footprints chaeology, biology, soil science, etc) and they do not re- are more difficult to distinguish in very recent deposits (e.g. gard themselves as “ichnologists”. Classical Antiquity and Middle Ages sites). 3. Lack of a uniform approach. A uniform, systematic ap- However, there is a particular kind of substrate – bricks proach has been lacking in the study of archaeological - where archaeological footprints are abundantly reported, traces. even from the middle Ages. Bricks (and tiles) represent an optimal substrate to preserve traces because of their: The aforementioned points require a multidisciplinary - Geotechnical properties. Bricks consist of clay-rich approach to the subject in order to portray coherently the stu- sediment and, before drying, have a reasonable degree dy of archaeological traces (points 1, 2) and to place them in of moisture; therefore, they are usually highly suscep- a consistent, uniform framework (3). Consequently, experts tive to trace-making. in various fields – Ichnology, Archaeology, biology, restora- - Open-air drying. Usually, the brick-making process tion, soil science, anthropology - were invited to share their includes sun-drying. During this phase, bricks are sto- experience on archeological traces. The philosophy of the re- cked over vast open-air surfaces; consequently, ani- sulting paper presents the major themes of Ichnoarchaeology mals have good possibilities to leave footprints on the through state-of-the-art case studies. The experts, co-ordina- drying bricks. ted by the senior authors (Baucon and Privitera), wrote speci- - Fast diagenesis. The drying phase causes rapid indu- fic sections of the paper (Bonaccossi andC anci, section 2.2; ration of the bricks; in some cases sun-drying consti- Laborel, Mohrange, Marriner, Laborel-Deguen, section 3.2; tutes the last phase of the brick-making process (e.g. Kyriazi, section 3.3; Neto de Carvalho, sections 3.4, 4). during Neolithic times), although commonly sun-dried This is the first step to propose a uniform, systematic bricks are subsequently fired. For instance, inR oman approach to the study of archaeological traces. times, Vitruvium refered only to sun-dried bricks, while buildings made of fired bricks were reported from Silla’s Age (1st century B.C.; Adam 2003). Sun drying 2. BIOTURBATIONAL STRUCTURES and firing processes are analogous to rapid diagenesis, which can lead to optimal preservation of foot- 2.1. Introduction prints. - Resistance and abundance. Bricks and tiles have been Bioturbational structures include some of the most re- commonly used throughout antiquity, and they con- presentative traces of Palaeoichnology, such as burrows and stitute a very resistant material, giving footprints on footprints. However, these structures are some of the most bricks a high preservation potential. problematic in Ichnoarchaeology because of preservation is- The study of imprinted bricks (Fig. 2) can give im- sues. In most of archaeological cases diagenetic processes portant information for interpreting archaeological site. have acted for insufficient time to enhance these traces. As The most basic information concerns the faunal compo- a consequence, it is often difficult to recognise distinct bur- nents present. For example, Higgs (2001) studied abun- rows/footprints at archaeological sites. Nevertheless, the- dant and well-preserved material from various Roman and re are some recurrent diagenetic and sedimentological con- Medieval sites in England. By examining the imprinted ditions that facilitate the fine-quality preservation of biotur- bricks, he was able to identify various tracemakers (dogs, bational structures in archaeological context. These are illu- cat, birds, mustelids, sheep/goats, cattle, pigs, horses). Be- strated by two sites: Aquileia (Italy, Roman Age) and Qatna cause the tracemaker is usually a mammal, it can be identi- (Syria, Bronze Age). fied with a high degree of confidence.H owever, some cau- 46 Baucon et al. Ichnoarchaeology

Tab. 1 - Examples of archaeological footprints. Tab. 1 - Alcuni esempi di impronte archeologiche.

Reference Tracemakers Age Location Notes

Gonzalez et al. (1996) and Aurochs, red deer, roe deer, 3500 years United Kingdom Roberts et al. (1996) crane, human footprints Belperio & Fotheringham Emu, kangaroo and human 5000 years Australia (1990) footprints Watson et al. 2005; Willey et Human footprints 5400 years North America Cave setting al. 2005 Sea mammal and human Politis & Bayon (1995) 7100 years Argentina traces Deer, auroch, domesticat- from Flandrian Allen (1997) ed cattle, sheep/goat, horse, Interglacial to United Kingdom wolf/dog, human footprints post-Roman times Tongiorgi & Lamboglia Human footprints; cave bear Palaeolithic Italy Cave setting (1963); Lockley (1999) footprints and scratch marks

Vallois (1930) Human footprints Palaeolithic France Cave setting

Human, hyaena and bird Mountain (1966) Pleistocene South Africa tracks Roman soldier University of Haifa (2007) Human footprint Roman times Israel sandal print tion must be given to the interpretation of bricks: unlikely ments: some mammals are very sensitive as regards environ- most trace fossils, imprinted bricks are commonly transport- mental setting (e.g. beavers are associated with streams and ed. Therefore, when analysing imprinted bricks, it must be lakes bordered by trees; otters occur near river courses; squir- kept in mind that the ichnofauna always refers to the place rels are usually found within coniferous woods or mixed co- of production of the bricks. In this regard, ichnological data niferous/deciduous woods; red fox is an environment cross- could be useful to find the place of brick production when ing species, but it is usually associated with mixed wood- this is unknown (i.e. by determining if the ichnoassociation land/open country; see Stokes & Stokes 1986). is urban or rural). Even though imprinted bricks offer important informa- Footprints can also give information on palaeoenviron- tion, we must not consider them as dei ex machina to solve

Fig. 2 - Imprinted bricks. a. Roman brick with dog’s fooprint. Aquileia, Italy. b. Medieval brick with track; arrow points to the second footprint of the track (partially preserved). The footprints show features typical of cat- like producers (rounded morphology, relatively small size) but the presence of claw marks are indicative of dog- like producer (cats usually retreat claws during locomotion). Monte Nao- ne, Italy. Courtesy of Sebi Arena. Fig. 2 - Laterizi improntati. Scala 1 cm. a. Laterizio romano con impronta di cane. Aquileia, Italia. b. Laterizio medievale con impronta, possibilmen- te di cane. Monte Naone, Italia. Per gentile concessione di Sebi Arena. Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72 47

Fig. 3 - Imprinted bricks from Aquileia. a. Roman brick with two imprinted digits. b. Ancient brick producers marked bricks with finger traces. Fig. 3 - Laterizi improntati da Aquileia. a. Mattone romano con impronta. b. Gli antichi produttori di mattoni demarcavano con le dita alcuni laterizi. all the archaeozoological problems of a certain site. In fact ological context. Nevertheless, when present, archaeologi- it must be kept in mind that imprinted bricks do not record cal footprints can provide precious information, usually not the total biodiversity. For instance, Baucon et al. (in prep.) determinable with other methods (see Allen 1997; Huddart studied the Roman site of Aquileia (Italy) and gave evidence et al. 1999; Webb et al. 2006). Archaeological footprints on that the imprinted bricks (Fig. 3) suggested a much poorer natural substrates (Fig. 4) are not transported and therefore fauna than the skeletal remains. provide a vital source of spatial and temporal data that can help in the understanding of the social behaviours of past Footprints on natural substrates: dynamics of 2000 B.C. pot- civilisations. For instance, human footprints have revealed tery manufacture revealed by ichnoarchaeological evidence the structure of the groups frequenting caves, and, in some (Qatna Acropolis, Syria) cases, ritual behaviours have been inferred (see the discus- sion in Lockley 1999 and Tongiorgi & Lamboglia 1963 about As mentioned, preservation of footprints on natural the Toirano, Tuc d’Audoubert, Chauvet, Niaux caves). In substrates requires appropriate geotechnical and diagenetic addition, footprints can be also a useful tool for determin- conditions, which are not always associated with the archae- ing land use and economical issues. Moreover, archaeolog-

Fig. 4 - Archaeological footprints. a, b. Sefton Coast is an outstanding site for studying archaeological footprints left since Neolithic times (see Gonzalez et al. 1996). Adolescent male footprint (a) and trail (b). Images are courtesy of Gordon Roberts. c. The Jaguar Cave footprints date back to more than 5000 years BP and they constitute the earliest evidence of human cave use in the eastern United States (Willey et al. 2005). Image courtesy of the Cave Research Foundation. Fig. 4 - Impronte archeologiche. a, b. La Sefton Coast è un sito straordinario per studiare impronte archeologiche lasciate sin dal Neolitico (si veda Gonzalez et al. 1996). Impronta di maschio adolescente (a) e pista (b). Le immagini sono state cortesemente fornite da Gordon Roberts. c. Le impronte della Jaguar Cave risalgono a più di 5000 anni BP; esse sono la più antica testimonian- za di frequentazione ipogea degli Stati Uniti orientali (Willey et al. 2005). Le immagini sono state cortesemente fornite dalla Cave Research Foundation. 48 Baucon et al. Ichnoarchaeology ical footprints can give behavioural (direction of travel, gait, Archaeological excavations conducted by an Italo-Syr- speed) and palaeopathologic information (diseases and in- ian expedition at Mishrifeh, ancient Qatna (Central West- juries), as well as data on the individuals (sex, age) and en- ern Syria), discovered a large pottery workshop on the sum- vironment. Some of the aforementioned points are demon- mit of the site’s acropolis. The ceramic manufacturing ar- strated in table 2, which take into account two case studies ea was built at the beginning of the second millennium BC from the literature: as a small production area, reached its maximum exten- The utility of archaeological footprints is demonstrated sion during the Middle Bronze Age II (c. 1800-1600 BC), by a recently discovered site: the trampled surface of Qatna and was abandoned in the following Late Bronze Age I (c. (Bronze Age) provides information on zoological, ethnozo- 1600-1400 BC). ological, anthropological and social features. During its last centuries of activity, the ceramic man-

Tab. 2 - The table summarizes two ichnoarchaeological studies and shows the potential of archaeological footprints in various fields. Tab. 2 - La tabella riassume due studi riguardanti le impronte archeologiche di vertebrati e mostra le potenzialità dell’analisi icnoarche- ologica.

Information revealed by archa- Severn Estuary (Allen 1997; Flandrian Intergla- Sefton coast (Huddart et al. 1999; Neolithic-Bronze eological foot- cial- Roman times). Age). prints

Taxonomic Ichnoarchaeological footprints gives the taxonomic position of the animal. information

Ichnoarchaeological footprints can reveal the producer’s behavior, direction of travel, gait, speed, age and health.

Huddart et al. (1999) hypothesized palaeopathological Behavioural in- issues from human footprints (e.g., missing/fused toes, formation bursitis – showing congenital bunions - and arthritis). Even though the specific case remains to be verified, it is conceivable that footprints can reveal palepatholog- ic issues.

The analysis of the spatial relationships between ich- The ichnoassemblages reveal the gradual dis- nosites and archaeosites revealed important information Spatio- temporal placement of wild species (e.g. deer) by domes- on the land use. More in detail, ichnological and geolog- information ticated animals as the degree of human interven- ical data demonstrated the influence of environmental tion in the area increased. changes on prehistoric land use and economies.

Environmental Substrate properties are understood from foot- reconstitution prints

Footprints shows direct evidence of the close associa- Human tracks attest precisely (footprints cannot tion between animals and humans, and permit hypoth- be transported) exploitation of coastal settings eses an economic pattern based on mobility and cattle and resources. grazing (combined with hunting and gathering).

Land use and The ichnoassemblages give precise spatial infor- From ichnological, geological and archaeological da- economical is- mation on the impact of humans on environment: ta it is possible to infer that the Sefton coast was being sues data on domestication, management of natural used for access, as the inland was extensively wood- areas, distribution of animal populations on the ed or too wet for easy movement. The coast was prob- margins of the estuary. Footprints analysis reveal ably used for a combination of hunting/gathering while far more about the spatio-temporal distribution of cattle grazing occurred on the dunes slacks at various the fauna than the known skeletal remains. time periods. Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72 49 ufacturing workshop was subdivided to different specialised floor of jars fired in the adjacent kilns. Moreover, the rounded sectors. In these sectors the clay was levigated, mixed with impressions – together with other ichnological and archaeo- temper and kneaded; the vessels were thrown on the wheel, logical evidence – suggest that this area was a passageway for dried on specially built surfaces, fired in kilns and finally personnel operating in this part of the workshop, a surface for stacked before transportation to their final destinations. drying the pottery, and for cooling and storing the pots after During the archaeological excavations an exceptional firing and before transport to their final destination. discovery was made in the northern part of the workshop. On The analysis of the human footprints brings to light the the surface of a trodden floor located between two platforms following points: (equipped with kilns and other installations) dozens of human - morphological analysis of footprints shows that the pro- and equine footprints were preserved (Fig. 5). ducers were either adults or children working in the pot- The horse footprints are particularly interesting since tery manufacturing area; they represent one of the earliest archaeological attestations - workers were not barefooted but wore simple sandals, of this animal in Syria. The archaeological context suggests probably consisting of a sole fastened to the foot by a that horses were used to transport the pottery manufactured in strap or a fabric band. this area. In fact, horse footprints are associated with round- The analysis of the Qatna footprints is still underway. ed impressions, probably formed by jars. As a consequence The trampled surface represents an exceptional (and large) da- of the previous point, horse footprints assume an important tabase of anthropological information about the physical cha- ethnozoological value. The Qatna footprints give evidence racteristics of the Qatna population during this period (Fig 6). that the horse, generally used in war or as a prestige animal Its study will make it possible to estimate the stature and sex by the urban elites, was also employed as a beast of burden of the people working in the ceramic production area, which in the Middle Bronze Age II. will be combined with the anthropological evidence recove- As above mentioned, the horse hoof prints were associ- red from the contemporary necropolis located under the Ro- ated with a series of round imprints adjoining the mud plat- yal Palace to reconstruct the physical type of the ancient in- forms. These structures might be related to the presence on the habitants of Qatna.

Fig. 5 - The Qatna archaeological site. a. Female terracotta figurine with a miniature bowl, Middle Bronze Age I. Operation J. b. Pottery drying surface with imprints, pottery production area, 17th century B.C. Operation J. c. Detail of one of the pottery drying surfaces with imprints of the sandals of the craftsmen, horse hoofs and jar bases, pottery production area, Operation J, 17th century B.C. Fig. 5 - Il sito archeologico di Qatna. a. Figurina femminile in terracotta e ciotola in miniatura, Bronzo Medio I, Cantiere J. b. Superficie del Bronzo Medio con impronte, area di produzione ceramica, Cantiere J. c. Una delle superfici per l’asciugatura delle ceramiche con impronte di sandali, di zoccoli di cavallo e di basi di giare. Area di produzione ceramica, Cantiere J, XVII secolo a.C.

Fig. 6 - Trampled layers. a. Plan of the pottery drying surface (part). b. Footprints that permitted reconstruction of the dynamics (direction of passage, age of the workers, horses as beasts of burden) of the 17th century B.C. site. Fig. 6 - Livelli con impronte. a. Mappa dell’area di produzione ceramica (parte). b. Le impronte hanno permesso di ricostruire le dinamiche (direzioni di passaggio, età dei lavoratori, cavalli come bestie da soma) del sito del XVII secolo a.C. 50 Baucon et al. Ichnoarchaeology

2.3. Archaeological burrows and bioturbation The combined analysis of borings (animal gnaw marks; human chop marks) and marmot burrows opens a vivid win- In Palaeoichnology, burrows are among the most stu- dow into human-animal interactions during Palaeolithic ti- died structures as they can provide precise behavioural and mes showing: palaeoenvironmental information. Nevertheless, archaeolo- - bioerosional marks on marmot bones that demonstra- gical burrows have received little attention compared to ver- te skinning, disarticulation and filleting. As a conse- tebrate footprints. This fact is partly due to the difficulty of quence it is possible to infer that humans hunted and examining the three-dimensional structure of archaeologi- dismembered marmots; cal burrows: diagenetical enhancement is usually lacking in - the presence of burrows proves that marmots frequen- archaeological deposits. ted shelters and caves as intrusive animals. The identi- Despite these difficulties, archaeological burrows de- ty of the tracemaker has been determined because, in serve more attention as they can provide useful information some cases, articulated skeletons of marmots have be- for archaeological analysis (e.g. Jeske & Kuznar 2001 on the en found in the burrows. Archaeology and canine digging behaviour; Boceck 1986 on Bioturbation is not just a post-depositional phenom- rodent burrowing behaviour in archaeological sites; see al- enon that mixes an already buried site but, in many cases, so Laza 2001 on insects). represents a mechanism for artefact burial. Darwin (1896) Burrows, as well as the other kinds of traces, can be observed that earthworm activity often led to the rapid bur- syn-depositional or post-depositional: ial of artefacts. As Balek (2002) noted, the burial of an ar- - syn-depositional traces include the Qatna trampled tefact can often be explained to the combined processes of layer whose traces are environmentally related to the (1) within-soil burrowing and (2) translocation of small par- Bronze Age where they occur; ticles from depth to the surface. These processes have been - post-depositonal traces would include the burrows of confirmed by the observations of Johnson et al. (2005) of a modern badger disrupting a Palaeolithic site. See fi- upward biotransfers (ejection of fine soil particles onto the gure 7. surface) and biomixing (mixing within the soil) as major bi- For instance, Giacobini (1992) reported some exam- odynamic processes in the soil. ples of syn-depositional traces in various Palaeolithic sites. As mentioned above, bioturbation is fundamentally a post-depositional process, although there is a tendency in Archaeology to consider that artefacts within the same level are contemporaneous. This is compromised by the action of burrowing animals which can drastically mix the stratigraphy of an archaeosite. For instance, Araujo & Marcelino (2003) simulated an archaeological deposit in a controlled manner and quantified the bioturbation by armadillos. The results of the experiment demonstrated that armadillos sig- nificantly displace artefacts (vertically and horizontally) and are capable of mixing cultural horizons positioned at least 20 cm apart. Such experiments show the importance of bioturbation as a post-depositional process, either in continental (e.g. Canti 2003) and marine environments (see Shaffer et al. 1997 and Stewart 1999 for observations on bioturbation of submerged archaeological sites). The position of artefacts in soils is a crucial element in the interpretation of archaeological sites, although it must be recognised that completely undisturbed archaeological sites are uncommon. For these reasons, bioturbation is often viewed as an obstacle impeding a “correct” interpretation of past civilisations. Nevertheless, we propose a more positive approach to Fig. 7 - Idealized example of syn- and post-depositional traces. post-depositional bioturbation. In fact, evidence of bioturba- Syn-depositional traces give information on the archaeological level tion may inform about the formation of archaeological sites (2), while post-depositional traces are important in the understanding of the stratigraphy (i.e. mixed stratigraphy, exemplified by the (after Fowler et al. 2004). According to the biodynamic ap- artefact on the surface of 1). proach of Johnson et al. (2005), the effects of bioturbation Fig. 7 - Esempio idealizzato di tracce sin- e post-deposizionali. Le are, in a certain degree, predictable. Morin (2006) followed tracce sin-deposizionali danno informazioni sul livello archeologico a similar approach and argued that the vertical distribution (2), mentre le tracce post-deposizionali sono importanti per meglio of archaeological artefacts is predictable in bioturbated con- capire la stratigrafia (livelli rimescolati, ecc.). texts. Moreover, Morin (2006) proposed a detailed model Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72 51 to characterise the stratigraphic evolution in bioturbated archaeological sites, which aims to quantify the stratigraphi- cal noise related to bioturbation. In conclusion, bioturbation is a primary element to take into consideration when studying archaeological sites.

3. BIOEROSIONAL STRUCTURES

3.1. Introduction

Bioerosional traces are structures excavated mechanically or biochemically by organisms into rigid substrates (Pemberton et al. 2001). Bioerosional structures are quite common at archaeological sites, and show a wide behavioural and palaeoenvironmental range. In particular, the following rigid substrates are particularly common in archaeological contexts: rocks (i.e. Laborel & Laborel-Deguen 1994), wood (i.e. Fozzati & Scanferla, 2002 ) and bone (i.e. Kierdorf 1994). These substrates are considered below using case studies: borings in ancient Mediterranean harbours (rocky substrates), insect borings in wood substrates and therapeutical bioerosion of bone substrates.

3.2. Bioerosional ichnofabrics in ancient Mediterranean harbours

Fig. 8 - One of the first ichnoarchaeological analyses:L yell’s (1830) 3.2.1. Introduction Principles of Geology, figuring theT emple of Serapis (Italy). Lyell took into account the bioeroded zone on the pillars and demon- The frontispiece of Lyell’s “Principles of Geology” strated changes in relative sea-level since the Roman period. (Lyell 1830) represents one of the first applications ofI chno- Fig. 8 - Frontespizio del Principles of Geology (1830) di Lyell, logy to Archaeology (Fig. 8). Lyell described and illustrated raffigurante il Tempio di Serapide (Italia). Lyell ha considerato la borings in the Roman market of Pozzuoli as an evidence of zona bioerosa sulle colonne, dimostrando cambiamenti relativi del sea-level variations in historic times. In spite of Lyell’s work, livello marino sin dai tempi romani. the study of biological indicators of recent sea-level variations is a relatively recent discipline (Flemming 1969). Bioe- rosional structures have been widely considered in “traditio- colonised by flourishing civilisations since before Phoenician nal” Ichnology (e.g. Bromley & D’Alessandro 1984, 1989; times, and its biodiversity includes numerous boring taxa. Simon et al. 1984), and have recently found application in the archaeological study of harbours and other littoral struc- 3.2.2. The biological bases tures (Laborel & Laborel-Deguen 1994; Papageorgiou et al. 1993; Morhange et al. 1996, 1998, 2001, 2006; for a detai- The combined action of erosional and constructional led bibliography see Marriner & Morhange 2007). agents controls the morphology of rocky shores: biocon- Bioerosional structures on lithified substrates typical- structional agents (e.g. calcareous algae, bivalves and ga- ly have a high preservation potential; consequently they are stropods; see Laborel 1986) may be counterbalanced by bio- often found in archaeological contexts, where they are use- erosional agents (i.e. pholadid bivalves, sea-urchins, poly- ful for tracing variations of local sea-level. Such bioindica- chaetes) (Dalongeville et al. 1994). tors have been used in a number of studies, either on natural On the rocky shores of the Western Mediterranean, shorelines (e.g. Laborel et al. 1994; Pirazzoli et al. 1982), bioerosional and bioconstructional agents show a very well- or on ancient harbours affected by recent tectonic changes defined vertical pattern. In fact, the littoral environmental in sea-level (Morhange et al. 1996, 1998, 2001, 2006; Sti- constraints lead to a precise spatial distribution of fauna ros et al. 1996). and flora (see the detailed studies of Peres & Picard 1964, The Mediterranean Sea represents an amazing open- as well as the broadly similar scheme of Stephenson & Ste- air laboratory for the study of bioerosional structures in an phenson 1949). archaeological context. Mediterranean coastlines have been The biological zonation of the Western Mediterranean 52 Baucon et al. Ichnoarchaeology

Fig. 9 - Schematic zonation of bioconstructional and bioerosive forms in Mediterranean limestone shorelines. The diagram is divided in two parts, one dedicated to agents, the other to morphologies. Fig. 9 - Zonazione degli agenti bioerosivi e biocostruttori delle co- ste rocciose calcaree nel Mediterraneo. Lo schema è diviso in due parti, una dedicata agli agenti, l’altra alle morfologie.

Sea includes three principal zones, from the land seawards rock against bioerosion and, under favourable condi- (Fig. 9; see also Fig. 10a). tions may build reef-like rims and platforms which are 1. littoral fringe: wetted by surf and colonized by endo- very precise sea-level markers (Laborel & Laborel-De- lithic Cyanobacteria. guen 1994; Morhange et al. 1998). In protected harbou- 2. Midlittoral zone: periodically submersed by waves and rs, zonation is somewhat simplified as the open-water, tides, displaying a pattern of parallel algal belts, with high-energy fauna generally does not develop; in the- biomass and species diversity increasing seaward. On se cases the main bioconstructors are usually cirrhi- limestone, the main eroding elements are Cyanobac- peds (Balanus) and oysters, while the main bioeroder teria and limpets which shape the tidal notch and ero- are polychaetes. On wooden elements such as posts, sional bench. Bioconstructional elements such as the infralittoral bioerosion is represented mainly by tere- coralline rhodophyte Lithophyllum lichenoides may al- dinid bivalves and polychaetes (Fig. 10b) so be important sea-level markers. 3. infralittoral (sublittoral) zone: ranging from mean sea- 3.2.3. Bioerosional ichnofabrics in Ichnoarchaeology level (MSL) down to a depth of 25-35m, this zone is densely populated by brown sea-weeds and its nar- The distribution of bioerosional-bioconstructional row upper fringe bears cemented gastropod molluscs agents gives data on a number of different topics. (Dendropoma petraeum, Vermetus triqueter) and bi- - Air/water interface. The borderline between marine and valves (Chama). Lower down in the infralittoral zone, subaerial forms corresponds to the air/water interface the main erosional agents are boring sponges Cliona gives an accurate indication of the past sea-level. This spp. (Rutzler 1975; Spencer 1992), annelids (Polydora separation line is generally well marked by the abrupt and related species), sea-urchins (Paracentrotus) and disappearing of macroborings, even in protected har- rock-boring bivalves, mainly Lithophaga lithophaga. bours (Fig. 11; see also Laborel et al. 2003). Vermetid gastropods and coralline algae protect the - Periodic sea-level fluctuations. Periodical oscillations Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72 53

Fig. 10 - Ichnological zonations on rocky and xylic substrates. a. Ichnological zonation on displaced jetty boulders (Eubea). 1. Supralitoral weathering on limestone breccia. 2. Midlittoral indicators: limpet cupulae. 3,4,5. Infralitoral indicators: Entobia and Gastrochaenolites. Arrows indicate mean sea level. b. Perforations of Teredo navalis in a wooden stock (from an ancient Roman harbour, Marseilles). Fig. 10 - Zonazioni icnologiche su substrati rocciosi e lignei. a. Zonazione icnologica su massi di un pontile (Eubea). 1. Erosione sopralit- torale 2. Infralittorale, cupulae di molluschi. 3,4,5. Entobia, Gastrochaenolites. Le frecce indicano il livello medio del mare. b. Perforazioni di Teredo navalis su substrato ligneo, in un antico porto romano (Marsiglia)

Fig. 11 - Sea level variations revealed by Lithophaga borings on Roman columns (Pozzuoli, Italy). The borings from the Phlegrean Fields area (Italy) were described by Lyell (1830) (see Fig. 8) and, more recently, they have been studied by Mohrange et al. (1998, 2006). Fig. 11 - Variazioni relative del livello marino rivelate da perforazioni di Litophaga (Pozzuoli). Le perforazioni dell’area dei campi flegrei sono state già studiate da Lyell (1830) e, più recentemente, da Mohrange et al. (1998, 2006).

of sea level can be inferred by the study of ichnofabri- secting an older vermetid rim, indicating a slight rise cs and/or by cross-cutting relationships between bio- of sea-level after the formation of the rim (Thomme- erosional and bioconstructional forms. For instance, ret et al. 1981). the superposition of infralittoral on midlittoral forms - Duration of sea-level fluctuations. The duration of a shows a sea-level rise. An example is given in figure transgressive event may be deduced from the size of the 12, where sea-urchin and Lithophaga borings are dis- bioerosional forms. For instance, some years are requi- 54 Baucon et al. Ichnoarchaeology

Fig. 12 - Ichnofabric analysis to determine late Holocene shoreline changes. Falasarna (Crete), after Aloisi et al. (1978). 1. Erosional notch, with superimposed infralittoral perforations. 2. Eroded vermetid (Dendropoma) rim, marking the contemporary sea-level. 3. Sea-urchin raspings dissecting the vermetid rim Litophaga holes, contemporary of 3. In conclusion, the ichnofabric analysis indicates a relative sea- level change related to neotectonics. Fig. 12 - L’analisi dell’ichnofabric permette di determinare variazioni della linea di costa nel tardo Olocene. Falsarna (Creta), da Aloisi et al. (1978). 1. Solco erosionale con perforazioni (infralittorale). 2. Biocostruzioni di vermetidi (Dendropoma) parzialmente erose: contrasse- gnano il livello marino attuale. 3. Perforazioni di riccio di mare che intersecano le biocostruzioni di vermitidi. 4. Perforazioni di Litophaga, contemporanee a 3. In conclusione, l’analisi degli ichnofabric rivela una variazione del livello marino legato alla neotettonica.

red before Lithophaga produces a bioerosional ichno- 3.3. European wood-boring organisms and the conserva- fabric. The mean diameter of Lithophaga borings de- tion of archaeological artefacts pends on the age of the animals and reaches its maximum value after a long time, often more than fifty ye- 3.3.1. Introduction ars (Kleemann 1973). As a consequence, the measu- rement of Lithophaga borings allows an indirect esti- Wood is one of the most commonly used materials be- mation of the transgressive event. cause of its favourable properties: it is durable, light, easily - Physical properties of the environment. The degree of decorated, easy to work, burns, floats, looks attractive, and opening of a harbour may be deduced from the fixed makes a noise under strain. It has been used since the appe- fauna, but also from the bioerosional ichnofabric. Do- arance of humankind and it is inconceivable to imagine the minance of annelid tubes is generally associated with cultural evolution of the European civilisations without it. semi-closed or even brackish environments, whereas Wood is destroyed by several biological and physico- an open water, high energy environment is characteri- chemical factors causing anisotropic dimensional altera- sed by an ichnoassociation dominated by clionid, echi- tion, chemical alterations, cracking, discouloration, growth noid and Lithophaga borings (respectively correspon- rings and bark detachment, lessening of mechanical streng- ding to the ichnogenera Entobia, cf. Circolites, Gastro- th, surface decay, and several other modifications of phy- chaenolites). For example, the marble columns of the sical properties. Among biological factors, boring organi- Roman market in Pozzuoli are bored by wide Litho- sms are a prominent in damaging archaeological wood. In phaga burrows, up to an altitude of +7 metres, there- fact borings strongly influence the preservation of xylic ar- fore indicating a prolonged stay in open sea water (Fig. tefacts and, consequently, the quality of the archaeological 11). The bases of the mentioned columns – as well as information. smaller pillars – are coated by encrusting annelid tu- A general overview of the problem is given here, focu- bes, consequently indicating that the open water envi- sing on the following points using European case studies: ronment was later replaced by a brackish one. 1. types of borings affecting archaeological wood; Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72 55

2. wood-boring tracemakers; cular account. The life cycle of wood-boring Coleoptera in- 3. restoration and conservation of bored wood; cludes different ontogentic stages, which are always asso- 4. borings as a potential palaeoenvironmental tool. ciated with characteristic traces (Fig. 13). 1. Tunnel systems. Wood-boring coleopterans usually cho- 3.3.2. Wood-boring organisms of Europe ose cracks to lay eggs, which will develop into larvae. Larvae are responsible for intricate tunnel systems, de- Several taxa are known to bore wood, either in marine rived from their feeding activity. These structures are or continental environments. In the marine realm certain bi- the most damaging for wood artefacts. valves and crustaceans are a major treat for submerged wo- 2. Faecal pellet. These are products of digestion, in so- od artefacts. Archaeological wood is particularly affected by me cases diagnostic of the tracemaker (see Tab. 3). boring organisms: Fozzati & Scanferla (2002) presented evi- 3. Wood dust. Freshly pulverised wood is often one of the dence that xylophagous animals (Teredo, Limnoria, Chellu- more conspicuous traces of the activity of wood-bo- ra) preferentially attack archaeological wood. ring insects. In the continental realm, insects are regarded as the 4. Pupal chambers. Just before pupation, the larva enlar- major group of animals damaging wood. Insects attack wo- ges the diameter of a section of a tunnel. During the od for shelter, food and laying eggs, and in some cases they pupal stage, the insect limits its movements and com- cooperate with micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi pletes metamorphosis in the pupal chamber. to transform cellulose and lignin to more easily digestible 5. Exit holes. When the adult emerges, it leaves charac- products. The principal orders of xylophagous insects are teristic exit holes which are typical of each species. Coleoptera (“beetles”) and Isoptera (“termites”). Termites According to Korozi (1997: 19), the life cycle of Me- are a social group of insects mainly distributed in tropical diterranean insects lasts from 1-10 years, depending on the and subtropical regions (among 26-32 °C and 70-90% rela- insect, wood type and environment. Generally speaking, wo- tive humidity; Unger et al. 2001). In tropical regions they re- od-boring coleopterans favour high temperatures and low present a major threat for wood artefacts, while in the most RH (Relative Humidity) levels. Most are very adaptive, but of Europe they are a secondary pest (termites are only pre- cannot withstand extreme conditions. Table 3 lists the most sent in the southernmost part of Europe). common European wood-boring organisms, with particular For these reasons, Coleoptera will be taken into parti- account to their traces.

Fig. 13 - Commonest traces produced by wood-boring coleopterans (based on the genus Anobium). Fig. 13 - Principali tracce prodotte da coleotteri perforatori (basato sul genere Anobium). 56 Baucon et al. Ichnoarchaeology

Tab. 3 - Major wood-boring organisms of Europe. Based on Unger et al. (2001), SIS disinfestazioni (pers. com.) Tab. 3 - Principali organismi perforatori del legno in Europa. Basato su Unger et al. (2001), SIS disinfestazioni (com. pers.).

Fam. Species Associated traces Environmental parmeters

The female lays eggs in the cracks of the wood (or in the exit holes of previous gen- Anobium punctatum is especially widespread in zones influenced by marine climate and significant humidity. erations); when the insects become adults, they swarm producing the characteristic Its presence is reported from in Europe, but it has been introduced also into North America, South Africa, South Austral- Anobium exit holes (round, 1-2 mm in diameter). The galleries are tortuous with thick debris ia and New Zealand. punctatum mixed with excrements. In hardwood the galleries are irregular and partially filled It attacks broadleaves and conifers, and especially the sapwood. The larva is capable of using very poor, weathered and dry with cigar-shaped faecal pellets. wood. Even if the wood is seriously attacked, it does not fully lose its resistance and its structure is always recognisable.

The galleries are meandering, and the exit holes are usually numerous, circular (2, 5-4 mm diameter). Faecal pellets large and lens-shaped. A special feature is the brown The optimum development of the larvae occurs at 22-25 °C and 80% RH. It is rare in mountainous regions. Xestobium discoloration of the wood, derived from the simultaneous attack by decay fungi. This species lives in wood already degraded by fungi, not perfectly dry. It feeds on broadleaves, such as oak, elm, wal- rufovillosum This species is named death watch beetle for the ticking sound produced to attract nut, splinter, poplar and willow.

Anobiidae mates; this sound is produced by hitting the forehead on the gallery floor.

Galleries follow fiber direction and exit holes are 1.3-3 mm in diameter. Pupa co- Nicobium coons are made of faecal pellets and placed near the exit hole. Nicobium hirtum is It colonises nearly every wooden object present in poorly ventilated and very hot environments. It damages paper too. castaneum widespread in Japan, where it causes significant damages to temples.

Oligomerus The boring morphology is very similar to Nicobium castaneum. It is a typical Mediterranean species occurring in poorly ventilated and hot environments. ptilinoides

The larva is up to 25 mm long, and makes large (more than 1 cm long) straight and curvy tunnels, extending close to the wood surface. The galleries are usually grooved It lives in discreetly elevated temperatures (28-30 °C), usually occurring in house interiors and roof beams. Hylotrupes bajulus and stuffed with fine and abundant wood-dust mixed with cylindrical-shaped excrete. It is associated with conifers, such as redwood, fir, larch and pine. Due to the size of the larvae, the mechanical resistance of the wooden structures is se-

C erambycidae riously compromised. The exit holes are elliptical and present rich and fine debris. I nsecta, O rder C oleoptera

The larvae cause serious damage: they affect structural and mechanical properties Hesperophanes of the wood, up to the extent of making it impossible to diagnose their presence. The This species prefers broadleaves, such as turkey oak, acacia, beech, poplar, walnut and chestnut. cinereus exit holes are oval, 6-10 mm in diameter.

Neoclytus Winding galleries, often parallel to the bark. Circular exit holes. It is a widely diffused species attacking furniture made of broadleaves. acuminatus erambycidae V Phymatodes The larvae produce abundant granular debris, and the exit holes are elliptical with a It attacks broadleaves, especially oak. testaceus diameter of 5-7 mm.

Its tunnels are stuffed with wood-dust and the exit holes are round, 0.8-2mm in diameter. The galleries are meandering with rectilinear traits. It is diffused especially in the tropics, but it has been introduced into Europe, North America, Australia and Japan with Lyctus The galleries, 1-2 mm wide, are similar to those of Anobium punctatum but they the commerce of tropical wood. It is associated with 10-16% RH and 20 °C temperature.

yctidae brunneus can be distinguished for the frass: Lyctus brunneus is associated with extremely fine

L It attacks very porous woods with a moisture content of around 15%. and light coloured frass, not forming fecal pellets. Hence the common name “pow- der post beetle”.

Clavate borings, 6-8 mm in diameter. Characteristically the boring walls have carbon- Teredo navalis Teredo usually attacks shipwrecks in salty water and most often associated with warm and temperate waters. dae ate linings. Teredo has a worm-like body (hence the common name shipworm). eredini - Bivalvua T

Limnoria (“gribble”, a crustacean) produces winding tunnels, which are usually nar- Limnoria lignorum Limnoria usually occurs in cold and temperate waters.

ridae row (1 mm diameter) and shallow (not more than 20 mm deep). C rust. L imno- Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72 57

(Tab. 3 - continued) (Tab. 3 - continua)

Fam. Species Associated traces Environmental parmeters

Anobiidae mates; this sound is produced by hitting the forehead on the gallery floor.

Oligomerus The boring morphology is very similar to Nicobium castaneum. It is a typical Mediterranean species occurring in poorly ventilated and hot environments. ptilinoides

C erambycidae riously compromised. The exit holes are elliptical and present rich and fine debris. I nsecta, O rder C oleoptera

yctidae brunneus can be distinguished for the frass: Lyctus brunneus is associated with extremely fine

L It attacks very porous woods with a moisture content of around 15%. and light coloured frass, not forming fecal pellets. Hence the common name “pow- der post beetle”.

Limnoria (“gribble”, a crustacean) produces winding tunnels, which are usually nar- Limnoria lignorum Limnoria usually occurs in cold and temperate waters. ridae row (1 mm diameter) and shallow (not more than 20 mm deep). C rust. L imno- 58 Baucon et al. Ichnoarchaeology

3.3.3. Conservation and restoration of bored wood: case fact required special disinfestation techniques (deve- studies loped by SIS Disinfestazioni in collaboration with the Museum of Egyptian Archaeology of Turin, Italy). In this contribution, three case studies are conside- Typically, wooden artefacts undergo several stages red to explain some of the most common treatments for bo- of treatment: cleaning, disinfestation, adhesion, consolida- red wood. tion, filling, and in the case of waterlogged wood, desalina- - Agricultural tool (property of the Natural History Mu- tion and drying. seum of Lesvos). This tool, dragged by animals, was If boring organisms are still present, disinfestation used to separate cereal seeds. All of its surfaces were is important. For the disinfestation of dry wooden objects, seriously damaged by the attack of at least three dif- several methods are used, among which are the application ferent types of wood-borers, as evidenced by the sev- of toxic substances, microwaves, heat and creation of an- eral types of exit holes and tunnels (Fig. 14). oxic environments (i.e. Xavier-Rowe et al. 2000). Chem- - greek orthodox icon (private collection of Mr. Tsar- icals have been used to disinfest two of the listed objects, bopoulos, Athens). This magnificent piece of histo- the agricultural tool and the icon. As regards the agricultur- ry and art has been seriously damaged by larvae. The al tool, a chemical agent (Cuprinol) was injected into the biogenic structures include tunnels which partly col- exit holes, and subsequently brushed on the object’s surfac- lapsed, causing the structural damaging of the paint. es. The Greek-orthodox icon (Fig. 16) underwent to a simi- Exit holes were also present on the sides of the object. lar treatment: after removing mechanically excrements and Freshly pulverised wood and faeces indicated the pres- pulverized wood, the artifact was injected and impregnated ence of living insects in several areas (Fig. 15). with chemicals (Wood Shield). - greco-Roman mummy (property of the Museum of Sometimes, the disinfestation of boring insects re- Egyptian Archaeology of Turin). Even though the ar- quires more elaborate treatments. The combined use of an- tifact is constituted by composite materials, it repre- oxic environments with inert gases (argon and nitrogen) has sents a very interesting case study regarding boring been described by Valentin et al. (1992: pp. 165-167). Sim- insects. In fact the mummy has been attacked by very ilar techniques have been used on the described Greco-Ro- aggressive organisms; the delicate nature of the arti- man mummy infested by insects (Fig. 17).

Fig. 14 - Restoration of an agricultural tool affected by boring organisms. a. General view of the artefact. b. Image showing bioerosional structures (coleopteran exit holes) and restoration techniques (injection of Cuprinol). Fig. 14 - Restauro di un attrezzo agricolo danneggiato da organismi perforatori. a. Vista generale dell’attrezzo. b. Questa immagine mostra strutture bioerosionali (fori d’uscita di coleotteri) e tecniche di restauro (iniezioni di Cuprinol). Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72 59

Fig. 15 - Greek orthodox icon damaged by insect borings. a. This Greek orthodox icon of folk art presents numerous problems created by wood borers. The tunnels are so close to the painted surface that paint has fallen into the gaps, resulting in loss of painted surfaces. This is evident in the upper part of the icon, around St. John’s head, and mostly on the lower part of the icon, the wood underneath St. George (on the left corner), the face of St. Charalambos (in the centre) and less in the area of St. Demetrios (on the right corner). b. The coloured surface has collapsed and was lost due to the existence of wood borer tunnels underneath it, resulting to the loss of nearly half of St. Charalabos’s face. A crack runs across all of the saint’s body, indicating the existence of a tunnel. In the areas where the paint has been lost, wood dust and woodbore excrement can be seen. Fig. 15 - Icona ortodossa danneggiata da insetti perforatori. a. Quest’icona greca presenta numerosi danni procurati da insetti perforatori. I tunnel sono così vicini alla superficie dipinta che la pittura è collassata nei vuoti, producendo una perdita delle superfici pitturate. b. La superficie dipinta è collassata e quasi metà del viso di San Charalabos è stata distrutta a causa dei tunnels. Nelle aree dove la pittura è stata danneggiata, si osservano escrementi e segatura.

Fig. 16 - Restoration of bored Greek icon. a. Mechanical cleaning of pulverised wood and excrement, with the aid of a scalpel. b. Con- solidation of the back of the icon by injecting Paraloid B72 40% v/v in acetone. The tunnels were quite long and very close to the surface. Injecting acrylic resin into one hole resulted in the oozing out of the material from another spot, along the length of the underlying tunnel. This may be observed by the inlined dots of acrylic resin in this photograph. Fig. 16 - Restauro dell’icona greca perforata. a. Pulizia meccanica da segatura e escrementi, effettuata con l’aiuto di uno scalpello. b. Consolidamento della parte posteriore dell’icona tramite l’iniezione di Paraloid B72 40% v/v in acetone. I tunnel sono estesi e vicini alla superficie. L’iniezione di resina in un foro di uscita è sgorgata da un’altra apertura, dopo aver attraversato un tunnel. Questo fatto è dimostrato dalle gocce di resina allineate. 60 Baucon et al. Ichnoarchaeology

3.3.4. Future scenarios: wood borings as a palaeoenvironmental tool

Hitherto, borings have been only considered as causes of damages to archaeological wood. We conclude this contribution with a novel approach: wood borings could constitute an additional source of information for the archaeologist. Taking in mind the preference of wood borers for precise environmental conditions (Tab. 3), wood borings could express the environmental history of a particular artefact. Structures such as exit holes and tunnels could provide valuable information for the archaeologist, such as climate (temperature, humidity) and bathymetry. Such an approach was partly an- ticipated by Oevering et al. (2001) who noted that wood-borers (including coleopterans and molluscs) can be precise indicators of sea-levels. Fig. 17 - Restoration of a mummy infested by boring insects. A Insect traces could constitute a very proficient ichno- special bag was created to enclose the mummy, which was con- archeological tool as wood-boring insects are very selecti- nected to a nitrogen container. Careful monitoring was performed, with the aid of special sensors. Temperature, relative humidity and ve about environment. The palaeoenvironmental value of in- oxygen content were recorded at regular intervals and the readings sects has been already tested in Archaeology (e.g. Kenward were displayed on a computer screen. 2006), and ichnologists previously described borings in fossil Fig. 17 - Restauro di una mummia infestata da insetti perforatori. wood (e.g. ichnogenera Dekosichnus, Palaeobuprestus, Pala- La mummia è stata inclusa in un involucro di plastica, connesso eoipidus, Palaeoscolytus, Xylonichnus; see also Genise 1993, ad una bombola di azoto. L’intervento è stato monitorato con 1999). As a consequence, it appears manifest that archaeolo- attenzione grazie a particolari sensori. Temperatura, umidità e gists, conservators, entomologists and ichnologists have to ossigeno sono state registrate ad intervalli regolari e controllate be encouraged in collaborating to better understand our cul- tramite un monitor. tural heritage.

The limits of Ichnoarchaeology revealed by trepanation After disinfestation, the wood can be consolidated with epoxy, acrylic or wax fillers that may vary in viscosity, accord- In the introductory part of the paper we discussed the ing to the needs of the object (see also Schniewind & Kronk- difficulty of finding a discrete boundary between Archaeolo- right 1984: pp146-150). gy and Ichnology. In fact these disciplines are separated by a Insect tunnels and exit holes are filled for static and aes- wide grey zone, which comprises also human-produced struc- thetic reasons but also as a means of prevental conservation, tures. The archaeological record registers numerous human since certain insects use exit holes of previous generations to traces, such as footprints (i.e. Allen 1997) and coprolites (i.e. lay their eggs. Bryant 1974). It is also known that humans are responsible for Acrylic thermoplastic resin (Paraloid B72 40% v/v in a number of bioerosional structures (i.e. gnaw marks, Landt propanone - C3H6O) has been applied to the agricultural tool 2007). Nevertheless, predation is not the only behaviour pro- and the Greek icon to fill exit holes and tunnels. The artis- ducing modifications of bone substrates: humans have pro- tic value of the icon required some attention for restoration. duced various modifications of osteological substrates for sur- The destroyed wooden surface on the back was filled with a gical, religious or mystical purposes (MacCurdy 1905, Ford warm mixture of beeswax, chalk and acrylic colours, while 1937, Piggott 1940, Stewart 1958, Rytel 1962, Lisowski 1967, the destroyed areas on the front were filled with a warm mix- Stevens & Wakely 1993, Brothwell 1994, Lillie 1998, Jackson ture of beeswax and chalk, later retouched with acrylic col- 1988, Figueiredo 2002). ours and varnished. Since prehistoric times, human skulls have been object of Preventative conservation is vital in ensuring that wood- these kind of modifications, which are found in archaeological en objects are maintained in optimal condition. RH (Relative deposits from all ages and areas: Europe (e.g.. Genna 1930; Humidity) should be less than 70% and temperature should Castiglioni 1941), Africa (Hilton-Simpson 1913; Forgue 1938; be 20-25 ºC. In some cases conservators create a microcli- Oakley et al. 1959), pre-Colombian America (Verano 1997; mate to enclose very fragile objects. The rooms where wood- Tiesler Blos 1999), India (Sankhyan & Weber 2000) and Au- en objects are kept should be monitored for the presence of stralia (Webb 1988). Two main categories are recognised: wood borers. This is often done using insect traps. Child and - sincipital marks (trepanation sensu lato): superficial scra- Pinninger (1994: pp 129-131) provide guidelines on effective pings resulting from therapeutic or ornamental activities monitoring strategies, and note some of the limitations of the at the scalp level; methodology. - craniectomies (trepanation sensu stricto): complete re- Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72 61

moval of areas of the cranial bone, resulting in a bo- see Hasiotis et al. 2007), although the traditional methods of rehole. In many cases craniectomies were not respon- Ichnology do not find application to all of them. sible for the death of the patient (Kurth & Rohrer-Ertl 1981). The question naturally arises: is trepanation a kind of 4. ichnologicAL HIEROPHANIES bioerosion? Trepanation (Fig. 18) is the intentional process of perfo- 4.1. Rocks, cultural landscapes, and Ichnology rating the skull of a living (or recently deceased) person (after Pahl 1993). Moreover, the word trepanation comes from Rocks have been part of the human cultural landsca- the Greek term “trypanein” which means “to bore”. pe since Palaeolithic times (Bradley 2000). They have be- Therefore, it is evident that trepanation can be associa- en referential landmarks in a cognitive cartography which ted with bioerosion which is, by definition, the process whe- often defined day-life activities and environmental interac- re animals, plants and microbes sculpt or penetrate surfaces tions. In many cases they have been linked with the divina- of hard substrates (Bromley 1994). As a consequence, one tory and the magic. could point to Ichnology as the optimal discipline to study In such cases rocks represent hierophanies, that are sup- trepanation. However, it is manifest that “traditional” ich- posed to be manifestations of the sacred: according to Elia- nological methods show important limitations in this field. de’s (1959) observations, hierophanies mirror “something In fact other disciplines (e.g. forensic medicine, anthropo- of a wholly different order, a reality that does not belong to logy) play a much more important role in the study of this our world, in objects that are an integral part of our natural phenomenon. ‘profane’ world”. From this example, a problematical aspect of Ichnoar- Archaeologists are extremely interested in geological chaeology emerges. A great part of human-related structures hierophanies. In fact “sacred rocks” provide precious insights can be considered as traces (e.g. rock art, stone tools, graves; into the religious beliefs of a civilization.

Fig. 18 - Trepanation is a form of human bioerosion; Meso- lithic of Muge (Por- tugal, 6360 years BP). Fig. 18 - La trapanazione è una forma di bioerosione huma- na; Muge, Mesoliti- co (Portogallo, 6360 anni BP). 62 Baucon et al. Ichnoarchaeology

There are many examples of geological hierophanies. - named “uki stones” by the Iroquois – to their villages for Uluru (Ayers Rock, Australia) is a monumental example of religious purposes (Mayor 2007). In the Rio do Peixe area hierophany for Aboriginal people. Sacred rocks are found of Brazil has been found a petroglyph associated with a di- worldwide, in many cultures of the past and of the present; nosaur footprint (Leonardi & Carvalho 2000; Fig. 19). The some other major examples are Eej Khad (Mongolia), Mac- Aztecs used the toponomastic term Temacpalco, which me- chu Picchu’s sacred rock (Peru), and the Meotoiwa Wedded ans “Impression of the Hands”; this fact is linked with an an- Rocks (Japan). cient Aztec legend, which tells of Quetzalcoatl - the Feathe- Curiously, archaeologists themselves are frequently re- red Serpent God – leaving hand-prints in the rock (Mayor sponsible for the creation of new hierophanies. For instance 2007). In Spain, peasants and shepherds from La Rioja Ba- the Pedra Redonda (Rounded Stone, Portugal) village deve- ja attributed dinosaur footprints to the horse shoes of Saint loped around a large, rounded ammonite. Archaeologists er- Thomas (Sanz 1999). roneously interpreted the fossil as religious rock art depic- From the few examples cited above, it is possible to ting magic alignments (Silva 2001). categorize ichnohierophanies (Tab. 4) into five socio-cultu- Among geological hierophanies, there are many ichno- ral groups: cultural, morphological, artistic, scientific and logical ones (“ichnohierophanies”), which are also found in composite. an archaeological context. For instance, slabs with fossil fo- This contribution aims to show some major examples of otprints were collected by Indians; they brought these slabs ichnohierophanies, particularly from Portugal and Spain.

Tab. 4 - Classification of ichnohierophanies. Tab. 4 - Classificazione delle icnoierofanie.

Ichnohierophanies Definition Examples Remarks This kind of ichnohierophanies are not connected At Cabo Espichel (Portugal) a religious with the scientific meth- Trace fossils interpreted as pilgrimage is related to sauropod track- od (as happens for scien- Cultural manifestation of supernatu- ways. The legend tells that the footprints tific ichnohierophanies), ral realities. were left by a mule carrying Our Lady. but they are associated with popular beliefs and religion. This kind of hierophany is Abiotic structures interpret- At Monte Sant’Elia (Stromboli, Italy) are usually linked with geo- Morphologic ed as ichnological traces of found rounded depressions interpreted as morphological features supernatural. Devil’s footprints. (i.e. karstic structures)

At Bohuslän (Sweden) there are Bronze These kinds of symbols Human-produced structures Age carvings depicting boats and foot- are linked to the super- Anthropic associated either with ich- prints, probably linked with the cult of natural by human inter- nology or supernatural. the netherworld (Bradley, 1997). vention. For instance, ritual podomorphs are not a direct manifestation of the supernatural (as hap- The “Bicha Pintada” (“painted snake”) of pens for cultural/morpho- Milreu (Portugal) has been interpreted by logic ichnohierophanies) Ichnohierophanies resulting archaeologists as a petroglyph. Accord- but they actually reflect from the erroneous scientif- Scientific ing to this interpretation, the “Bicha pin- worshipping of the super- ic interpretation of the ich- tada” would be produced by Celtic tribes natural. nological record. as a symbol of ophiolatric rituals. In real- Thus, these kinds of sym- ity it is a trace fossil (Cruziana). bols correspond to an ex- tended meaning of hierophany. Probably the most of ich- The podomorphs of Ifanes (Portugal) are nohierophanies are com- Superposition of different actually rock art, but popular culture suc- Composite posite, as cultures conti- ichnohierophanies. cessively interpreted them as footsteps of nuously superimpose their Saint Joseph, Our Lady and Jesus. beliefs. Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72 63

4.2. “Admire Our Lady climbing the rock” and other cultural ichnohierophanies

In popular culture trace fossils have been interpreted as the manifestation of supernatural realities. For instance, huge footprints in rocks have been often connected to the supernatural capabilities of extraordinary creatures / divini- ties; according to Eliade’s (1959) terminology, this fact represents a “kratophany” (hierophany in which the experience of power dominates). The structures known as “Ciampa- te del Diavolo” (“Devil’s footprints”, Italy) are an example of a kratophanic interpretation: an ancient legend interprets the footprints as produced by the Devil who has the supernatural power of walking on lava. The “Devil’s Footprints” are actually hominid trackways preserved in ash deposits (Mietto et al. 2003). Other examples from classical antiquity often interpret fossil footprints as produced by Hercules. For instance, this interpretation is reported by Herodotus (as regards ancient Moldavia, 450 years BC) and Diodorus (1st century BC, Sicily; Mayor & Sarjeant 2001). Apart from kratophanic interpretations, there are several other examples showing that humans associated trace fossils with supernatural realities (“cultural ichnohierophanies”). As mentioned above, fossil footprints were collected for religious purposes by the Iroquois (Mayor 2007) and petroglyphs are associated with dinosaur footprints in Fig. 19 - Petroglyph associated with dinosaur footprints (Serrote do Brazil (Leonardi & Carvalho 2000) and North America (Ma- Letreiro, Sousa Basin, Brasil; see Leonardi & Carvalho 2000). yor 2007). Iberian Neolithic tribes have been also inspired Fig. 19 - Petroglifo associato ad impronta di dinosauro (Serrote by fossil medusoid impressions (see below). do Letreiro, Sousa Basin, Brasile; si veda Leonardi & Carvalho An astounding cultural ichnohierophany comes from 2000). Cabo Espichel (Western Portugal). This case is quite recent but shows clearly the archaeological value of ichnohierophanies and the anthropological basis of “sacred trace fossils” (Fig. 20).

Fig. 20 - Cultural ichnohierophany from Cabo Espichel (Portugal). a. General view of the azulejos depicting the ichnohierophany. b. Detail showing the “Mule’s footprints”. c. Panorama of the geosite containing the ichnohierophany. d. The tracksite related to the ichnohierophany. Fig. 20 - Icnoierofania culturale di Cabo Espichel (Portogallo). a. Visione d’insieme degli azulejos che raffigurano l’icnoierofania. b. Particolare che mostra le “impronte del Mulo”. c. Panorama del geosito che ha originato l’icnoierofania. d. Il sito ad impronte associato all’icnoierofania. 64 Baucon et al. Ichnoarchaeology

Inside the Memory Chapel at Cabo Espichel is an 18th res from all over the world. To cite a few examples, a granite century azulejo (a painted, glazed ceramic tilework) depic- boulder is named “Devil’s Foot Rock” after a colonial legend ting the miracle of Our Lady of Mule’s Stone (Fig 20a). telling of a squaw being chased by the devil (Rhode Island). This azulejo shows a set of footprints intersecting a huge Foot-like depressions in the ground (more than one metre in sea-cliff; a mule is carrying the Virgin Mary over the track- diameter) are interpreted as the footprints of the giant Mo- way (Fig. 20b). su, leaving his trace on his way across the Pacific to Fiji (Sa- The tilework refers to an ancient legend dealing with moa Island). At Monte Sant’Elia (Stromboli, Italy) there are Our Lady. According to the legend, the Virgin Mary came rounded depression interpreted as Devil’s Footprints. from the sea on the back of a mule which left its footprints In Portugal, the “Virgin of the Footprint” ichnohiero- on the sea-cliffs. This legend is associated with an important phany recurs in various areas (Fig. 21). One of the most in- Christian ritual observed for many centuries. On the sum- teresting examples is represented by the “footprints” of the mit of Cabo Espichel is a sanctuary where the ritual is cele- Virgin Mary from Nazaré. Nazaré itself demonstrates the brated in a very popular annual pilgrimage (even the Portu- potential role of ichnohierophanies in Archaeology. In fact guese Royal Family have participated in this ceremony sin- the cultural and economic development of Nazaré is deeply ce the 18th century). connected with the miracle of the knight D. Fuas Roupin- The legend is linked with the palaeontological trea- ho (revealed in the 17th century by Bernardo de Brito). The sure preserved on the crags projecting on the ocean (nowa- legend takes place in the forests of Sítio (“The Place”) and days a protected Natural Monument). In fact, on the same tells of a knight who was hunting when he encountered an cliff depicted in the azulejo (Fig. 20c), are two parallel and enormous deer. The deer was the devil, trying to attract the overlapping sets of fossil trackways (Brontopodus); one set knight to a high cliff. When the demoniac deer jumped from produced by adult sauropods, the other by juveniles (Loc- the steep cliff, the Virgin Mary immobilized the knight’s hor- kley et al. 1994a, 1994b; Fig. 20d). Fishermen were proba- se by penetrating its hind legs into the rock. In the sanctua- bly astonished by the enormous size of the footprints (al- ry of Sítio there is an azulejo (glazed tilework) depicting the most 1 m in diameter) and, more than 800 years ago, this miracle (Fig 21a). has fuelled their devotion. The weathered limestone bed (Turonian) with the “footprints” is sacralized by the “Memory Chapel” (built in 1377); 4.3. “Virgin of the Footprint”: medieval ichnohieropha- here thousands of pilgrims and tourists try to find the hor- nies from Portugal seshoe prints of the legend (Fig. 21b). This legend was developed through years of “religious Archaeology” trying to There are many natural phenomena (weathering pits, establish a link between the natural landscape and some fos- gnamma, potholes) interpreted as traces of extraordinary silized bones (found in a nearby pre-historic cave). Possibly, creatures such as saints or demons (morphological ichno- the monks tried to find morphological analogies with the fo- hierophanies). Such ichnohierophanies are present in cultu- otprints of Cabo Espichel (“Pedra da Mua”), which were –

Fig. 21 - “Virgin of the Footprints” ichnohierophanies. a. The legend of Nazaré is exposed in the glazed tiles (18th century) of the Sítio sanctuary . This azulejo shows the slab where Roupinho’s horse was blocked by the divine intervention of Virgin Mary. b. The limestone layer with the “footprints” of Roupinho’s horse: differential weathering of the limestone is partly due to the ichnofabric. c. “Our Lady of the Jump” sanctuary. In this river gorge some potholes are interpreted as the devil’s landing site. d. Weathering pits in quartzites interpreted as Mary’s footprints and stick prints near the Senhora da Candosa sanctuary. Fig. 21 - Le icnoierofanie della “Vergine delle Impronte”. a. Il santuario di Sítio preserva alcuni azulejosche che raccontano della leggenda di Nazaré. b. Lo strato con le “impronte” del cavallo di Roupinho. c. Il santuario di “Nostra Signora del Salto”. d. Il santuario di Senhora de Candosa. Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72 65 at that time - one of the most famous sanctuaries in Portu- gal. Indeed, the cretaceous limestones of Nazaré commonly contain “depressions” and “pits”, which originated by kar- stification and weathering of nodular limestones.T he textu- re is partly related with the ichnofabric, often dominated by Rhizocorallium and Thalassinoides (Fig. 21b). Similar ichnohierophanies occur all over Portugal; for instance the miracle of “Our Lady of the Jump” (spread in northern Portugal) is based on the devil that crossed the river gorge by jumping (Fig. 21c). Two parallel potholes are interpreted as the landing imprints of the devil. According to another legend, the Virgin Mary of Candosa also crossed the Ceira River gorge. Indeed some “pits” formed by weathering of Ordovician quartzites are interpreted as the imprints of the stick of the Virgin Mary (Fig. 21d). In Benedita (north of Lisbon) there is a weathered slab of bioturbated limestone (Upper Jurassic) associated with the Virgin Mary. According to the legend, the inhabitants dedicated a fountain to the Virgin Mary, who imprinted her feet as a sign of gratitude.

4.4. Solar medusae in the House of the Written Stone

Mayoral et al. (2004) described an impressive geomon- ument presenting 90 impressions of hydromedusae (from the lowermost Cambrian). The locality, known as “Casa de la Piedra Escrita” (The House of the Written Stone; Consta- Fig. 22 - Cordubia gigantea from “Casa de la Piedra Escrita” tina, Spain), corresponds to the oldest unquestionable re- (Spain). cord of jellyfishes (Mayoral et al. 2004; Fig. 22). Although Fig. 22 - Cordubia gigantea da “Casa de la Piedra Escrita” the impressions are not ichnofossils, they show the inter- (Spagna). action between biogenic structures (mortichnia?) and past civilizations. In fact the medusoid impressions were inspirational entities for Neolithic people. Some specimens of Cordubia cave paintings not only the Iguanadontid footprints but also gigantea were pitted and rasped in order to highlight their their rather accurate conception of the creatures that made morphology. Moreover, some petroglyphs found in the sur- them (Mayor 2001). roundings seem to replicate the biogenic impressions. The association of tracksites and petroglyphs shows the Probably, the sun-like morphology of Cordubia is the fascination for traces and their probable sacralization. Ac- base of the fascination for these structures. Solar petroglyphs cordingly, the replication of fossil traces reveals a process have been often interpreted as sacred/mystic symbols, al- of cultural transfer, where ichnological morphologies were though it is difficult to confirm this interpretation for Cor- transported to new geographies and different geologies. dubia. Nevertheless, “Casa de la Piedra Escrita” shows the interaction between humans and fossil biogenic structures. 4.5. Anthropic ichnohierophanies In conclusion, the “House of the Written Stone” demonstrates that past civilizations were attracted by peculiar The previous paragraph concluded with some exam- biogenic morphologies in the rocks; the fascination was so ples of anthropic reproduction of ichnological features. Such pronounced that Neolithic tribes reproduced and highlight- cases represent not only cultural ichnohierophanies (they re- ed the morphology of Cordubia. flect a supernatural interpretation of actual trace fossils) but Similar anthropologic bases are shared by other ar- also anthropic ichnohierophanies. chaeological cases. Native Americans and African tribes Anthropic ichnohierophanies are well represented by (Mayor & Sarjeant 2001) used to transpose “sacred foot- some Bronze and Iron Age sites. For instance, at Bohuslän prints” from the consecration space (the tracksite) to other (Sweden) several carvings depict boats and footprints, and environments. For instance, Palaeo-Indians depicted tridac- they are probably linked with the cult of the netherworld tyl footprints in correspondence of dinosaur tracksites and (Bradley 1997). transposed these iconographies to granite landscapes (see One of the best examples of anthropic ichnohierophany Mayor & Sarjeant 2001). In Lesotho, Bushmen depicted in comes from Asia. A recurrent symbol of buddhism is consti- 66 Baucon et al. Ichnoarchaeology tuted by “Buddhapada”, which means “Buddha’s footprint” the production of the petroglyphs. In fact the carvings reveal in Sanskrit. Buddhapada are known at least from the 1st cen- features in common with natural ichnoassociations (in parti- tury B.C. (see Motoji 1992) and they usually consist of ar- cular size disparities and feet proportionality).Therefore, re- tificial engravements symbolizing the presence of Buddha. al feet were used as models for the rock art: the authors out- Frequently they are finely decorated and there are also an- lined their own feet with a pointed tool. Moreover, ichnoar- cient poems dedicated to these symbols (i.e. “The Buddha’s chaeological analysis revealed individuals of different ages: Footprint Stone Poems” described by Mills 1960). children, teenagers and adults all participated in the creative Carved footprints are also present in numerous Bron- process, bare-footed or wearing simple sandals. ze and Iron Age sites, from various parts of Europe: north- western Iberia, Canary Islands, France, Scandinavia and the 4.6. Reading the trace fossil alphabet: written stones and Italian Alps (Zurla, Capo di Ponte, Valcamonica; Coimbra other mistakes 2004). Many Christian sanctuaries were built close to these symbols and became destinations of pilgrimage. Such Scientific ichnohierophanies are modern-day hieropha- cultural superpositions are found near the village of Ifanes nies derived from the erroneous interpretation of trace fos- (Northern Portugal) where numerous prehistoric podomor- sils. In several cases archaeologists failed to interpret trace phs have been reinterpreted by Christian popular culture. In fossils, similarly to illiterate peasants deciphering an alien fact the Ifanes podomorphs are traditionally worshipped as alphabet. Under a misleading anthropocentric light, fossili- the footprints left by Saint Joseph, the Virgin Mary and Je- sed behavioural patterns became expressions of past civili- sus during their escape to Egypt (Coimbra 2004). Ichnoar- sations. Two paradigmatic examples from Portugal show the chaeological methods have revealed that the producers out- importance of Ichnoarchaeology to avoid such erroneous inlined their own feet to produce the carvings (Neto De Car- terpretations of the past. valho & Baucon 2008). “Bicha Pintada” – which means Painted Snake – is a More ichnological symbols come from Portugal. In winding concave structure found on the top of a quartzite the village of Barreiro de Besteiros there is a rock art mo- bed in the Ribeira de Codes Valley. Archaeologists interpre- nument of national importance, the Alagoa rock (Fig. 23). ted the “Bicha Pintada” as a totemic symbol dating back to More than 110 podomorphs are carved in the rock (Gomes the Vth century B.C. (Fig. 24c). According to this interpre- & Monteiro 1977; Fig. 23). tation, the structures were carved by a Celtic tribe celebra- A problematic aspect of the Alagoa rock concerns the ting ophiolatric rituals (Oliveira 1959; Félix 1969). This di- technique used for carving the petroglyph. The use of ich- scovery raised significant clamour: recently the “Bicha Pin- noarchaeological methods confirmed the hypothesis about tada” has been regarded as the largest Iberian (and probably European) serpentiform petroglyph ever found. Moreo- ver, its occurrence would be associated with a rock carving sanctuary dating from the Final Copper or Iron Age (Gomes 1999). Under this interpretation the “Bicha Pintada” became a notorious element of the Portuguese cultural patrimo- ny, although a Celtic origin of this structure lacks archaeological basis (Neto de Carvalho et al. 1999). In fact its genesis is biological (not artistic) and much more remote: “Bicha Pintada” dates back to Lower Ordovi- cian. Unquestionable ichnologic evidence (Neto de Carvalho & Cachão 2005) shows that “Bicha Pintada” is not a petroglyph but a burrow produced by trilobite feeding activity. In France the trace fossil Cruziana, popularly known as Pas-de-bouefs or Monument druidique, is also part of popular mythology (Deslongchamps 1856; Fauvel 1868; Morière 1879). Its importance is explicit in the slab with Pas-de-bouefs of Vaudobin (Trun), considered an historical monument for the associated legend but more recently reinterpreted as a layer with trilobite trace fossils (Durand 1985). Cruziana is not the only ichnogenus to have misled archaeologists. At a place known as “Penas Escrevidas” (Writ- ten Stones) in the Barreiras Brancas range (not far from Rio Fig. 23 - Alagoa Rock with shod podomorphs from the Bronze de Onor village, Portugal) are curly, winding, looping struc- Age, Tondela (Portugal). tures in the rocks (Medeiros 1950). These structures resemble Fig. 23 - La roccia di Alagoa con podomorfi dell’età del bronzo, alphabetical inscriptions (Figs 24 a, 24b) and, for this reason, Tordela (Portogallo). they were considered rock art by Santos Junior (1940). Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72 67

Fig. 24 - Scientific ichnohierophanies from Portugal. a. “Written Stones” consist of a Daedalus-dominated ichnoassemblage which has been interpreted incorrectly by archaeologists as an ancient alphabet engraved in the rock. b. Particular of the previous image. c. “Bicha Pintada” (Painted Snake), a specimen of Cruziana erroneously identified as a petroglyph. Fig. 24 - Icnoierofanie scientifiche dal Portogal- lo. a. Le “Pietre Scritte” corrispondono ad un ichnoassociazione a Deadalus, interpretata dagli archeologi come un antico alfabeto. b. Particolare dell’immagine precedente. c. “Bicha Pintada” (Bi- scia Pitturata), un esemplare di Cruziana che è stato erroneamente identificato come un petroglifo.

This interpretation is completely incorrect; in fact the provide fundamental information that are often unob- curly structures correspond to the ichnospecies Daedalus tainable using other methods. For instance, footprints halli. What seems to be written scrawls are dense associa- can reveal behavioural information (speed, gait, etc.), tions of these trace fossils sectioned by the bedding plane data on the individuals (sex, age), identification of the (in the type of preservation called Humilis). The trace cor- faunal assemblages, palaeopathological issues, struc- responds to the helicoidal displacement of thin, subverti- ture of the human groups, dynamics of ritual beha- cal burrows in a shallow marine environment (Lower Or- viours, land use and economical issues. dovician). It has relevance to a complex ethological pattern - Burrows are difficult to discern in an archaeological which is still problematic nowadays (Seilacher 2000). The context because of insufficient diagenesis; neverthe- “Sun Clock” from Marra das Três Senhoras (another locali- less, when they are determinable, they offer an impor- ty in the Barreiras Brancas range; Alves 1935: 827-828, Fig. tant source of palaeoenvironmental and behavioural in- 80) is probably also a scientific ichnohierophany associated formation. Burrows are related to another important with the misinterpretation of Daedalus.. aspect of Ichnoarchaeology, bioturbation. Bioturba- tion is not just a process that mixes an already buried site, but represents in itself a mechanism for artifact 5. conclusions burial. For these reasons, the mechanics of bioturbation are important to an understanding of the forma- This contribution has considered the archaeological tion of particular archaeological sites. implications of the major themes of Ichnology. - Bioerosional structures. Borings in lithic substrates - Bioturbational structures: Archaeological footprints play an important role in Ichnoarchaeology. In fact they are an important source of information and they are can provide precise details on the dynamics of littoral usually associated with recurrent diagenetical scena- establishments. For instance, the study of bioerosio- rios. The case studies demonstrate that footprints can nal ichnofabrics can answer many questions, such as: 68 Baucon et al. Ichnoarchaeology

What was the mean sea level? How long did the tran- acknowledge Gordon Roberts (Sefton Coast), P. Willey, Ju- sgressive event last? What were the periodical fluctua- dy Stolen, Field Malcom (Journal of Cave and Karst Stud- tions of relative sea-level? Was it a restricted harbour ies), Ismar Souza De Carvalho (Rio de Janeiro) for provid- or an open one? ing outstanding iconographic material. We also thank SIS - Archaeological borings occur also in xylic substrates. Disinfestazioni, the Egyptian Museum of Turin, the Lesvos In fact wood-borers are a major phenomenon to con- Museum of Natural History and Nick Barton (Oxford) for sider during the restoration of artefacts. It is important collaboration. We would like to give a special thank to the to understand their mechanics to correctly preserve the referee Paul Taylor for his help. archaeological information. 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