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Durham E-Theses Durham E-Theses The occurrence and paragenesis of the ores of titanium Welch, B. K. How to cite: Welch, B. K. (1958) The occurrence and paragenesis of the ores of titanium, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/9186/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk THE OCCURRENCE MD PARAGENESIS OP THE ORES OP TITANIUM B.K., WELCH B.Sc. (Dunelm) P.G.S, VOLUME' I Thesis; sulDmitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Durham. 1 6 FEB 1959 CMOS . The Titaniian Mines of Europe:- Otanmaki Oy in central Finland (aDove) and Titania VS near Hauge I Dalane in south-west Norway. PREFACE AND ACKNO\'VLEDGEMENTS The thesis is a critical review and synthesis of the literature concerned with the ores of titanium, expanded with the author's original work on selected aspects of the subject, A new classification of titaniferous ore deposits is submitted "based on mode of occurrence, paragenesis and geochemistry. An introductory mineralogical chapter offers new and confirmatory data on optical properties and X-ray characteristics of ilmenite from primary ore deposits. Titanium ore deposits fall into two major classes, primary and secondary. The most important primary ores are genetically connected with batholithic anorthosites and the ores in this category which occur in the Egersund region of south-west Norway are described in detail for the first time. The genesis of the batholithic anorthosites and their associated titaniferous ore deposits is fully discussed and a new theory is put forward partially reconciling previously antagonistic magmatic and metasomatic theories. The economically important effedts of amphibolite facies metamorphism on titaniferous magnetite deposits, causing separation of a free ilmenite phase, is illustrated by the author's description of the Otanmaki orefield in central Finland, Iron- titanium oxide minerals in the gabbro of Carrock Pell, Cumberland are also the subject of original study. Secondary titaniimi ore deposits occur principally in ocean beach sands. The factors affecting their distribution are critically examined and attention is dravm. particularly to the effects of Pleistocene sea-level changes on heavy mineral concentration. The mineralogical changes which iron and titanium oxide minerals undergo in secondary deposits are discussed and new data is submitted to account for the TiOg variations which occur, A survey, with an economic emphasis, of world titanium mineral resoxirces is presented in 'Voliune II, Information of "both geological and economic interest is included, hased almost entirely on published material. The author wishes to make the following acknowledgements. To Professor K,C.Dunham F.R.S, for supervision, discussion, criticism and encoTiragement throughout the cotipse of study. To Mr. R, Phillips B.Sc,,P.G,S, for supervision of the polished section studies and many critical discussions of the work. To Messrs, Laporte Titanium Ltd, for the scholarship for maintenance and travelling which enabled the work to he carried out. To The Staff of the Laporte Group Central Library for devoting much time to tracing and obtaining pertinent literature and for translating certain foreign works. To Titania A/Q of Hauge I Dalane, Norway especially Messrs Brun, Raae and Dybdal and Otanmaki Oy, Otanmaki, Finland especially Messrs Paarma, Lindholm and Levanto for their hospitality and for providing facilities for field and mine studies in a most generous manner. To the Directorate of Colonial Geological Surveys for providing access to their library. To Mr W. Layton B,Sc, for information on the titanium resources of Ghana, To Dr, M,H,P, Bott for information concerning the Sierra Leone, norite complex. To Mr, E,J, Cobbing B,Sc, for many critical discussions of the subject.. To the workshop staff of the Durham Colleges Department of Geology for the preparation of thin and polished sections of ores and rocks;, and for reproducing the thesis photographs. To Mrs. W, Layton for redrawing four of the maps. To Mrs. R, Oliver for typing the thesis, and lastly To my wife for continual encouragement during the course of study and many hours of practical assistance during the final stages" of preparing the thesis. TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR VOLUME I Page No CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1 SOME ASPECTS OF THE GEOCHEMISTRY OP TITANIUM 1 TITANIUM ORES: A GENERAL CLASSIFICATION 7 The Primary Tltanitmi Ore Deposits 9 The Secondary Titaniimi Ore Deposits ;13 CHAPTER II THE MINERALOGY OP TITANIUM 15 SIMPLE OXIDES 16 Rutile 16 Anatase 18 Brookite 19 Pseudobrookite 19 Anosovite 20 DOUBLE OXIDES 20 Hematite 20 Ilmenite 23 Optical Properties 24 Exsolution Textures 26 Geikielite 30 Pyrophanite 30 Silicoilraenite 30 Davidite 30 MULTIPLE OXIDES 30 Hoegbomite 31 Perovskite Group 31 Magnetite (with Maghemite and Coulsonite) 32 TITAlT-rNIOBATES AND TITAN^COLUMBATBS 35 ABO. Type 35 AB o Type 35 \B 8 Type 36 TITAf-BORATES 35 TITAIT-SILICATES 37 CHAPTER III PRIMARY TITANIUM ORE DEPOSITS DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH ANORTHOSITE MASSIFS 39 Page No, The Anorthosite Region of S.W, Norway The Metasediments The Igneous Rocks ^"7 The Ore Deposits 53 Genetic Problems 7° The Anorthosite-gabbros of the Bergen Arcs "''^ Anorthosites; and Anorthsite Gabbros 79 Eclogites; 79 The Ore Deposits of the Adirondack Mountains, New York °0 The Ore Deposits Genesis °^ Ore Associated with Undersaturated Metagabbros; Deposits in the Morin Anorthosite of Quebec 96 The Ore Deposits of the Lower Romaine river Anorthosite, . Quebec; 9o The Ore Deposits of the Sept-Iles Bay Area, Quebec 101 The Anorthosite Massif and Associated Ore Deposits; of the Laramie-Range, Wyoming lOU Structure 106 Genesis 107 Anorthosites in South-East em Ontario 108. Anorthosites and Ore Deposits; in Virginia HI Mineralogy 113 Genesis 115 The Ore- Deposits of St. Urbain, Charlevoix County, Quebec 121 Genesis; 125 GBEAPTES TV PRIMARY TITANIUM ORES 128 DEPOSITS IN GABBROS AND OTHER IGNEOUS COMPLEXES 188 Layered Gabbro-Norite Complexes 129 The Bushveld Complex. 129 The Colony Complex of Sierra Leone 135 Basic Alkaline and other Alkaline Plutonic Complexes 136 The Gremyakha-Vyrmes Pluton 137 The Lovozersky Complex, Kola 146 The. Khibine Complex, Kola 147 The Africanda Complex, Kola 147 The Mariupol Complex 147 Okorusu, S.W, Africa 147 Alkaline Volcanic Complexes; 148 Magnet Cove, Arkansas 148 Bukusu, Uganda 149 Carrock Pell - A Gabbro Complex rich in Ilmenite 149 The Opaque Minerals 154 Discussion 156 Other Titaniferous Gabbroic Intrusions 157 Page No. Abu Ghalqua, Egypt 157 Pervouralsk-Katchkanar, East Urals 158 Szarvasko, Bukk, Hungary 159 Azhinsk, West Siberia 159 Si-Yonpyong-do, South Korea 160 Taberg, Sweden 160 Tugela River, Natal 164 Chi-chia-tzu, Manchuria 165 Kusinsk-Kopansk 165 Liganga, Tanganyika 166 Duluth gabbro, MinnesD ta 166 Singhbhum and Mayurbhanj, India 167 Njombe District, Tanganyika 168 Otanraaki - A Metamorphosed Gabbroic Complex 168 Introduction 168 The Ore Zone 171 The Petrography of the Amphibolite 176 The Petrography of the Metagabbro 177 The Petrography of the Anorthosite 179 The Petrography of the Orebodies 180 Conclusions 187 CHAPTER V SECONDARY TITAITIUM ORE DEPOSITS 189 SECTION I BEACH SARD DEPOSITS 190 The. Beach Sand Heavy Mineral Deposits of the East Australian Seaboard 190 The Geological Background 191 The Heavy Mineral Deposits, 198 Mineralogy of the Deposits 201 The Distribution of the Heavy Minerals 202 Conclusions 204 The Beach Sand Deposits of the Brazilian Seaboard 204 The Beach and Inland Placer Deposits of Florida 208 The Beach Sand Deposits: of the South-East African Coast 212 The Beach Sand Deposits of the Senegal Coast 216 The Beach Sand Deposits of Travancore 217 Conclusions 219 SECTION II THE MINERALOGY OF THE IRON-TITANIUM OXIDE MINERALS IN SECONDARY DEPOSITS 223 Conclusions; 242 CHAPTER VI THE GENESIS OP THE BATHOLITHIC ANORTHOSITES AND THEIR RELATED ORE DEPOSITS . xiM^ 244 1. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION SOME ASPECTS OP THE GEOCHEMISTRY OP TITANIUM Titanium is the ninth most abundant element in the earth's crust. It is, therefore, the most common of the 'rare' elements, those elements which do not play an important part in the major petrogenetic process;es. It is a strongly lithophilic element forming principally titanates, oxides, titanosilicates and titano- niobates. The average magmatic rock contains 0,64% Ti and the average sediment 0,445^ Ti, Order of Abundance of Elements in the Earth's Crust (in p,p,m, after Mason) 0 466,000 Na^ 28,300 Mn 1,000 Si 275^,200 K 25,900 Gr 200 Al 8i,300 Mg 20,900 V 150 Pe 50,000 Ti 4,400 Ni 80 Ca 36,300 Co 23 Titanium lies in the first long period of the Periodic Table in Group IVB, The elements which follow it in the long period are vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt nickel and copper. Zirconiiim is foundwith it in Group IVB. Vanadiiom and iron are closely associated with the primary magmatic ores of titaniimi, as are chromium and manganese though in accessory amount. Zirconium often occurs with titaniiam in secondary ore deposits on account of the similar physical characteristics and chemical stability of the two elements' commonly occurring compounds in the environment of erosion, sedimentation and diagenesis.
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