Arab World Almanac 1993. INSTITUTION AMIDEAST, Washington, DC

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AUTHOR Nucho, Leslie S., Ed.; Hurd, Robert, Ed. TITLE Arab World Almanac 1993. INSTITUTION AMIDEAST, Washington, DC. REPORT NO ISSN-1047-711X PUB DATE Jul 93 NOTE 96p. AVAILABLE FROMAMIDEAST, 1100 17th St., N.W., Washington, DC 20036. PUB TYPE Guides Classroom Use Teaching Guides (For Teacher)(052)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Cultural Differences; Curriculum Enrichment; *Democracy; *Females; Foreign Countries; High Schools; *Islamic Culture; Maps; Social Studies IDENTIFIERS *Arab States; *Asia (Central)

ABSTRACT This document is a collection of three lessons to assist high school teachers in introducing the Arab world to their classrooms. The intended purpose of the lessons is to promote breater cross cultural awareness, understanding of the interdependence of peoples and nations, and appreciation for the different approaches other cultures may choose in trying to solve the social, economic, political, and environmental problems that everyone share. The three lessons contained in this document are:(1) Women and the Family in the Arab World;(2) Central Asia, Past and Present; and (3) Government and Democracy in the Arab World. Each lesson includes lesson objectives, classroom exercises and activities, and suggested background references. The first lesson includes a background essay on women and the family, an essay on the veil and one comparing marriage and family law in the United States and the Arab world, and a short story. Statistical charts on urbarization, labor, education, and literacy also are included in this lesson. The second lesson has a background essay on Central Asia and an essay on the Aral Sea in crisis. Three charts are included: (1) Cyrillic and Arabic alphabets; (2) land and population in Central Asia; and (3) steps to environmental crisis in Central Asia. Maps show trade routes and Central Asia today. The last lesson includes a background essay on government and democracy in the Arab world, individual country profiles, and perspectives on democracy in the Arab world. A timeline shows the course of reform in Algeria, Jordan, Kuwait, and Yemen. (DK)

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2 COPY ORAN ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

Editors

Leslie S. Nucho Robert Hurd

Research Assistant Bridget McNamer

ffil) AMIEE4g Washington, DC Permission is granted for the reproduction of Arab World Almanac for classroom use.

AMIDEAST is registered as a private, nonprofit organization under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Donations to AMIDEAST are tax deductible.

Direct all inquiries to: Arab World Almanac, AMIDEAST, 1100 17th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036. Telephone (202) 785-0022

Copyright ® 1993 by AMIDEAST except 'The Aunt of Rafiq" Reprinted from Women and the Family in the Middle East: New Voices of Change, edited by Elizabeth Warnock Fernea, Copyright 1985. Reprinted by Permission of the editor and University of Texas Press. Printed in the United States of America ISSN: 1047-71IX Table of Contents

Introduction 1

Women and the Family in the Arab World

Lesson Objectives 4 Classroom Exercises and Activities 4-7 Women and the Family in the Arab World (background essay) 8-11 The Veil in the Arab World (essay) 12-14 Marriage and Family Law in the United States and Arab World (essay) 15-16 Urbanization and Labor, Education and Literacy (statistical charts) 17-18 The Aunt of Rafiq (short story) 19-22 Suggested Background References 23

Central Asia, Past and Present

Lesson Objectives 26 Classroom Exercises and Activities 26-28 Central Asia, Past and Present (background essay) 29-34 Cyrillic and Arabic Alphabets (chart) 35 Trade Routes (map) 36 Central Asia Today (map) 37 Land and Population in Central Asia (chart) 38 The Aral Sea in Crisis (essay) 39 Steps to Environmental Crisis in Central Asia (chart) 40 Suggested Background References 41

Government and Democracy in the Arab World

Lesson Objectives 44 Classroom Exercises and Activities /M 17 Government and Democracy in the Arab World (background essay) 48-53 Individual Country Profiles 54-57 The Course of Reform: Algeria, Jordan, Kuwait, Yemen (timeline) 58-61 Perspectives on Democracy in the Arab World 62-64 Suggested Background References 65

Individual Country Maps and Statistics 66-84

Evaluation Form 85-86 Introduction

Arab World Almanac was first produced in 1989 Schools, Rockville, MD. to assist high school teachers in introducingthe Arab world to their classrooms. Since then, Initially, Arab World Almanac was produced.three Arab World Almanac has covered a variety of times an academic year. Beginning with thisvolume, topics, including colonialism, the impact of the AMIDEAST will publish all three lessons once a year Gulf war, the Arab world in the two world wars, in a single issue. We hope that this new formatwill and the Islamic resurgence. AMIDEAST hopes provide teachers with greater flexibility in incorporating the that the regional focus of Arab World Almanac these materials into their lesson plans throughout will contribute to a greater understanding of the school year. global community. Its intended purpose is to promote greater cross-cultural awareness, under- AMIDEAST brings to Arab World Almanac more than standing of the interdependence of peoples and forty years of experience in the Middle Fast and North nations, and appreciation for the different Africa. Founded in 1951, AMIDEAST is the leading approaches other cultures may choose in trying private, nonprofit American organization involved in to solve the social, economic, political, and educational and cultural exchange between the United environmental problems that we all share. States and the Arab world. Today, AMIDEAST services include public outreach activities,educational In producing Arab World Almanac, AMIDEAST advising, education and training program administra- is indebted to the members of our advisory tion, and technical assistance. committee selected especially for this publication. They are: H. Thomas Collins, Codirector, Headquartered in Washington, DC, AMIDEAST main- Project LINKS, The George Washington Univer- tains offices in Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Leba- sity, Washington, DC; Elizabeth Fernea, Profes- non, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia, WestBank and Gaza sor, The University of Texas, Austin,TX; James Strip, and Yemen. AMIDEAST's activities are financed E. Hill, Social Studies Department Chair, Up- through contract fees for services rendered, grants for land High School, Upland, CA; Ann Z. Kerr, special projects, and corporate and individual donations. Outreach Consultant, Los Angeles, CA; William Miller, Social Studies Program Manager, Louisi- AMIDEAST would like to hear your comments and ana Department of Education, Baton Rouge,LA; opinions about Arab World Almanac. We would appre- Philip Stoddard, Consultant, Bethesda, MD; ciate it if you would take the time to fill out the Jonathan Swift, Global Education Program evaluation form at the end of this book. Arab World Director, Stevenson High School, Livonia, MI; Almanac is a resource for teachers, and we value tea- and Richard Wilson, Secondary Social Studies chers' comments in determining our future efforts. Coordinator, Montgomery County Public

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Lesson Plan Women and the Family in the Arab World

In the Arab world, the extended family is the In spite of the transformation that many basic unit of social organization and has aspects of Arab society has undergone, the been of fundamental economic and political family structure and its role in society importance in the past as well as today. A rernaifts intact. In many cases, the family host of factors associated with a rapidly unit hactually been strengthened, and it growing and developing society is exerting continues to bc one of the few institutions on pressure on the traditional family roles and which individuals feel they can depend in structure, including the role of women. the midst of change and uncertainly.

Historically, Arab women have been the center of the family unit--the hub around Lesson Objectives which all of its economic, personal, and political activities revolved. Their domain After completing this lesson, students was a private, domestic one with public life should be able to: viewed as a man's territory. Since independence earlier this century, Arab Discuss the extended family structure countries have developed rapidly, undergoing and thc traditional roles of men and a magnitude of social, economic, and women in the Arab world political change in the course of a single generation that occurred in the West over Identify some of the factors that have two hundred years. Educational opportunities brought more Arab women into the proliferated, and at least basic education is formal labor force now compulsory for both boys and girls; opportunities for secondary and higher Explain some of the positions in the education are available to both men and debate over the rights and roles of women. Increasing literacy rates and the women and postition of the extended acquisition of technical skills have enabled family greater numbers of Arab women to enter the formal labor force, and in some countries, Discuss the conceptual differences inflation and rising costs of living have made between religious law and secular law, it imperative for women to work to help and the process and extent to which each support their families. might be changed

In the prmess, the traditional divisions Compare and contrast the development between public and private spheres of life of women's rights in the United States have become blurred. The role and vitality of and in the Arab world over time the extended family, and with it the role of women, is the subject of ongoing debate. Explain the significance of veiling and Some feel that the phenomenon of women in discuss the extent to which it is the formal labor force is destructive to the practiced in the Arab world family unit; others argue the importance of participation by both men and womcn in the Compare and contrast the issues and formation of a better future. Related to this perspectives concerning women and debate is the application of Islamic law iamily in the Arab world with those in regarding marriage and divorce, inheritance, the United States and child custody, which is adhered to in most Arab countries even though secular law governs othcr aspects of society.

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Classroom Exercises and Activities comparisons with thc struggle for women's rights in the United States and the Distribute copics of the essay "'v..men conditions which precipitated it at various and Family in the Arab World." You may stages. want to F ghlight words with which students my be unfamiliar and have them review or 5. In some "modernization" theories, social define film terms before reading the essay, scientists maintain that only when people's or discuss nem using contextual clues. The primary loyalty or allegience is transferred following 'reussion questions focus on the from the family to the state can modern- essay's main tnemes and fuither the lesson ization occur. Discuss the merits of this objectives outlined above. premise, In what regard would you agree with it? Disagree with it? Give examples 1. Discuss the role of the extended family from Arab, American, and other societies in the Arab world and the functions it to support your answers. A tangential serves. Which of these functions are discussion might revolve around the provided by public or nonfamily private definitions and goals of "modernization" institutions in the United States? Which do and whether there can be different but you think is more dependablefamily or equally valid paths to these ends. nonfamily providersarid why? Would you answer the same for the UnitedStates 6. The essay describes some of the ways and the Arab world? Explain your answer. that the Arab family has adapted in response to other changes in society.Can 2. A few highly publicized incidents have you identify similar examples ofsuch given the phrase "maintaining family adaptation in the United States? (Students honor" a violent and vengeful connotation. might consider frontier life during the Are there ways this philosophy could have period of western expansion, the world a more positive influence? (Studentsmight wars, the Great Depression, etc.) consider such issues as crime rates, child abuse, rape, etc., the incidenzes of which are significantly lower in the Arab world Before distributing to students the short than in the United States.) To what extent essay on veiling which begins on page13, do American families practice a similar show them the picture on page 12 and ask philosophy? them to describe the lifestyle and attitudes Teachers are encouraged to they would expect of a women dressed this photocopy any or all compo- way. This can be done in theform of a nents of Arab World Almanac 3. Discuss the various perspectives in the 'or classroom use. debate concerning the position of women group discussion, or alternatively,students in Arab society. To what extent are these can write their thoughts in a list or ashort viewpoints similar to or different from character sketch. Then distribute the essay. those represented in the United States? (Students may want to think about the significance of "family values" as an issue 1. Discuss thc significance of the veil as in the 1992 presidential campaign.) What described in the essay and the different would you say arc the major differences messages its wearers might be sending.To between this issue in the United States and what extent does the range of possibilities in the Arab world? differ from those identified by students before they had read the essay? Is there 4. Explain the relationship in the Arab any way to know by sightalone which of woad between industrialization and these characteristics might apply to a urbanization, economic pressures, labor particular women? What does this suggest migration, and the changing role of about stereotypes? women. Do you think that a questioningof the role of women in society would have 2. Discuss how social attitudes dictating occurred even if these pressures had not dress have evolved in the United States. developed? Students may want to explore

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Are men and women expected tocover the ultimately effect them. For example, in the same or different parts of the body? How Unitcd States, legislation concerning do today's fashions differ from those of women stemmed from concerns raised 20, 50, and 1l)0 years ago? Give examples over such issues as the debate over slavery of how styles have become more revealing and conditions in the workplace. In the and less revealing. Arab world, discuss the extent to which attitudes and laws concerning women 3. The essay states that the veil, asa might be affected by such issues as the physical barrier between men andwomen, Islamic resurgence, calls for popular reflected and promoted restrictionson the participation in the political process, and interaction of men and women in society. the worldwide recession. Think about the social limitations that exist The statistics on urbanization in American society. Are there things and education have been Statistics for various Arab countries as compiled from data published which are considered acceptable formen well as several other countries for purposes by the World Bank. Statistics to do but not women? Vice versa? Discuss of comparison are listed on pages 17 and 18; for Palestinians in the West the similarities and differences between these include statistics for urbanization, Bank and Gaza were not Arab and American societies in this women in the formal labor force, women in available; those for Israel regard. Does the absence of a physical include Arab-Israelis. education, and literacy rates. Distribute the manifestation of social limitations make table to students and ask them to graphically them any less real? represent the statistics in the form of bar charts or graphs. You might consider having 4. In Arab countries where womenare each student do this for a single country, and covered most extensively, what is themost then display all charts together. common mode of dress for men? How similar or different is it from women's 1. In general, what appears to be the dress? Discuss possible reasons for relationship between changes in dressing this way that would apply to both urbanization, women in the labor force, men and women. and Women in education? Do you think the relationship is a causitive or interdependent one? Explain your answer. Ask students to read the essay on "Marriage and Family Law in the United 2. "Formal" labor is defined aspersons States and the Arab World" which begins on who perform work for pay or profit; who page 15. Then discuss the questions below. hold a job but were absent due to illness, injury, vacation, or other reasons; or who 1. Explain, in your own words, thesource are unemployed but actively seeking work of laws pertaining to women in the for pay or profit. "Nonformal" labor American legal system and in Islamic law. consists of people who contribute to At the time the United States Consitution economic activity but whose services are was adopted, in which legal system did not reported in surveys or censuses; it women hold greater recognition and might include agricultural workers, petty status? traders, and certain service providers. Examine the statistics for women in the 2. American laws pertaining towomen labor force. What kinds of employment do were developed over more than a century you think have been counted? What kinds and continue to be enacted and revised. To might have been omitted? How wouldyou what extent does this seem to be expect the figures to change if nonformal happening in Islamic law? Discuss the labor were included? Do you think the process of change in secular law versus magnitude of change in the Arab countries religious law; why is it more difficult to would be greater or smaller than in the change religious law? Western countries for which figures appear? Explain your answers. (It is 3. Issues that, on the surface, have littleto generally accepted that female participation do with women or the family can in the labor force of most Middle Eastern

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countries is possly underestimated. your conclusions at all? Studentsmight want Students might want to consider some of to discuss the differing conclusions to be the reasons for this.) drawn from selective use of statistics.

3. Examine the statistics for education. (Students can be asked to calculate die On pages 19-22 is reproduced a short "The Aunt of Rafiq" is percent change at the primary and story in translation on which the following reprinted, with permission, questions are based. from Women and ehe Family F,..,conclary levels for each country.) In in the Middle East.Elizabeth general, at which level has change been Fernea, ed. Austin: University the greatest? Has it been more significant 1. Discuss the main character's various of Texas Press, 1985. for females alone, or for male and females family roles and relationships as portrayed combined? Has the degree of change been in the story. Would you characterize these more significant in the Arab countries or relationships as traditional or not? Explain in the Western countries listed? What does your answers. this suggest about the pace of change in the Arab world today? 2. In what ways has the protagonist rejected the traditional roles, activities, and 4. Look at the statistics for women in expectations of women in Arab society? In secondary education. If you had only this what ways does she accept them? Discuss information available, what might you the internal struggle this causes. What conclude about women's access to would it take to make her happy? education? How would your conclusions be affected by learning: that in many of 3. Does the aunt of Rafiq have more than these countries, education for both males one allegiance? If yes, what are they? and females is compulsory only through Does she feel any conflict between them? the junior high level; that in many universities, nearly as many women as 4. Do you think the aunt of Rafiq wears a men are enrolled? Now look at theoverall veil? Cite details from the story to support (total) participation rates for secondary your answer. education. Does this information change

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Women and the Family in the Arab World

by Elizabeth Fernea organization, but the focus of social change currently in progress throughout the region. Some Arab leaders and scholars view the Elizabeth Fernea Is professor The position of women in Arab society is family as an indispensable social institution of English and Middle Eastern the subject of much discussion within the studies at the University of under siege; others believe it to be outdated Texas, Austin. She has written region as well as in Western countries. and repressive. However, none can deny the extensively on issues con- However, women's position cannot be central role it plays in shaping their society. cerning women and the family considered in isolation, for women, like For thousands of years in most societies In the Middle East, and she Is men, are perceived primarily as members of around the world, the family has represented also a noted filmmaker on this a group rather than as isolated individuals. subject. the economic center of daily life, in terms In many ways, their welfare, rights, and of both production and consumption. The responsibilities arc related to the welfare, family group has been the basic means of rights, and responsibilities of the group to social organization in bedouin, rural, and which they belong. The primary group to urban societies in the Arab world, which Arab women belong is the family. performing many of the functions now Hence, it should come as no surprise that expected of national governments in the the primary demands of Arab feminist West. groups are not for greater freedoms for women as individuals, but to equalize or In the past, and still to a great extent today, ameliorate their position within the family. the family provided economic and emotional support to its members, which might consist "Family" can mean different things in of groups as small as twenty or as large as different societies. In the West, "family" is two hundred. The family unit was constantly understood as one or two parents and their changing and evolving, as it was expected children. The Arabic word for family,ahlor that each individual member would marry ahila,is a more comprehensive term that and begin a family of his or her own. includes grandparents, uncles, aunts, and Through this family structure, through the cousins, many of whom may even live family's customs and social mores, an together. The Arab family is also patrilineal, individual "inherited" his or her religion, a form of social organization found in class, and cultural identity. probably 80-90% of human societies and 1. Sumeria was located In one that appears in the Middle East as early what Is today Iraq. The family served as an employment as 3000 BC in ancient Sumeria.1 This means bureau, insurance agency, childcare center, that the name of the child and the family counseling service, matchmaker, rest inheritance pass through the male line. It is home, bank, pension plan, home for the the extended family unit, together with the handicapped (including the mentally ill), and 2. Most Arabsabout Arabic language and the religion of Islam, hostel in time of economic need. Men and 90%are Muslim, but there which serve as constants in the midst of the women both remained members of their arc significant Christian and great diversity which otherwise exists natal families for all of their lives, even Jewish communities in several among the Arab countries.2 after marriage. A divorced woman returned Arab countries. to her natal family, which was responsible In the Arab world today, the issue of the for her support until remarriage. A divorced family is not a narrow "people's" issue, man returned to his natal family, and his separate from economic and political parents cared for his children. In exchange matters, as it tends to be in Western society. for these services, individual family Rather, it is of fundamental economic and members were expected to place the group's political importance, for the extended family survival and prosperity above their personal remains not only the basic unit of social aspirations and desires, especially at the

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time of marriage, and to uphold the The home was considered a woman's reputation of the family by behaving domain, with domestic responsibilities such properly and "maintaining the family as the preparation of food andmost honor." importantlythe bearing and rearing of children. A woman was expected to "ease This, of course, was the ideal. In everyday the burden" of her husband, who provided life, ideals are not always realized. Some for all. The home was the center of family rebeled and refused to marry the person life, which often included religious life. chosen for them by their family. Others Public affairs in commerce, education, refused to take in divorced relatives, religion, and politics were men's affairs. sometimes because of poverty, sometimes Male dominance also extended into the out of spite. Maintaining the family honor private sphere; a man not only provided for has sometimes resulted in tragedy. And, the family, but he was the undisputed head caring for the handicapped and elderly put of household and was responsibile for considerable stress upon the younger protecting the family's honor and reputation. members of a family. Unfortunately, it has often been these exceptions, rather than the Within the last two hundred years, the general rules, that have been highlighted in traditional mles and responsibilities of men Western media. and women have been challenged. The 1950s saw the rise of movements to The institution of the family has persisted establish independent nation-states. By 1962, because it fills real needs for people, people nearly twenty states existed in the area ruled for whom no other institution exists. The earlier as territories first by the Ottoman shift that took place in the West, the Empire and then the European colonial assuming of economic and social powers.' These new nations sought to enter responsibilities first by the religious the world economy, to industrialize, and to hierarchy and then by the secular state, has provide greater political, social, and not taken occured in the same manner in the economic opportunities for citizens. Changes 3. The Ottoman Empire was that took place in the West over the course the last of the great Islamic Arab world. Therefore, any change in the empires. Beginning in about place and function of the family in the Arab of two hundred years occurred in the Arab AD 1300 as a principality, it world has far-reaching implications, for it world in just a few generations. The was well on its way to be- involves not only the extent to which certain tremendous expansion of educational coming a major world power responsibilities should or will be passed opportunities at all levels for both men and by An 1500. At its greatest women, technological innovations, extent in the sixteenth and from the family to the state, but the seventeenth centuries, the definition of basic individual rights: those of urbanization, and inflation and rising costs Ottoman Empire extended women, men, and children. The status of of living have all had an impact on the ways from Persia (Iran) almost to women is not an isolated issue but rather the and means of social interaction and Vienna (Austria), across North expectations. Africa to Algeria, and south core of the whole matter, for women have along the periphery of the always been seen as the center of the family Arabian Peninsula. unit, the hub around which all its economic, Not surprisingly, these changes have placed personal, and political activities revolves. tremendous stress on the two mainstays of Arab society: Islam and the family. Before discussing the current status of Arab Changing economic conditions have blurred women one must first examine their the distinction between the traditional traditional role within the family and explain spheres of family and outsider, prompting how recent changes in Arab society have an examination and redefinition of familial affected this position. Historically, the roles. primary role of Arab women, like that of Western women, has been a domestic one. One area in which the changing family But in the Arab world, there was a much structure is reflected is employment stricter segregation of the sexes that divided statistics. Economic pressures in the non-oil- the society into the spheres of family and producing countries have encouraged outsiders. significant numbers of men to work abroad in the oil-producing countries of the Gulf, or

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How has the family unit fared with women as agricultural laborers in other countries. In in the workplace and many of the men away 1988, 2.5 million Egyptians alone were from home for long periods of time? This working abroad, either in Iraq or the issue is an extremely important one in the Arabian Peninsula. In many cases, this Arab world today. Some thinkers argue, in situation created the imperative and the the press, on television, and in learned opportunity for more women to assume academic journals, that women must not be nontraditional roles and responsibilities, allowed to work outside the home and that including that of head of household in place men must reassert their role as supporters of husbands and fathers working abroad for and protectors of the family. Others, equally extended periods. fervent, argue the importance of participati by both men women in the Greater access to education and technical formation of a better future for all; they feel training has provided a growing number o: that women need to work so that the family Arab women with the skills necessary for can stay together, whether the "family" is entering the formal labor force. Just fifty defined as the nuclear family, the extended ycars ago, only an elite few received family, or the ummathe Muslim family. traditional Islamic education or Western secular education in European missionary The debate on the family concerns not only schools. Today, free or highly subsidized women's status, but the laws of most public education is available to almost Islamic countries and the issues of education everyone in an every-growing number of and family planning. Current national laws primary and secondary schools, technical in all Arab countries except Tunisia and 4. The Qur'an is the written institutes, and colleges and universities. The Lebanon are based in whole or in part on record of what Muslims con- percentages of women at all educational Islamic law, or Shari 'a, a compendium of sider to be the final revelation levels have risen significantly over the past from God through the Prophet laws based on the Qur'an, the Hadith, and Muhammed. The Hadith are several decades, and in most countries, precedent and consensus.' Family law within the compiled traditions and national campaigns have contributed to an the Shari 'a controls marriage and divorce, sayings of Muhammed. increase in the literacy rate among adults inheritance, and child custody. Women and who did not receive a formal education. As men arguing for reform state that only if a result, Arab women are now qualified for women have equal access to divorce, child employment in virtually every field. Their custody, and inheritance can the traditional expectations for employment and a greater family structure survive and become viable role in public life have increased in modern society. Those supporting the accordingly. continuation of traditional practices maintain that the old laws must remain in force if the These changes are not appearing in the ideal Islamic society is to be realized. same form throughout the Arab world. In the oil-producing countries of the Arabian This debate about women's place is Gulf, for example, few women work out of basically about the role and function of the economic necessity, and women's economic family in a society where the role of the activities are generally separate from those state is increasing. Family planning is of men. In the Fertile Crescent, Egypt, and obviously related to the debate. Some argue North Africa, rising costs of living and low that limiting the size of the family and the family incomes are encouraging more and practice of abortion is not only forbidden by more women to take jobs outside the home. God but weakens the strength of the family Some enter traditionally male-dominated unit. Others argue that God permits family fields like law, engineering, and medicine as planning and abortion, as stated in the well as teaching, business, and the Qur'an, when the survival of the family is at diplomatic service, but the majority stake. And here they cite modern statistics workas American women doin industry, to support their case: a three percent annual shops and offices, and in the service sector. birth rate in Egypt and the doubling of the Many work not for self-fulfillment, but to population of Morocco in a single help put bread on the table. generation.

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Public education for both men and women working outside the home, and education as serves as a kind of mediator in the debate ways of improving and strengthening the about the family. No one argues against family unit rather than weakening it. education in the Arab world; it is a highly respected and desired commodity. The To many observers, the Arab family seems Qur'an itself states, "Educate your child for not to be disintegrating, but rather tomorrow." But the way in which education regrouping and reorganizing in answer to is administered varies. In Saudi Arabia, contemporary needs. In places where the women are not allowed to attend classes family unit itself has disintegrated, due to with men or even have male instructors in war, natural disasters, or economic the room; some university classes for conditions, the values and the functions of women are thus held on television. But this the family are resurfacing in different forms. is not true for other oil-producing countries, Workers abroad group together on the basis including Kuwait. Poorer countries do not of old family ties; young men entering the have a choice, and there, coeducation is workforce find jobs in the same factories or provided often for pragmatic rather than businesses as their sisters, cousins, or idealistic reasons. uncles. For men of elite political groups, family ties continue to be important as While the debate rages, of course, ordinarily political party bases shift. Newcomers to the people have to go on living. Lives are city make connections through family slowly changing under the impact of members. Men on their own in a new place industrialization: women working outside may turn to religious "brotherhoods," or the home, the rise of education and the groups where, as they themselves say,they media, an increasing urban population, "feel like one of the family." Women whose greater geographic as well as social husbands are working abroad often form mobility. Some Arab and Western social kin-like ties with neighbors. scientists see these trends as optimistic signs of modernization and Westernization, a Through its adaptations and evolution, the presumed "good" in comparison with the family unit has proven itself to be an old traditional ways. Others view these interdependent and flexible social institution. developments with alarm and fear. For many, it remains the best way to provide for individual needs as well as In the midst of it all, the extended family group survival. If religion is viewed asthe structure is still a plus for many millions of soul of the Islamic Arab world, then the people. "In times of change," one Moroccan wider extended family might be seen as its woman says, "I need my family more than body. And, says a Moroccan merchant, "The ever. My mother takes care of my children government may come and goSpanish, so I can work, and our cousin from the French, Moroccanbut my family has been country has come to live with us so she can here for 400 years and it is still all I can go to school in the city." Many people see rely on." social mobility, urbanization, women

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Photo Courtesy of UNRWA

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 12 6 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

The Veil in the Arab World

A veiled woman often is the first image that comes The veil also reflects Arab society's tribal heritage to the minds of many Americans when they think of and patriarchal roots. Historically, men were Arab society. Yet, the extent to which veiling is responsible for providing for the members of their practiced and the message its wearers wish to tribe and family and for protecting them from harm. convey are not so often considered. The practice of Any failure to fulfill these respons:Jilities dim- veiling is very old, predating Islam, and it is found inished the honor of a man and 'his family as well in some form throughout the Mediterranean world. as their status within the tribe and clan. Theloss of Today, it remains strongest as a tradition in Islamic honor was an instant sign of weakness that could be countries, although it also serves as a symbol of exMoited by a family's enemies, potentially result- political opposition. ing in the loss of property, privileges, or life.

The basic reasons for veiling in Islam are the In this social system, the protection of women was injunctions on modesty, as spelled out in both the essential. Any slight to the honor of a family's Qur'an and the traditions of the Prophet women damaged the honor of the familyitself. Muhammed. As defined in these sources, both men Men were responsible for preserving the image and and women must cover specific parts of their bodies reputation of their wives and daughters, and the veil except in the presence of relatives and members of provided a physical means of protection.It guarded the same sex. These areas, known in Arabic as the women from men's advances and prevented "awrah, are defined differently for men and immodest displays which could compromise a women. For men it is region of the body from the woman's status.In addition, the veil supplied a knees to the navel, and for women it is the ertire degree of protection from the harsh environmental body except the face and hands. Covering the conditions of the Arabian Peninsula, shielding awrah becomes essential when an individual women from the heat of the sun and protecting reaches puberty, and it is mandatory when them from the cold of the night. performing the five daily prayers. By erecting a physical barrier, the veil helped to The degree to which women are veiled varies institutionalize the social segregation of men and greatly throughout the Arab and Muslim worlds. women. This segregation was also extended to The most extreme examples are found in Saudi other aspects of daily life, such as government, Arabia and Iran. In Saudi Arabia, and to an extent education, and commerce. For the most part, Arab the surrounding Gulf states, women are fully veiled women were restricted to a domestic role in society, in black, including a face veil and gloves, so that no although they could wield a great amount of skin is exposed in public. In non-Arab Iran, the influence within this sphere. image of women in black, flowing chadors predominated during the American hostage crisis In the last century, Arab society has undergone a and has remained in Americans' mental image of rapid transformation. In the process, the role of the region ever since. Arab women has changed, and with it so have modes of dress, including the veil. Beginning with This degree of veiling is not found elsewhere in the European influence in the eighteenth and nineteenth Arab world. Among the Arab countries bordering centuries, many women, especially in urban areas, the eastern edge of the Mediterranean SeaSyria, adopted European styles of dress; some continued to Jordan, Lebanon, and Egypttraditional women's wear the head scarf, while others abandoned it. dress includes head scarves and ankle-length European fashions remain common in the majority dresses. Western-style is also prominent, especially of Arab countries. At the same time, some women in more urban areas., In North Africa, the style, continue to dress in traditional styles because it is extent, and methods of veiling differ from region to dictated by family or society. Others prefer the region and are oftcn influenced by neighboring security and modesty the veil brings. Today, many Berber, Tuareg, and Sub-Saharan African cultures. women working outside the home and mixingwith Within cach of these regions, the class and status of men in the public sector find that the veil is a a woman and her family further influence thcstyle recognizable sign of their respectibility and provides and degree of veiling. protection in the workplace. ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

Also significant arc the growing number ofwomen The veil represents a tangible form of social whose mothers and even grandmothers dressed in etiquette which conveys a message to the members European styles but who themselves are adopting of society. It is also a strong cultural symbol that, the veil as a way of showing respect for their as we can see, has been used by different society's traditions or opposition to cultural groups:ncluding women themselvesto influence from abroad. Many of these womenarc communicate different messages both within and highly educated professionals; their wearing of outside Arab society. Today, the veil's message has traditional clothing does not necessarily mean that changed to reflect new social conditions in the Arab thcy accept traditional gender roles, but rather, that world. At the same time it continues to reflect they wish to show respect for and solidarity with certain social mores and limits that are recognized their religious and cultural heritage. and respected by Arab society in general.

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Marriage and Family Law in the United States and the Arab World

Throughout the ages, the evolution of societies has lover to death for adultery while Muslims elsewhere been accompanied by the periodic reexamination of express their horror and argue that this is notIslam? social norms and the laws governing them. Among The answer lies in the fact that the application and the areas singled out for change has been the role practice of Islamic law differ among the various and rights of women. This has occurred in both the schools of law and the traditions of each country. United States and the Arab world, but the process There are seven distinct schools of Islamic law, and approach has differed greatly between the two each with its own legal specialists and code of societies. American women, originally without any precedents; each school respects the others.2 legal rights under U.S. law, have won numerous legal victories through legislation and judicial All Islamic law, as well as guides for everyday life, rulings. Arab women were guaranteed many rights are drawn from the Qur'an and the Hadith.All under Islamic law that Western women would not Muslims believe in the centrality and divinity of the obtain for more than a millenium, but some of these Qur'an, the written revelation from God transmitted laws have not been adapted to contemporary to mankind through the Prophet Mohammed.The situations. This is partly because the American legal Hadith are a collection of the traditions and sayings system is based on secular law, while in the Arab of the Prophet during his lifetime. Both have their world, most of the laws related to women's issues origins in the prophetic career of Mohammed, are based on religious doctrine. which began inAD610 and continued until his death inAD632. The biggest difference between a secular and a religiously based legal system is the degree to Both the Qur'an and the Hadithbut particularly which laws can be changed or modified. In the the latter---leave room for interpretation, allowing American legal system, laws can be updated, for the development of new approaches to Islamic revised, or repealed through acts of Congress, law. Further evidence of this flexibility is the judicial reinterpretation, or amendments to the presence of secular codes in manycountries. In Constitution. In comparison, Islamic law is derived most Arab countries today, secular law has been from what Muslims believe te be God's final incorporated to regulate civil and criminal aspects message to mankind and thus carries an implication of society; Saudi Arabia, where Islamic law is of infallibility. In most Arab countries today, applied exclusively, is an exception. Secular secular law governs many aspects of society, but influences are also reflected in the personal status family and inheritance matters continue to be laws that many Arab countries have enacted to help governed mostly by Islamic law.' adapt Islamic family law to changing times. Such laws have been passed in Tunisia, Algeria, and The U.S. Constitution was adopted as the primary Yemen, as well as non-Arab Turkey. Although the source of law for the United States in 1789.It following discussion focuses on a comparison of defined the power and responsibilities of the federal marriage and family law in the American and government, as well as the relationship betweenthe Islamic legal systems, it should be remembered that federal government and the states. Individual rights in some Arab countries, personal status laws are were established under the first ten amendments to used instead of Islamic law. the Constitution, collectively known as the Bill of Rights. At the time of its adoption, the Constitution The American legal tradition of marriage was and the Bill of Rights granted rights to white men inherited from English Common Law which alone. The movement for women's rights in thc governed the American colonies before United States began in conjunction with the debate independence. Under this system, a married over slavery, which raised many questionsabout the woman's legal identity existed through her union legal rights of all persons. with her husband. This was known as the "merger of identities." The husband became legally Compared to the U.S. Constitution, Islamic law responsible for every aspect of his wife's life. He looks at first to be monolithic and unchanging. And was her legal guardian, protector, andprovider. The yet, this is not thc case. How is it that Saudi ownership of any property or wealth that a woman Arabian authorities can stone a princess and hcr possessed before marriage was transferred to her

13 15 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

husband. A married woman was unable to inherit Islamic law regulated marriage by establishing a property, make a will, enter into a contract, and sue series of permissible, mandatory, and prohibited or be sued. Under such restrictions, it was acts. Muslim men and women are forbidden from impossible for a woman to manage and operate a marrying polytheists and atheists, and while Muslim business. These laws were repealed in the mid- men can marry Jews and Christians, Muslim women nineteenth century, when the Married Women's are allowed to marry only Muslim men to ensure Property Acts were passed by various state that the children will be raised as Muslims. Men legislatures. The Acts allowed women to retain were given the right to have up to four wives control of their individual property after marriage, simultaneously, but only on the condition that they to inherit property, to sue or be sued, and to claim be provided for equally in terms of material support their working incoi le as their own. as well as affection. This law drastically changed the pre-Islamic reality, in which men could have American women have also gained rights in divorce any number of wives. The preservation of polygamy which, like marriage laws, arc enacted at the state actually worked to some women's advantage level and vary considerably. They have been initially, because during the battles that marked the accompanied by developments in post-divorce early decades of Islam, men were often scarce, and settlements. The terms of the settlement are usually polygamy gave unmarried women and widows a established by the court upon the conclusion of the better chance for family security. Today some Arab divorce, but they can also be arranged through countries have modified thc laws regarding written agreements between husband and wife. In polygamy. Tunisia has banned it altogether, and in most cases, women are entitled to an equal portion Egypt, a man must get the permission of his first of the property obtained by the couple during their wife if he wishes to marry another. In most other marriage. Alimony and child support are also Arab countries, polygamy is practiced relatively commonly ordered by the courts. Child custody has infrequently. come to favor American women, but in the past, men were traditionally panted custody because they Divorce is permitted under Islamic law, but it is were the ones with the financial ability to support described as the worst of all actions permissible in children. After the passage of the Married Women's the eyes of God. All that is required for a man to Property Acts, this was no longer necessarily the divorce his wife is that he announcc his desire to case. end the marriage. In certain cases, a woman may initiate a divorce by returning her dowry to her Under Islamic law, regulations regarding women husband. She must then wait a set period of time, and marriage have remained relatively static since usually three months, before remarrying to insure their initial introduction. At the time of their that she is not carrying a child fathered by her development in the Arabian Peninsula in the early former husband. At the end of the waiting period, seventh century, however, they were quite radical. the couple has the option of reuniting if they decide Arab society at this time was highly patriarchal; their divorce was a mistake. If the divorce holds women possessed very little status, reflected in the after the waiting period, the wife may return to her practice of abandoning newborn baby girls in the natal family. Although in theory the child remains desert to prevent a drain on the family's resources. in the father's household, practice varies greatly Islam transformed both the status of women and the from country to country depending upon the institution of marriage. Women and men were given children's age and sex. New legislation also takes equal duties and obligations to God, and marriage into consideration the best interests of the child. became a sacred institution incumbent upon all believers. Islam gave women status as legal More egalitarian divorce and child custody laws, as persons. well as equal share in inheritance, arc among the major goals of many men and women alike who are Islamic law guarantees a woman's right to own pushing for change in the Arab world. property and engage in commercial activities, and she is liable for any crimes, injuries, or breaches of contract that she commits. Women are also allowed 'These aspects of Islamic law are not applied to Christian and to inherit wealth and property; however, the amount Jewish citizens of Arab countries, who follow their own laws and a woman receives is generally one-half of the traditions on these matters. amount given to a man. The justification for this 2These schools of law include four in the Sunni branch of Islam rule was that men are considered the providers of (Shafi, Ilanbali, Ilanafi, and Maliki) and three in the Stn. i the family and thus required greater material wealth. branch of Islam (Jafari, Zaydi, and lhadi).

16 Country URBANIZATION AND% LABORof Total Population in Urban Areas Females as a % of labor force.. BahrainAlgeria 25-30 yrs ago 82.237.6 83.051.7MBE 25-30 yrs ago 5.74.7 10.4MRE9.6 IraqEgypt 40.7"0 7 71.346.7 7.05.0 21.610.310.1 JordanKuwait 77.7- 61.083.795.6 16.1 5.35.8 27.814.6 MoroccoLibyaLebanon 31.926.249.5 48.070.2 11.45.9 20.79.1 SaudiQatarOman Arabia 38.876.6 4.2 77.389.510.6 4.33.55.4 7.17.38.5 SudanTunisiaSyria 39.540.013.0 54.350.422.0 20.710.3 8.6 21.924.417.3 YemenUnitedEmirates Arab 41.210.9 29.077.8 6.94.6 13.36.4 JapanUnited States 67.371.9 77.075.0 39.134.2 37.941.4 TurkeyFranceIsrael 67.134.180.9 91.674.361.3 39.327.834.8 33.739.9 ArgentinaNigeriaIndonesia 76.117.015.8 86.335.230.5 28.622.937.3 28.134.831.2 2 These statistics are compiled from data published by the World Bank. Statistics for Palestinians Most RecentLabor Estimate force = (MRE)"formal" = labor1985 force; see definition on page 6. In the West Bank and Gaza Strip were not available; those for Israel include Arab-Israells. EDUCATION AND LITERACY Literacy Rates Country Enrollment In Primary School as % ofFEMALES Age Group Ages 6-11 TOTAL Enrollment in Secondary School as % of Age GroupFEMALES Ages 12-17 TOTAL Female s Age 15+ Total AlgeriaBahrain 25-30 yrs ago 53.0 MRE" 108.088.0 25-30 yrs ago 68.0 110.0MRE95.0 25-30 yrs ago 5.0 MRE53.084.0 25-30 yrs ago 7.0 MRE 84.061.0 69.345.5 77.457.4 IraqEgypt 60.045.0- 87.089.0 74.075.0 97.096.0 14.015.0- 71.037.0 28.026.038.0 47.081.0 70.349.333.8 80.159.748.4 KuwaitJordanLebanon 103.093.083.0 94.091.0 116.0106.095.0 128.01(X).0 - 41.023.020.0 87.056.0 26.052.0 67.090.0- 66.773.1 80.173.0 OmanMoroccoLibya 44.035.0 97.055.0- 57.078.0 102.068.0---- 4.05.0 40.030.0 11.014.0 48.036.0 -- 18.050.4 49.563.8 SaudiQatar Arabia 11.0- 107.070.0 24.0 - 110.076.0 -1 0 39.091.0 4.0 46.085.0 72.048.1- 62.475.7- Sudan 21.0 102.041.0 29.078.0- 108.049.0 13.0-2.0 45.017,0 28.0-4.0 54.020.0 50.811.7 64.527.1 UnitedSyrial'unisla Arab 65.052.0 11().()107.0 91.0 111.0115.0 9.0 69.()39.0 16.0 64.044.0 56.1 65.3 YemenEmiratts -3.0 13.0- -1.0 -3.0 63.0- 1 38.5- 100.0 100.0 100.0 99.0 98.0 - >95% >95% FranceJapanUnited States 133.0100.0 111.0102.0 134.01(X).0 113.0102.0 59.081.0- 100.097.0 56.082.0 - 97.096.0 >95% >95% TurkeyIsrael 95.083.0 108.095.0 101.095.0 112.093.0 51.0 9.0 39.086.0 48.016.0 51.083.0 71.1>95% 80.7 - Argentina1C1geriaIndonesia 102.024.065.0 115.0114.063.0 101.072.032.0 118.0111.070.0 31.03.07.0 73.043.016.0 28.012.05.0 74.047.019.0 >95%39.568.0 >95%50.777.0 These statistics are compiled from data published by the World Bank. Statistics for Gross enrollmentMost Recent in schools Estimate may (MRE) be reported = 1985 in excess of 100% if some pupils are younger or Palestinians In the West Bank and Gaza Strip were not available; those for older than the country's standard range of school age. Israel include Arab-Israells. ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

The Aunt of Rafiq by Daisy al-Amir, translated from Arabic by Tura Campanella

She looked out of the window at a green forest. The responsibility, only relaxation, sleep, and a pleasant last rays of sunshine would not let the trees become atmosphere. Her brother had nodded, but said after dark yet, and a total silence seemed to cover all of deep thought and careful consideration, "And who the universe as though with a smooth, unwrinkled will help me while she is gone'?" robe. The strange doctor had cominued to question her. She sat down in the rocking chair. The chair rocked What do you do that causes such total exhaustion, as usual but today she was not moved. The chair such great tension? did not even squeak like it usually did. Where to find a sound in this silence? She had been puzzled about how to answer. Should she have explained the nature of her work? Should She turned on the radio. A loud voice was speaking she have said that she is the sister of her brother'? in a strange language. What was the announcer In the end, she had said nothing. saying? What was his commentary on the strange music? Could other voices answer him? Was there When she had left to go to the strange country, her no Arab voice in this profound exile of hers? brother had toid her not to speak of her work to anyone. "If Arab tourists recognize you," her Tonight was thc last night she would spend in this brother had said, "they will say, aha, the militants strange country. The mineral baths and the massage behave in a bourgeois manner even though they say had ended in the morning and the attendant had they arc the militants, the leaders, and the fighters. smoothed the last heavy application of black mud They will say you arc the sister of the militant, thc onto the ailing parts of her body. sister of the leader, and thc sister of the fighter. Thus you must not behave like a bourgeois." The doctor said in the strange, broken language of this country that she needed physical, mental, and And he continued to tell her, "Remember, the emotional rest. feeling of fatigue is a bourgeois trait. The collapse of thc body in the face of responsibilities is a "Physical rest! Mental rest! Emotional rest!!" he bourgeois trait. And the frailty of nerves in face of repeated. exhaustion and wakefulness is a bourgeois trait."

She told the doctor she would be unable to obtain Her brother had, after all, devoted himself totally to any of these rests that he prescribed. thc cause. He had been infused with enthusiasm from the first moment he became aware of the "Why not?" he had asked. concerns of the homeland. Hc was the only son in the family, she was the younger sister. She was She could not respond. How could she make him influenced by what he said and believed in what he understand who she really was? How could she did. She was moved by his strong personality and explain the responsibilities that rested on her began to voice his opinions and repeat what hc said. shoulders, on her head, on her arms? Then he began explaining the cause to her. She soon found herself engaged in a major military She had tried to conceal her real identity in this operation. Her brother made her a comrade in the strange country, tried to disguise herself so no one struggle. This increased her commitment to the would know she was here, resting her body, her cause and she spent all her time working. mind, and her emotions. But her brother. Despite his enthusiasm and his It was the doctor in her own country who had work for the struggle, her brother managed to find decided that she was near collapse and needed a another comrade, a comrade of a different kind. Her retreat where there would be no work or brother's new comrade entered his life through an

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easy door and became a pampered wifc. She, his this is best for you," was all her mother would say. sister, remained his comrade in struggle. She wondered what had happened to those gifts and Other people knew this perfectly well. They knew who was wearing thcm now. that she, his sister, was truly his confidant, that every major secret was told to her alone. They Whenever her brother returned from a trip, he knew that behind her brother's unique, captivating brought gifts for his wife, his son, Rafiq, and for personality stood his sister--a solemn pledge to the his friends. For her, he always brought a bundle of cause, consulted before all his speeches were made, new political books. before all his policies were announced. Once she saw her brother's wife with guests, one of But women arc assumed to betore talkative than whom was revealing the future to hcr in a cup of men and people tried to follow her, to ask her coffee. Then she gave the guest her own cup to tell questions, direct and indirect. Shc had passed the her future. test, however, and remained steadfast, not answering any of the tantalizing questions, until hcr In the evening her brothcr asked in disbelief, "Is brother's supporters and followers called her the this your intellectual level? Have you stooped to the sister of men. They had honored her. They had point of wanting to know the future from a cup of given her a rank, the rank of those who arc known coffee? We make the future, we are the ones who through their brothers! build it. Do we need to look in a cup to tell us what we have to do, or what will happen?" Soon she recognized that the cause was morc important than all human desires and to give it total She asked once what would happen if she stocd attention she dissociated herself from the world of before the mirror admiring herself as her brother's women. No visits to the hairdresser or the wife did. dressmaker, no trips to the market or morning social calls. For such visits wasted time. She needed the Her grandfather said, "She is a wife, and must time for tly. cause. make herself pretty to please hcr husband. But as for you, are you making yourself pretty to please When her brother's wile bore a son, Raliq, her your brother's friends? And what would people say brother became known as the father of Rafiq. She if one of them got interested in you?" found this preposterous. She also found it strange that her brother began to spend part of his time Hcr brothcr added, "What if, Gal forbid, onc of evaluating his son's toys, while hcr own them loves you? People would say that I allowed responsibilities to thc cause increased. And she you to participate in a national cause in order to came to be called the aunt of Rafiq. She was no find you a husband. Your prope- behavior makes longer called thc sister of men. Had men suddenly you immune to criticism and your pride in being the become little children? sister of men is enough for you." Her brother had laughed merrily. "Isn't that so, aunt of Rafiq?" What if she had been called the mother of Rafiq? The idea had not occurred to her before. She She went back to looking out the window. The remembered an offcr of marriage, long ago. She green forest surrounding the hotel was darkcr now. had been engaged very young to a man whom she The sun had set some time ago. The moment of the did not see except through the gifts that his mother sunset had passed and the long dark night had and sister gave her....Then her father had decided arrived. She had been careful to avoid being that her fiance was not suitable and she had watched and recognized while she was here. But returned the gifts. this was hcr last night in this strange country, and she had never explored the life of the night here. She had asked, "Why wasn't he appropriate? Why She had gotten to know the streets leading to the had he been appropriate at one time and not now?" sanitorium, the massage room, and the room for mud applications. What had she seen in this strange Hcr father never answered this question, neither country other than the mineral baths? Even in her whcn she asked him herself nor whcn she sought an room, what had she looked at other than the walls, explanation from her mother. "Your father thinks

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the ceiling, and a window overlooking the forest, She had finished eating her dinner and had not green during the day, darkening at evening, and noticed that the sweet had been placed on a plate in black at night, that dreary time of her own front of her. sleeplessness. She looked about the restaurant....At some tables sat The bell rang, announcing the hour for dinner. men, at others women, and at a third both sexes sat Usually she did not go down the hall but ate dinner together. And she...she alone of all the people in alone in her room. Tonight, however, her final night this room could not say, if asked, at which table she in this strange country, she decided to go down to belonged. the restaurant and sit at a corner table away from the gaze of the curious. She kept staring at the tables. Did all the people eat the same food? She noticed that in addition to the For the first time she approached the restaurant, a food, some people had glasses of wine. Here was a brightly illuminated room crowded with people. The world where wine was allowed for both sexes. Her room next to the restaurant had a sign above its eyes searched for a waiter. She would askhim for a door in red light; "Bar," it said in many different glass of wine. She sat glued to her chair while her languages. eyes looked for him. She saw the waiterserving food, chatting with the people sitting next to her, During the day the room was empty and locked. exchanging conversation with them. Occasionally Night was another world, a new world with which laughter arose and, sometimes, a loud burst of she had not been familiar during the three weeks of laughter! her exile. Had the long quiet nights studying political books in her room rested her and made her The waiter passed by. He did not seem aware of her happy? Was the restaurant forbidden, so she had presence. But she had not wanted to berecognized dinner in her room? Why had the world of the night all during these three weeks! She had hid herself frightened her? Wasn't she the fighter, sister of more years than she wished to remember sothat men, aunt of Rafiq? Was she more courageous shc would not be noticed by others. Of course, this during the day? Why had she eaten her lunch every waiter did not giver her a glance. He did not even day in the infirmary restaurant, which was filled turn his head. with the old, disabled, and sick? And why had she limited her breakfast to the mineral water from the A voice rang out. She realized after a moment that drinking fountain in her room? it was her voice calling. The waiter came to her. She asked him for a glass of wine. He stared at her She knew why she had kept to herself. But she in astonishment and disapproval. She repeated her could not believe that she actually had passed three request. long weeks in a medical program that claimed to have given her rest physically, mentally, and He said, "You want wine now, when dinner is emotionally! It was time to return home. To the over? We are in a restaurant attached to a hospital; cause. To the work. In her own country,night the time has passed for ordering wine with dinner." would connect with day once more and women and men would be considered equally. He paused and pointed outside.

Men and women, men and women. She seemed to "The bar is on your right as you exit from the main hear her brother say, "Have you forgotten that you door. They can serve you wine until the sun rises are the sister of men, the aunt ofRafiq?" tomorrow."

After all of this struggle and self-denial and He left before hearing her reply. Had the waiter sacrifice, why had she still not reached the point of provoked her deliberately? Did he know who she being called by her name? was? Even though she had disguised herself these weeks, that did not mean that she was nobody. Was it not an honor to be a woman? A woman There, in her own country, a thousand and one only? Why is a woman always the sister of men, individuals desired to talk to her, the sister of men, the aunt of a child....Why was she not at least the to learn something about her or heraffairs or the wife of a man? affairs of...of...of. her brother.

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For the first time she asked herself to what had she The fingers of your hands are lean like the fingers dedicated her life? To the cause, or to her brother? of a man, her brother had said. She withdrew her hands and put them in her lap. The man sitting at The waiter presented her with a check. She signed her table was not looking at her, but turning his it and stood up proudly, confident of her reputation head this way an(' that. She followed his eyes to a in her own country. Tomorrow she would be at statuesque blond girl with a beautiful face. The home, where people honored her and expected her blond girl was carrying a tray with glasses and to speak eloquently. bottles on it.

She walked out of the main door of the restaurant. The sister of men looked attentively at the face of There was the word written in numerous languages her table companion. In it was grief an4 longing. in red light. The waitress was near the neighboring table but she turned and laughed towards them. Music drifted out of the bar. She entered. The room was crowded and filled to the ceiling with smoke. The waitress came over and whispered to her table companion. A word the sister of men, the aunt of She walked among the occupied tables to a small Raab did not understand, a word in the language of table in the farthest corner. She sat down. The table the people in this strange country. But the table remained empty, and she was pleased that no one companion was a stranger, too; that was better. had recognized her. But...why was that better?

She wondered if she should ask for a glass of wine? On the next round, the waitress stopped for some Did she want red or white? Which was known to moments and again on another round. Some give a person more courage? -ninutes passed.

She looked around but no one was watching her. The table companion turned and looked at her...She She could ask for whatever she wanted and nobody told herself he could not have recognized her. He would even give her a glance. Was that a comfort? was a stranger, and he did not know that she as the sister of men, the aunt of Rafiq. He was looking at The light in the bar was faint and the clouds of ' her directly, at her, herself. smoke surrounded her. No one could sce her in the semi-dark. Was that what she wanted? That no one Then he looked down at the empty table before her, would see her? and then up at her again.

Someone stopped by her table. He gestured toward His eyes asked, "Have you finished?" the empty chair. She motioned with her head that he could help himself to the chair and he did. His And she nodded, "Yes." features resembled those of the natives of her country and so she turned her face away from him.

Reprinted, with permission, from Women and the Family in the Middle East. Elizabeth Fernea, ed. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985 (pp. 209-214).

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Suggested Background References

Abouzeid, Leila. Year of the Elephant. Translated examine women during the early stages of the from the Arabic by Barbara Parmenter. Austin: Islamic history, the transition to modernity, University of Tcxas Press, 1989. (103 pages) the changes created by Western colonialism and Arab nationalism, and future directions. Subtitled "A Moroccan Woman's Journey Toward Independence," this novella narrates Shaaban, Bouthaina. Both Right and Left Handed. the story of a young woman divorced by her Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1991. Eurocentrichusband who seeks a new, (242 pages) independent life in the traditions of Islam. Accompanied by several short stories. A compilation of interviews with women conducted by the author, focusing on women Atiya, Nayra. Khul-Khaal, Five Egyptian WomenTell from Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, and Algeria. TheirStories.Syracuse: Syracuse University The women describe their personal struggles Press, 1982. (177 pages) for equality, their relationships with men, and their hopes for the future. A collection of fiveoral histories documenting the lives and struggles of five Women and the Family in the Middle East. Edited by Egyptian women. Told from a first-person Elizabeth Fernea. Austin: University of Texas perspective,thewomendescribetheir Press, 1985. (356 pages) difficulties and triumphs, customs and social mores, and the regular activities of daily life. A companion volume to Middle Eastern Muslim Women Speak, following a similar Ghalcm, Ali. A Wife for My Son. Translated from the formatwit')essays,shortstories,and French by G. Kazolias. New York: Banner Press, biographicalinformation.Topicsinclude 1988. (211 pages) health and education, work, identity, and religion and law. Setinmodern-dayAlgeria,thisaward- winning novel narrates the story of a young Films and Videos woman forced into an arranged marriage. It demonstratesthepressurethatsociety's A Veiled Revolution. 16mm and video; 1982; 26 min.; customs can place on the individual, as well color, Elizabeth Fernea and Marilyn Gaunt. as the price one pays for breaking with tradition. Analyzestheresurgence of theveilin Egyptian society, allowing women to explain Mernissi, Fatima. Beyond the Veil. London: Al-Saqi their reasonsforreturningtotraditional Books, 1975. (198 pages) Islamic garb.

A classic discussion of male-female relations Some Women of Marrakech. 16mm and video; 1976; in the Muslim world. Mernissi examines 52 min., color, Elizabeth Fernea and Marilyn traditional sources of Islamic law regarding Davies. women and contrasts them with today's realities. Explores the daily lives and concerns of some urbanwomeninMarrakech,Morocco. Middle Eastern Muslim Women Speak. Edited by Personal interviews allow the women to voice Elizabeth Fernea and Basima Bezirgan. Austin: their own opinions and ideas about their University of Texas Press, 1977. (402 pages) society and its future.

An excellent collection of essays, poems, biographicalsketches,andshortstories documenting the historical development of Muslim women. The book's four sections

23 23 Central Asia, Past andPresent ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

Lesson Plan Central Asia Past and Present

Since their independence with the dissolution locate them on a map, and explain the of the Soviet Union in the fall of 1991, the process by which they were formed countries of Central AsiaKazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkemenistan, and Identify the major ethnic groups that Uzbekistanhave faced a host of challenges inhabit Central Asia as they seek to define their political systems, economies, and national identities. Discuss the historical, cultural, and religious links between Central Asia and the Like Western colonial powers elsewhere in Middle East the world, the Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union disrupted local practices and Discuss Central Asia's colonial experi- systems when they took control of Central ence and compare and contrast it with Asiathen known as Turkistan (land of the that of Arab countries Turks)in the nineteenth century. After World War I, the Soviets split Turkistan into Identify the major challenges facing the five smaller republics. They mandated newly independent countries of Central Russian as the official language, changed the Asia and discuss alternative courses of alphabets used to write local languages, action they might pursue repressed religious observance, and exploited the region's natural resources to the fullest Explain the environmental disaster that extent. characterizes the Aral Sea, identify contributing factors, and discuss possible Among the factors which will influence the solutions course these nations ultimately take are the region's historical links with neighboring peoples, particularly in the Middle East. Classroom Exercises and Activities Much of Central Asia's population is Turkic and ethnically related to the Turks of Tur- Distribute copies of the essay "Central key. Others are ethnically Iranian. Most of Asia, Past and Present." Also distribute the the Turkic and non-Turkic segments of the map of Central Asia that appears on page population are Muslim; some converted as 37. The following discussion questions focus early as the eighth centuryA.D.during the on the essay's main themes and further the initial Arab conquests of the region. lesson objectives outlined above. Although religious observance was period- ically forbidden at various times under Rus- 1. Discuss the meaning of the word "geo- sian rule, the Central Asian people have strategic" (students may want to look the retained their Muslim identity. Today, a word up in the dictionary First). In what number of Muslim countries are seeking to way might Central Asia have been geo- build ties with Central Asia on the basis of strategically important to the Iranian Ses- their common religious heritage. sanian Empire? To the Arabs? To the Mongols? To the Russians? Has the region s importance as perceived by others Lesson Objectives changal over time? How? Discuss the reaso' ns other countries might have for After completing this lesson, students wanting to strengthen their ties with the should be able to: newly independent Central Asian states.

Name the countries of Central Asia, 2. Central Asia's earliest inhabitants were

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Iranian peoples, and for a long time, the Photocopy and distribute the trade route Central Asia is not part of the map on page 36. The following discussion Arab world. However, it region was associated with Persia and shares historical links with the considered part of the Persian world. Ex- questions are based on the map and assume Arab world and the rest of the plain the course of events that resulted in that students have read the essay "Central Middle East, and the region's Central Asia's predominantly Turkish Asia, Past and Present." colonial experience parallels nature. What do the Tajiksdescendants that of some Arab countries. of the earlier Iranian peopleshave in 1. Locate the "silk roads" depicted on the In light of current world map. Where did they begin? To wheredid attention on Central Asia and common with the Iranians of today? What the paucity of curriculum do the Tajiks have in common with the they extend? Where is Central Asia along resources on this region, Central Asian Turks? Which bonds do you this route? Explain how Central Asia's AMIDEAST is devoting this think are stronger? Explain your answers. location along the major east-west trade issue ofArab World Alamanc routes affected the prosperity of its people; to Central Asia. 3. Many analysts of the Soviet Union consider economic factors as well as polit- expected that Central Asia would be the ical, cultural, and intellectual factors. first region to secede from the USSR. In actual fact, it was the last region to accept 2. Arabs and then Europeans established sea routes that competed with thesilk independence. Discuss how Soviet policies Teachers may wish to refer to and practices in Central Asia might have roads. Locate these sea routes on the map. the previousArab World contributed to the reluctance of the re- What appears to be the most direct route Almanacissue on "The Arab gion's people to declare independence. In from China to Europe? Which route do World and Europe's Age of what ways might Central Asian countries you think was the fastest? Consider the Discovery" for a more detailed various factors that would have been in- discussion of the sea routes experience greater difficulties today than dominated by the Arabs, and volved in transporting cargo along the two they did under Soviet rule? In what ways to the issue on "Colonialism in might conditions improve? different routes. Why do you think the sea the Arab World." route ultimately prevailed? Discuss what 4. Some scholars have referred to the the decline of the silk roads meant for the independence of Central Asia as the last in people of Central Asia. a series of "decolonizations" that have occurred in the Middle East, Asia, and Africa. Discuss the characteristics of colo- Distribute the alphabet chart on page 35. nialism; does Russian and then Soviet Before discussing the questions below, ask control of Central Asia fit this description? students to write a simple sentence in Eng- In what ways does the Soviet colonization lish. Then ask them to write the same sen- and of Central Asia parallel Western European tence phoenetically, using the Cyrillic Please note that in the colonization of the Arab world? (Think Arabic alphabets. Ask students to exchange alphabet chart, only the about Algeria, which the French declared a transliterations and read each others' sen- independent forms of the part of France, and about French and tences. (Please note that only theindepen- Arabic letters are provided. British mandates in the Fertile Crescent.) dent positions of the Arabic letters has been To write Arabic correctly, the provided. To write Arabic correctly, the let- letters must be connected, and In what ways does it differ? their shape changes depending ters must be connected, and theirshape on their position in the word. 5. Think about the major challenges facing changes depending on their positions in the This requires a knowledge of Central Asian countries today; consider word. This requires a knowledge of Arabic Arabic beyond that necessary political, economic, and social issues. beyond that necessary for the purposes of for the purposes of this exercise. Discuss any apparent relationship between this exercise.) the problems facing Central Asia and Russian/Soviet policies there. Alternative- 1. What difficulties did you face in trying ly, to what extent are these problems ones to write and read your language using an that any newly independent country would alphabet different than the one to which face? In explaining your answers, contrast you're accustomed? Were you able to and compare the situation in Central Asia reproduce the English pronunciations ex- with that of other newly independent coun- actly? If not, why not? Are there letters in tries in other parts of the world over the Cyrillic and/or Arabic that you might past fifty years. never use in transliterating English words?

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2. As explained in the essay "Central Russia and China, Kyrgyz in China, Tajiks Asia, Past and Present," the Soviets twice in Afghanistan, Turkmen in Iran, Syria, mandated a change in the alphabet used by and Iraq) influence events in the region? the Central Asians: from Arabic to Roman Think about other ethnically heterogenous and then Cyrillic. What did the Soviets countries in the world; discuss what their hope to achieve by doing this? To what experiences might imply for Central Asia. extent do you think they were successful?

3. Now that you have confronted the prob- On page 39 is a brief summary of the lem of writing your language using an environmental disaster that has befallen the unfamiliar alphabet, discuss the practical Aral Sea. Page 40 contains a flow chart effects for the Central Asian people of the detailing some of the causes and interrela- Soviet-mandated changes in the alphabet. tionships of the region's environmental prob- Think about education, media, commercial lems. Distribute these two pages to students. activity, etc. 1. Study the chain of events that has led to The chart on page 38 provides some the environmental disaster surrounding the basic information about the Central Asian Aral Sea. To what extent do you think the countries. The exercise below is based on results are reversable? Discuss possible this data. solutions to these environmental problems. Think about whether the actions you sug- 1. Rank the five Central Asian states in gest would address the causes of the prob- order of total land area (largest to small- lem, or just itssymptoms. est). Rank them in order of population. Do you see any correlation between your two 2. The international community is con- lists? Now calculate the population density cerned about the serious environmental for each country (divide the total popula- effects stemming from the degredation of tion by the total land arca). Which country the Aral Sea, and a number of internation- is the most densely populated? Which the al groups are researching possible solu- least? tions. Suppose a plan is developed that will, over 25 years, restore the Aral to its 2. Consider the major natural resources of former size and water quality and regener- each country (note that agricultural re- ate the agricultural land of Central Asia. sources are not listed, but students might Assume that to be successful, this plan want to keep them in mind). Which are requires that agricultural production in the commercially valuable? Strategically valu- region be reduced to 90% of its present able? Discuss how the presence of these level for the full 25-year period. Discuss natural resources might affect these coun- the possible reactions of the Central Asian tries in terms of their economic develop- people to this plan. Do you think they ment, environmental conditions, political would agree to implement it? Explain your relationships, etc. answers.

3. Review the ethnic composition of each 3. Identify environmental disasters else- Central Asian country. Would you charac- where in the world, including the United terize them as homogenous or heteroge- States. Are the conditions and/or activities nous? What explanations can you give for that caused them still continuing? Who this extensive intermingling of peoples decides at what point the negative long- (consider the region's history, including term effects of our actions outweigh the the Soviet division of the former Turkistan short-term benefits? into five separate republics)? Discuss the possible impact of such heterogenous populations on the development of national identities. How might related ethnic communities outside Central Asia (Kazakhs in

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Central Asia, Past and Present by Robert Hurd

The collapse of the Soviet Union in the fall Turkic groups in Central Asia. All of the Robert Hurd is one of the of 1991 came as a great surprise to the Turkic peoples in Central Asia are Muslim. editors of Arab World Almanac. entire world. Beginning with the failed coup Some converted to Islam after the establish- against Mikhail Gorbachev in August and ment of Arab rule in the eighth century, ending with the creation of the Common- others only within the past 200 years. wealth of Independent States in December, the world witnessed the dissolution of a Central Asia's non-Turkic people come from AMIDEAST gratefully global superpower and its rebirth as a a variety of different backgrounds and acknowledges the contri- include Muslims and non-Muslims. The butions of David Nal le in the collection of independent nations. Perhaps preparation of this essay. Mr. no region of the former Soviet Union was as largest Muslim group is the Tajiks, who are Nal le is a consultant special- unprepared for independence as the five ethnically Iranian3 and speak a language izing in Central Asian affairs. republics of Central Asia. closely related to Persian (Farst). They converted to Islam beginning with the initial Arab conquests of the region in the seventh The new countries of Central Asia are now I. It is important to struggling with the process of defining them- century. Two of Central Asia's most famous distinguish between the words selves as nations and establishing their place citiesSamarkand and Bukharahave long "Turkic" and "Turkish." in the world. Central Asia's history is inter- had significant Tajik populations; both now Turkic refers to speakers of twined with those of neighboring peoples, lie in Uzbekistan. The remaining non- Altaic languages such as Turkish Muslim peoples of Central Asia Uzbek, Tatar, Azeri, etc. including Persians, Arabs, and Turks. These Turkish specifically designates historical bonds will be factors as the new include smaller communities of Arabs, the people, language, and countries of Central Asia seek to define their Kurds, Afghans, Pamiris, and Baluchis. culture of modern Turkey. national identities. Turkish is a Turkic language. Most of the non-Turkic, non-Muslim people of Central Asia are Russians. Millions of 2. Several smaller The Region and Its People communities of Turkic people As its name suggests, Central Asia lies in Russians were resettled in Central Asia also live in Central Asia, the middle of the Eurasian continent, with during the reigns of Josef Stalin and Nikita including the Lighurs, Russia to the north and west, China and Khrushchev to facilitate the region's incor- Karakalpaks, Tartars, and Mongolia to the east, the Middle East and poration into the Soviet Union. Russians Azeris. There are also Kazakh came to hold many of the region's important and Kyrgyz communities In the Indian subcontinent to the south. Central the Xinjiang province of Asia consists of five countrics whose bound- political positions as well as most of the western China. aries were established during the first skilled jobs. Central Asia's independence has decade of Soviet rule: Kazakhstan, Uzbeki- created difficulties for these Russians as well 3. The word "Iranian" refers stan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmeni- as for the Central Asians. to speakers of the Indo- Iranian language family, and stan. Most of the indigenous population of includes such peoples as the Central Asia is Turkic, and before the Central Asia before the Nineteenth Pamiris, Tajiks, Persians, and Soviets subdivided the region, it was Century Soghdians. "Persian" refers to collectively known as Turkistan ("the land Central Asia's location at a crossroads of an inhabitant of Iran or a of the Turks"). civilizations created numerous opportunities speaker of the Persian for contact with- -and control byforeign language (Fars°. The Turkic' people have their origins in the powers. The earliest records indicate that thc steppes north of present-day China. They Achaemenids of Persia first conquered the first moved into Central Asia in the sixth region in 559B.C.,building an empire con- centuryA.D.Today, there are four major sisting of modern-day Iran, Iraq, parts of Turkic peoples in Central Asia, the largest of Central Asia, and the Caucasus Mountains. which is the Uzbeks, followed in number by When Alexander the Great overthrew the the Kazakhs, Turkmen, and Kyrgyz.2 The Achaemcnids some two hundred years later, Turkmcn are more closely related to the the cities of Bukhara and Samarkand had Turks of Turkey than are any of the other already been established as important centers

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along the trade routes between China, that is still used in Uzbekistan today. It was Europe, and the Middle East. not until early in the next century that the Arabs were able to assert firm control over These trade routes were first developed the mawarannahr. Qutayba ibn Muslim, an between Central Asia and China by Chinese outstanding Arab general and administrator, merchants who brought silk to the region in conquered Bukhara and Samarkand in exchange for horses and commercial goods. A.D.709 and later crossed the Syr Darya As the trade routes expanded into Europe (Syr River, or Jaxartes) to take Tashkent, and the Middle East, they became known as which is today the Uzbek capital and Central the "silk roads," although spices were also Asia's largest city. an important trading commodity. In addition to trade, important technological innovations InA.D.751, an Arab-led army marched out were transmitted via the silk roads; the Cen- to meet a Chinese expeditionary force that tral Asians learned such skills as well- had crossed the mountains in the east. The digging from the Chinese and glass-making defeat of that Chinese army at the Battle of from the Roman Empire. Talas determined, historians say, that Central Asia would remain a part of the Western During the fourth centuryA.D.,the Sessanian rather than the Eastern cultural world. More 4. "Caliph" comes from the Empire in Iran extended its rule into south- immediately, though, the capture at Talas of Arabic wordkhalijah, ern Central Asia, seizing control of the silk Chinese silkweaving and papermaking meaning "successor" or trade that passed through the key caravan specialists helped increase the prominence of "viceroy." The caliph was city of Merv, now located in modern-day Central Asia. Samarkand soon became a both the spiritual and temporal leader of the Islamic Turkmenistan. Sessanian authority predom- center for the craft ot papermaking, pre- state. After the first four inated until the sixth century, when large viously unknown in the West, and silks caliphs, the position was numbers of Turkic people began to migrate woven in the Arab world began to rival the institutionalized as a dynastic to the north and east from their homelands imported Chinese product. office, controlled first by the in the steppes. This was the first in a series Umayyad dynasty and then of massive Turkic migrations which would the Abbasid dynasty. The Islamic religion was the chief legacy of have a profound impact upon the history of the Arab presence in Central Asia, and it the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. was well established there by the tenth century. Central Asia became an important part The Turkic people had taken full control of of the Muslim world, producing a number of 5. "Algebra" conms from the Central Asia's major cities and trade routes famous scholars who made great contribu- Arabic wordal-jabr,meaning byA.D.565. The interaction of Persians and tions to the sciences as well as in religious "reduction;" this was the term other Iranian peoples with the Turks led to a al-Khwarlzmi used for his studies. Foremost among the scientists was process of solving quadratic mingling of cultures; many of the Iranian Ibn Sina, known in the West as Avicenna, equations. groups adopted Turkic languages, and some who was born in Bukhara inA.D.980. His of the formerly nomadic Turkic groups books on medicine were used as textbooks became sedentary under the influence of the in medieval Europe, and he also wrote Iranians. works in Arabic on theology and philosophy. Other Central Asian scholars include 6. Iladith are the collected The next century saw the emergence of al-Biruni, who made important contributions sayings and instructions of the Islam and the subsequent Arab conquests of to geology, mathematics, and physics, and Prophet Muhammad. Iran and Central Asia. The Caliph Umar,4 Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who Together with the Qur'an, second successor to the Prophet they form the basis of Islamic produced one of the first works on algebra.5 law. Muhammad, challenged the Sessanian Among the most famous Islamic scholars Empire and ultimately chased the emperor was Muhammad ibn Ismail Abu Abdullah into Central Asia inA.D.650. Shortly after (also known as Imam Bukhari) who the emperor's death in Mery a year later, the compiled what is still considered the most Arabs had advanced all the way up to the authentic collection of Hadith.6 Amu Darya (the Amu River), known in the West as the Oxus. They then invaded what The tenth century also saw another wave of they called "the land beyond the river," or in Turkic migrants out of Mongolia. Among Arabic, rnawarannahr, a geographic label these were the Seljuk Turks, who became

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the protectors of the Abbasid Caliphate until nicus.7 In addition to his patronage of the 7. Nicholas Copernicus was a arts, Timur's aggressive conquests resulted Polish astronomer who was the coming of the Mongols in the mid- the first major scientist to 1200s. The Mongol invasion, under the in the unification of all of Central Asia propose a heliocentric (sun direction of Genghis Khan and later his sons under Islam. centered) model of our solar and pandsons, was the last great migration system. His model correctly of nomadic peoples out of the Mongolian Timur's successors, known as the Timurids, determined the circular orbits ruled for almost a hundred years from their of the planets and their steppes. It was composed of the Mongols relative distances from each themselves and the various Turkic nomads capital of Herat, now the major city of west- other. While Tycho Brahe did who joined their campaigns along the way. ern Afghanistan. It was a greatlydiminished not believe in a heliocentric In their brief but fierce campaigns in Central empire, but the Timurids are particularly planetary system, helike Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe, noted for presiding over a flowering of the Ulugh Begtook extensive the Mongols destroyed the major cities of Persian arts: poetry, calligraphy, miniature and highly accurate painting, architecture, and music. Their observations of the stars and Central Asia and ended the reign of the planets. This data later Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad. empire collapsed shortly after 1500 when it provided proof for the work of was invaded by the Uzbeksa Turkictribe Johannes Kepler, who devised Four Mongol states then emerged, including that had settled north of the Aral Sea. the first formulas correctly predicting planetary orbits the II-Khans in Iraq and Iran, the Golden around the sun. Horde in Southern Russia around the Volga Thereafter, Central Asia entered a long River basin, and the Chaghatai state in the period of political decline. This was partially 8. The Safavid dynasty ruled heart of Central Asia. A fourth great Mongol caused by the collapse of the trade routes Iran from 1501 to 1732. It was state, which later became the Yuan Dynasty, through Central Asia after the establishment the first Muslim empire to was established in China under Genghis' of alternative routes, as well as by China's unite all of modern-day Iran attempts to isolate itself from the outside into a single state. Its founder, grandson Kublai Khan. Under the Chaghatai Shah Ismail, established Shi 'a state, Central Asia began to rebuild and world. At the same time, the Safavid Islam as the official state repair the damage of the Mongol invasion. Empire' came to power in Persia, unifying religion. all of the Iranian plateau and converting the Internal struggles for power limited the population to Shi 'a Islam. The Central 9. Approximately 10-15% of Asians were Sunni Muslims, and bitter all Muslims belong to the success of the Chaghatai state. Out of this SW 'a branch of Islam. The turmoil, a new Turco-Mongol leader arose. religious differences between the two groups split between Sunni and Shi This was Timur, best known in the West as resulted in the closing of the main route to reflects a dis,zgreement over Tamurlane, or Timur the Lame, in reference Mecca and hastened the decline of Persian the selection of caliph. The cultural influence in the region.9 Shi "a felt that the leader of to his limp. Born near Samarkand around the Islamic community should 1330 to the chief of a small tribe, his con- be a blood relative of the quests stretched from the city of Delhi in the Meanwhile, Bukhara became known as a Prophet, while the Sunni Indian subcontinent to Asia Minor, where he major center of Islamic studies and was argued that the Prophet's defeated the forces of the young Ottoman called "the pillar of Islam" because of the successor should be chosen on Empire in 1402. Timur made the city of large number of scholars it produced. The the basis of merit. Today, influence of Sufism expanded in Central Sunni and Shi 'a also differ in Samarkand his capital, and he spared no the nature of their religious expense in rebuilding and beautifying the Asia as well as to the south and east. Sufism hierarchies and In their city. Artists, scholars, and craftsmen from is a form of Islamic mysticism which practice of certain rituals. conquered lands were resettled in Samarkand emphasizes a believer's personal relationship to mark the city as a center of the arts and with God and the importance of spiritual learning. Samarkand's intellectual heritage purity. Several Sufi orders, known as influenced scholars in the Arab world and in brotherhoods, became popular in the region. Europe. Its legacy includes important books Each brotherhood was centered around a on Islam by Saad al-Din Taftazani, propaga- shrine dedicated to its founder, and these tion of the powerful Nasqshbandiyya Sufi shrines became important pilgrimage sites order, and most importantly, the astronomi- for the local population, in part because of cal observations of Timur's grandson, Ulugh the lack of access to Mecca. The Sufi orders Beg. With his gigantic observatory in were instrumental in convertingCentral Sarnarkand, Ulugh Beg was able to make Asia's nomadic population to Islam. precise astronomical calculations which were later translated into Latin and influenced the work of Tycho Brahe and Nicholas Coper-

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Central Asia Under Russian and Soviet The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 brought Influence the Russian Empire to an end. At first, the The gradual decline of the Central Asian Central Asians expected the rise of Commu- kingdoms gave the growing Russian empire nism to improve their position. However, the new opportunities for expansion. In the Bolsheviks doubted the loyalty of the middle of the sixteenth century, Tsar Ivan Central Asians, and they refused to allow the Terrible annexed two Muslim kingdoms Muslim participation in the region's new along the Volga river. These were the Khan- government. Parts of southern Central Asia ates of Kazan and Astrakhan. The Russians declared their independence and attempted to implemented policies later continued by their secede, but government forces brutally sup- Soviet successors, including the suppression pressed this movement. of Islam and the importation of large numbers of Russian peasants. Motivated by the Once the Bolsheviks had solidified their desire to spread the teachings of the Russian power, they began to reorganize Central Orthodox Church, they destroyed mosques Asia. By 1920, the major independence and schools throughout the area and tried to movements had been crushed although forcibly convert the population. pockets of resistancecalled Basmachi, or "bandits," by the Sovietscontinued to hold In Central Asia, the Russians first penetrated until the 1930's. Thc area of the General the area of modern-day Kazakhstan. By Governorship was reorganized as the Turki- 1865, they had reached as far as Tashkent, stan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic the capital of modern-day Uzbekistan. The under the direct control of the larger Russian Russians established Tashkent as the capital republic. Between 1924 and 1936, the Turki- of the General Governorship of Turkistan, stan republic was divided into five smaller from which almost all of Central Asia even- republics, each a separate entity within the tually came to be administered. Russian Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. domination brought significant changes. Large numbers of Russian citizens moved Soviet interest in Central Asia was due into the region, especially into Kazakhstan. largely to the need for raw materials located New transportation systems were deveiopcd, there, including cotton, oil and natural gas, including the Trans-Caspian and Orenburg- and various minerals. Few of Central Asia's Tashkent railroads. Extensive cotton cultiva- resources were actually processed within its tion was initiated throughout the region's borders. Cotton was delivered to textile fertile lands; Russian demand for cotton factories in other republics, iron and other increased dramatically during the American metals were refined outside the region, oil Civil War, when a Union blockade halted and gas were transported elsewhere, and exports from the Confederate states. even the electricity produced in Central Asia supplied power for other republics. The The Central Asians resented their treatment Soviet's intensive exploitation of Central under Russian rule. The General Governor- Asia's natural resources has resulted in ship denied them citizenship, relegating them serious environmental problems, including to inferior legal status. The Russians the drastic shrinking of the Aral Sea, pesti- generally lived in separate communities and cide contamination, and radiation poisoning. viewed the Central Asians as backwards and uneducated. Tensions between the two The alternating promotion and discourage- groups inspired a number of religiously ment of various identities became an impor- motivated revolts throughout the last decade tant part of Soviet policy in Central Asia. of the nineteenth century. This was followed For example, during the 1930s, the Soviets in 1916 by a large-scale uprising, which was discouraged certain aspects of indigenous precipitated by Russian plans to draft culture that would inhibit the region's ties Central Asians for noncombat military with Russia and the larger Soviet Union. service but actually represented Vie culmina- Russian became the official language, and tion of years of anger and frustration against the Russian population in Central Asia made the Russian occupation. few attempts to learn the local languages.

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The Soviets dictated changes in the Central judges. Through cooperation with the Asian alphabets twice. In 1926, the alphabet Soviets, they safeguarded certain aspects of for the Turkic and Tajik languages was Islamparticularly the educational changed from Arabic to Latin, and then to systemfrom further disruption. Cyrillic in 1938. In contrast, private Islam existed in opposi- The Soviets also implemented policies to tion to the Soviet state. It was composed reduce or eliminate religious loyalties. Dur- essentially of a series of underground ing the period 1920-28, they were relatively mosques, schools, and Sufi brotherhoods. lenient in this regard. They declared Friday a Extremely conservative in nature, it was day of rest for Muslim religious observance, centered around various tribal, village, and allowed Muslim religious courts to try both ethnic organizations. While public Islam civil and criminal cases, and permitted the preserved historical legacy, private Islam traditional religious endowmentsknown in contributed to the perpetuation of Arabic as waqfsto support mosques and individuals' Muslim identities. other religious needs. However, after 1928, the Soviets began a brutal campaign of Central Asia After Independence religious oppression. Religious courts were Under the reforms introduced by Mikhail closed, the waqfs were seized, religious Gorbachev, the republics of the Soviet officials were imprisoned, and all pilgrim- Union began to acquire greater control over ages to Mecca were stopped. Only those their internal affairs. In some republics, this mosques under official state control were encouraged the drive for independence and permitted to function. separation from the Soviet Union. While the Central Asian republics began to enjoy These and other forms of religious persecu- greater cultural, economic, and religious tion continued until 1940, when Stalin's freedoms, they did not actively campaign for need to build support for the Soviet war independence. In part, this was because most effort in World War II led to a lifting of of Central Asia's leaders were conservative restrictions on religious practice. A limited members of the Communist party who saw number of pilgrims were allowed to travel to Moscow's reforms as an opportunity to Mecca, and weater public religious obser- develop their own power bases. Unlike the vance was allowed. Stalin also established leaders of the European republics, Centa.al four spiritual directorates as official state- Asian leaders were able to strengthen their sanctioned representatives of Islamic positions by supporting educational and reli- learning. One was located in Tashkent and gious institutions, promoting various ethnic served Central Asia. These relatively liberal arts and cultures, and advancing the use of policies continued until 1960, when Nikita indigenous Lnguages. This helped them Khrushchev began a brief but vigilant establish political legitimacy and discourage campaign against all religious activity. Once most potential sources of opposition. The again, mosques and schools were closed, but Communist Party was officially banned in the level of persecution began to generate the newly independent states, but in public sympathy, and the government lifted Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan, some of its restrictions in response. former Communist Party officials were able to maintain power by simply changing the A direct consequence of Soviet religious name of the party. The strong presence of persecution was the creation of separate ex-Communist officials in the new govern- public and private spheres of Islam. Public ments has limited broader political participa- Islam resided with the state-sponsored tion, and opposition parties are often banned mosques and religious authorities. These or harassed. authorities and institutions were instruments of the Soviet state and were used to dissemi- Islam in Central Asia is probably not now nate propaganda, but they nevertheless strong enough to serve as a vehicle for spon- helped preserve the scholastic traditions of taneous political organization. Historically, Islam and the role of Islamic scholars and the region and its people have been located ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

at the periphery of the Muslim world; this is Central Asian countries have recently particularly true of the Kazakhs. As a result become members of the Economic Coopera- of this relative isolation, compounded by tion Organization, originally formed between seventy years of Soviet interference in reli- Iran, Turkey, and Pakistan. The Central gious affairs, most Central Asians lacka Asian states have also formed a common secure knowledge of Islamic law and his- market amongst themselvesthe United tory. Even the more radical Islamists say States of Central Asiawhich will include that years of education would be required common trade and taxation policies as well before Central Asians could implement as unified efforts to save the Aral Sea. systems of Islamic government. In addition to its primary role as a religion, Islam will As the Central Asians face the chIllenge of surely continue to serve as a major element reorganizing their societies, they arc examin- in the cultural identity of Central Asians. If ing the societies of neighboring countries, economic and other problems continue, trying to determine whether similar models attempts may be made to use Islam as a will work at home. Most Central Asians vehicle for political mobilization. favor the model of Turkey: a strong secular government with respect for cultural and Economic problems remain at the forefront religious identities. In addition, Central of Central Asia's concerns. The region's Asia's Turkic peoples arc ethnically related population is growing at a rapid rate, as high 10. This rate is comparatively to the Turks of Turkey. For its part, Turkey high. The average annual as three percent annually some areas."' is seeking to establish strong political and population growth rate is Unemployment is rising. Under the Soviet economic relations with Central Asia. 1.7% worldwide, although It system, Central Asian workers rexived varies considerably among minimal education and training, leaving Islam serves as another bridge to the outside countries. In the Middle East them ill-prepared to independently manage and Africa, the annual world, especially to the Muslim countries of population growth rates tend the region's industries. The most skilled seg- the Middle East and North Africa. Several of to be significantly higher than ment of Central Asian society is the ethnic these countries have provided economic aid this, while in high-Income Russians, and although the Central Asians to assist in the revival of Islamic sentiment. industrialized countries like would like the Russians to leave, their econ- These funds, primarily from Saudi Arabia, the United States, Europe, and omies would instantly suffer as a result. Japan, they are much lower. have already had a dramatic effect. In 1989 there were only 160 mosques in Centrrl Thk. new countries of Central Asia continue Asia, while today there are over 5,000; for a to be economically dependent on Russia. time, as many as ten new mosques were The Russian ruble is the currency used by opening every day. Saudi Arabia has shipped all five Central Asian states, and Russia is large numbers of (beans to Central Asia the economic center of the Commonwealth and has sponsored pilgrims to the holy cities of Independeot States. Nonetheless, Russia's of Mecca and Medina. Central Asian stu- prominent position has not prevented other dents arc also being sent abroad for religious countries from making economic overtures education, to Pakistan as well as to Middle to the new Central Asian nations. With their Eastern countries. supplies of oil, natural gas, and other pre- cious resources, the countries of Central The countries of Central Asia face a Asia could qAckly become sought-after troubled and complicated future. Even with trading partners. In return for their resources, the help of their more prosperous neighbors, thc Central Asians hope to obtain economic economic development will be difficult. and developmental assistance. Israel has Political tensions and environmental prob- already provided assistance in repairing lems threaten to strain relations between the irrigation systems in Uzbekistan and five new nations. The next decade will bring Turkmenistan, preferring payment in raw many challenges, but for the first time in materials rather than rubles. Similar arrange- centuries, the people of Central Asia have ments may be made with the Iranians, who the opportunity to meet these challenges on have the expertise to help Central Asia their own terms. develop its oil industry. In addition, all five

34 el (_) 1.7 ARAB WORM ALMANAC 1993

Cyrillic Arabic

Letters English sound Letters English sound A a. a, as in father I a, as in sat or caught 336 b 1-r b 13 JE3 V 7 7 g, as in 4et 4.!., th, as in mouth la n d 't j, as in jar E e ye, as in yes C. hard h, as in hot* yo t guttural kh* X )1( zsh, as in pleasure .1 d 3 3 z .") th, as in that VI z ee, as in meet .i r IA y, as in boy .) z K K k c.s* s II TI 1, as in let sh M ivi m 00 s, as in sorry* H H n oi, d, as in dot' 0 o stressed, o as in pot Jo ta, as in taught" unstressed, a as in baron Ja th, as in other FI n- p e- consonant made by saying ah P p rolling r and quickly tensing the throat* C c s, as in six E guttural gh, as in ghoul' T -r t Y y oo, as in food 3 q, as in quail' f ,t) k X x guttural kh* J i LI.LT, m ts, as in cats (4 ch, as in church 4.:i n In sh, as in shine * h, as in happy

1.1-11-1-1, ssh* 1 w, as in work no sound* or ou, as in soon hI Ell glottal e* a y, as in yes ED b no sound+ or ee, as in seem D e, as in pet ) short u, as in put (placed above IG R.D yu, as in yule the consonant it follows) cl ya, as in yard . short a or e, as in bed (placed above the consonant it follows) . short i, as in hit (placed below the consonant it follows)

* No direct English equivalent; closest English approximationgiven # Creates a syllabic brcak in the word (after "hard"consonants) + Creates a syllabic break in the word(after "soft" consonants)

35 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

EastWest Trade Routes

41 36 Central Asia Today Ukraine Kazakhstan Russia Lake Balkhash Black Sea Aral Sea %Syr Darya Alma A ta Georgia Caspian Sea f Uzbekistan 1 Bishkek Issyk Kul Turkey Azerbaijan Turkmenistan B ukhara Samarkand T ke / Kyrgyzstan 413 China * A shgabat Arnu Darya . Dushanbe Tajikistan Iraq Iran Afghanistan Pakistan India ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

Land and Population in Central Asia

Total Land Area Natural Country (square miles) Resources Population' Ethnic Composition

oil, lead, iron, 40% Kazakh2 copper,tungsten, 38% Russian Kazakhstan 1,049,200 zinc, uranium, 16,463,000 6% German manganese 16% other (Uighurs, Koreans, Uzbeks, Tajiks, Ukrainian, and Kyrgyz)

gold, mercury, 52% Kyrgyz3 uranium, zinc, 22% Russian Kyrgyzstan 76,642 lead 4,258,000 13% Uzbek 13% other (Tajiks, Kazakhs, Germans, and Ukrainians)

coal,uranium, 62% Tajile mica, gold 24% Uzbek Tajikistan 54,019 5,090,000 8% Russian 6% other (Kyrgyz, Turkmen, and Kazakhs)

oil, natural gas, 72% Turkmen5 coal, gypsum, 9% Russian Turkmenistan 188,417 barite 3,512,000 9% Ukrainian 10% other (Uzbeks and Kazakhs)

coal, sulphur, '71% IJibek6 copper, oil, 8% Russian Uzbekistan 172,700 gold, uranium 19,808,000 5% Tajik 16% other (Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and Turkmen)

'All figures based on 1989 Soviet census.

21n addition, there arc over 500,000 Kazakhs in the Southern Ural Mountains of Russia and 1,000,000 in the Xinjiang province of China.

31n addition, slightly over 100,000 Kyrgyz reside in the Xinjiang province of China.

41n addition, approximately 3,000,000 Tajiks live in neighboring Afghanistan.

5More than 3,000,(XX) Turkmen live outside of Cent-al Asia. Most reside in Iran, but there are also small communities in Syria and Iraq.

6The 1989 census incorporates the Karakalpaks into the figures provided for Uzbeks. 4 4

38 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

The Aral Sea in Crisis

The plight of the Aral Sea represents one of the Afghanistan. In addition, high concentrations of greatest man-made environmental disasters of all chemical fertilizers and pesticides were used to time. Once occupying an area of 26,000 square boost crop yield. These innovations soon began to miles, th" Aral was the fourth largest sea in the take their toll on the land. world. ", oday, it has shrunk to approximately 15,500 square miles, and it has dropped from fourth The first anomalies in the region's ecosystem to seventh place in size. Scientists estimate that by appeared in the early 1960s, but radical the year 2000, the Aral will be reduced to a series environmental effects did not appear until the of lakes covering a mere 2,000 square miles. 1980s. Fishing villages that once bordered the sea are now almost 40 miles from the shore. The poor No single plan or project was responsible for the construction and maintenance of irrigation systems shrinking of the Aral. The primary reason for the has contributed to the salinization of large sections sea's destruction has been the diversion of the of farmland and has contaminated drinking water. Aral's water supply to irrigate surrounding Health problems have skyrocketed, especially farmland. Central Asia's two major rivers, the Amu among the people who live closest to theAral. Darya and the Syr Darya, have traditionally flown into the Aral after their long journeys from the Just before the break-up of the Soviet Union, the Pamir and Tien Shan mountains in Tajikistar Soviet government began to recognize the scope of Kyrgyzstan, and western China. Along the way, the Aral Sea disaster. With the demise of the these rivers pass through all five Central Asian USSR, Central Asia now faces the Aral's problems countries. They play an essential part in Central on its own. Currently, the new CentralAsian Asian agriculture, and they also supply drinking governments lack both the financial resources and water and sanitation to a great number of people. technical experience to effectively address the situation. Compounding the issue, agriculture Irrigated agriculture in Central Asia dates back to remains Central Asia's largest industry, and efforts will ancient times; canals dating back toB.C.4000 have to reverse health and environmental problems been found in present-day Turkmenistan. However, certainly reduce at least the short-term extent and under Russian and Soviet rule, the nature and scale intensity of agricultural activity in the region. of agricultural production in Central Asia changed drastically. The Soviets saw the region as a supply Increased global awareness about the environment of raw materials and agricultural goods. Central has begun to mobilize international efforts to save Asia produced 95% of the USSR's cotton, the the Aral. The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro cultivation of which depended almost completely on focused worldwide media attention on the Aral's water from the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya. In plight, and in his best-selling book The Earth in order to achieve high production levels, the Soviets Balance, Vice-President Al Gore gave special used heavy machinery to build vast irrigation mention to the Aral Sea crisis. Currently, systems. Large canals were constructed, including international groups are working on a variety of the gigantic Karal Kum canal which stretches 850 projects. Some are seeking ways to improve Central miles through the Karal Kum desert along the Asia's irrigation systems, while other are searching border between Turkmenistan, Iran, and for new and unpolluted sources of drinking water.

39 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

Steps to Environmental Crisis in Central Asia

Russians conquer and annex Central Asia

Russian demand for cotton increases during U.S. Civil War

Central Asia seen as source of agricultural supplies for Russia; heavy emphasis on cotton production

USSR seeks self-sufficiency incottlon;becomes net-exporter by 1937

Soviets build large-scale irrigation projects Widespread use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides

Poorly constructed and Diversion of water upsets the Aral's natural balance of Misuse and maintained irrigation evaporation and replenishment overuse of systems result in over- fertilizers and irrigation and pesticides salinization of land poisons ground and drinking water

Destruction of By 1965, the Aral's water level begins to drop Widespread farmland, depletion of health soil's nutrients, problems: By the late 1970s. the flow of water into the Aral stops reduction of crop yield cancer, completely anemia, birth defects Rapid evaporation begins

Aral's diameter decreases, making the remaining water more saline and leaving huge, salt-filled deserts behind 1

Salt, sand, and dust arc blown into the atmosphere Fishing industry destroyed Salt settles Increase in Salinization Changes in on farmland, respiratory of drinking regional weather rendering it and eye and irrigation conditions; infertile problems, water summers become throat hotter, winters cancer become colder

40 40 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

Suggested Background References

Ellis, William. `The Aral: A Soviet Sea Lies Dying." nature of United States foreign policy in the National Geographic, Vol. 177, No. 2, February region. 1990. (pages 72-93) Soviet Central Asia: The Failed Transformation. Focuses on the causes and effects of the Aral Edited by William Fierman. Boulder: Westview Sea disaster, as well as efforts to repair the Press, 1991. (328 pages) environmental damage. Features maps and full various color photographs. A compilationofessaysfrom scholars, this book surveys the Soviet impact "Land of the Great Silk Road." The Wilson Quarterly, on Central Asia, including ethnic Vol. 26, No. 3, Summer 1992. (pages 19-61) relationships,political and economic developments, and the status of women. This edition features four articles on Central Asia. Subjects include the history of the silk Wright, Robin. "Report From Turkestan." The New roads and the period before Russian conquest, Yorker, Vol. 58, April 6, 1992. (pages 53-75) the architectural legacy of Samarkand, Central Asia under Russian rule, and the emergence Written after the author's travels throughout of an independent Central Asia. Includes a most of Central Asia this article reports on detailed reading list. personalinterviewswithCentralAsians, reflecting their fears, hopes, and dreams about "Muslims in the USSR." Aramco World, Vol. 41, No. independence and the future of their society. 1, January-February 1990. Periodical Resources An entire issue dedicated to the Muslims of Central Asia and Azcrbaijan. Articles include Central Asia Monitor, RR. 2, Box 6880, Fair Haven, a historical overview of Central Asia,Islam's VT, 05743 reaction to Soviet rule, and personal travel accounts from journeys throughout the region. A bimonthly publication that focuses on the Featuresanassortmentoffullcolor five independent countries of Central Asia. updates, photographs. Features economic and political profiles of leaders and ethnic groups, as well Olcott, Martha Brill. "Central Asia's Catapult to asscholarlyexaminationsofdifferent Independence." Foreign Affairs, Summer 1992. problems and developments. (pages 108-130) UmidHope, Journal of the Turkistanian American An excellent overview of the difficulties Association, 2302 West 13th Street, Ave W, facing the new countries of Central Asia Brooklyn, NY 11223 duringtheirtransitiontoindependence. Special attentionis given to political and Publishedtwice a year,thispublication economic developments, especially relations examines the politics as well as the culture of with Russia. Central Asia. Produced by Americans of CentralAsian heritage,pastissues have leaders and Rupert,James."DatelineTashkent:Post-Soviet featured profiles of political Central Asia." Foreign Policy, Summer 1992. historical figures, essays on Central Asian (pages 175-195) literature, as well as regional cuisine.

An examination of the myths and realities behind the independence of Central Asia. Topics include a brief appraisal of political developments in the five new countries, the character of Islam in Central Asia, and the

41 Government andDemocracy in the ArabWorld ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

Lesson Plan Government & Democracy in the Arab World

"Democratic" is not among the terms most for secular democratic reform arc also grow- observers would use to describe the Arab ing. Arab leaders are increasingly recogniz- world. Instead, single-party states, family ing the imperative for popular participation monarchies, and military regimes dominate in government, and several have responded the region's political spectrum. by holding new elections and easing restrictions on the press and on the formation of In contrast, early Arab and Islamic traditions political parties. Some view these develop- embodied many democratic principles, in- ments as real steps towards the establishment cluding an egalitarian social structure, ac- of democracy in the region, while others countability between ruler and ruled, and the consider them as attempts to win legitimacy practice of community consensus in deciding for current regimes rather than to empower disputes and selecting leaders. Although the general population. these principles continue to be recognized today, they have not been generally applied since the region came to be dominated by a succession of family dynasties, beginning in Lesson Objectives the middle of the seventh century. After completing this lesson, students The last of the great Islamic dynasties was should be able to: the Turkish Ottoman dynasty. Its decline in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries led Identify some of the democratic tradi- Muslims to address the sources of stagnation tions practiced by the bcdouin Arabs and by in their societies. Some searched for solu- early Muslims tions within the original framework and inte:nions of Islam, while others believed Explain how European colonialism in the that the adoption of European institutions Arab world created conditions that ultimately would lead to the same prosperity then being made the development of democratic institu- experienced in the West. Later, Arab nation- tions more difficult alists seeking independence from the Euro- peans cited democratic principles in their Identify the three general patterns of calls for self-determination. government in the Arab world and discuss the characteristics of each that inhibit demo- Despite historical precedents and the cratic reform wisespread support of democratic ideas throughout the Arab world, stable, Discuss thc factors and conditions that democratic governments have failed to have contributed to demands for reform develop. Contributing factors include domes- among the Arab people tic conditions as well as regional and international problems. Combined, they have Compare and contrast differing view- created a fragile and unstable political points regarding the compatibility of Islam environment which has deterred democratic and democracy reform. Give examples of democratic reforms The Arab people are increasingly voicing instituted by some Arab governments their dissatisfaction with the current state of their societies, and they are demanding change. The Islamic resurgence is in part a reflection of this dissatisfaction, but demands

4 :3

44 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

Classroom Exercises and Activities have real changes in this direction been made by regional governments. Discuss Distribute copies of the essay "Govern- possible reasons why this development is ment and Democracy in the Arab World." occuring now rather than ten, twenty, or The following discussion questions focus on thirty years ago; consider domestic, region- the essay's main themes and further the al, and international factors. For example, lesson objectives outlined above. how might increasing educational opportunities and higher literacy rates affect popu- 1. Discuss the traditions and practices of lar calls for democracy? In what ways has the Arab bedouin and early Muslims that your own education prepared you to par- were listed in the essay. How do they ticipate in a democratic society? reflect democratic principles? Although these traditions have been incorporated 6. Some governments have responded to into Islamic law, they are not necessarily popular demand and liberalized their politi- observed in practice. What factors might cal systems through such actions as nation- have contributed to the discrepancy be- al elections, lifting restrictions on the tween theory and practice? Can you think press, and legalizing opposition political of similar discrepancies in other major parties. These developments are viewed by world religions? some as concrete steps toward democracy, and by others as attempts merely to main- 2. Identify some of the historical condi- tain the status quo. Discuss the validity of tions mentioned in the essay that gave rise each perspective. Are they mutually exclu- to attempts at reform in the Middle East in sive? the nineteenth and early tw,tieth centuries. How do these conditic,as compare with those of today? Discuss the approach- Distribute copies of the country profiles es to reform that have arisen in response that appear on pages 54-57. The questions to these conditions. In what ways are the below are based on these profiles and as- approaches of the Islamist and secular sume that students have read or arefamiliar movements similar? Different? To what with the content of the essay "Government Information for these country and Democracy in the Arab World." profiles was compiled from the extent do they share the same goals? Central Intelligence Agency's World Faetbook 1991,The 3. Describe how Eumpean and American 1. Review the "official government type" World Bank'sWorld influence has affected the process of state listed for each country. What are the two Development Report1992, and formation in the Arab world. How has it most common? In theory, how would you Duskin Publishing'sThe East, 3rd edition, 1990. encouraged democratic reform? How has it characterize the differences between a Middle hindered the development of democracy in monarchy and a republic? From what you the region? Give examples to support your know about various Arab countries and answers. from the profiles provided, are the theoret- ical differences between republics and 4. List some of the obstacles to democracy monarchies evident in the actual organiza- mentioned in the essay. Which are beyond tion of Arab governments? Give examples the ability of individual leaders or govern- that support your answers. Do you think ments to address? Which result from the the prospects for democratic reform are dominance of the state and state institu- greater in those Arab countries categorized tions? In what ways are citizens limited in as republics or in those categorized as their ability to call for political reform monarchies? Why? (consider the totalitarian state, the oil kingdom, and the multiparty state)? 2. Identify the various means by which current leaders have come to power in the 5. Since before the Arab countries Arab world (see the category "head of achieved independence, nationalists and state"). What does this suggest about long- others have been calling for democratic term government stability in the region? reform. Yet, only in the last few years Discuss how this might affect the pros-

45 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

pects for democratic reform. changes at this time? Discuss possible scenarios of what might have happened 3. The legal systems in most Arab coun- had these reforms not been instituted. tries are based on several different codes of law. Discuss the advantages and disad- 3. Discuss the relationship between a free vantages this might present as people and press and the democratic process. Why is a governments alike seek to reform their free press considered essential for democ- political systems. racy to flourish? In which countries were restrictions on the press eased? In how 4. Identify countries with relatively high many cases does this decision appear to GNP per capita ($6,000 and up). What, if have been later reversed or compromised? anything, do these countries have in com- What incentives might a government have mon in terms of government type, for restricting the press? In your opinion, suffrage, political parties, and elections? would such an action ever be justifiable in Answer the same question for countries a democracy? with lower GNPs. Hypothesize about the relationship between economic prosperity, 4. In all four of the countries listed on the demands for democratic reform, and the timeline, elections have been held recently. predisposition of governments to liberalize In each case, which parties/constituencies the political system. won a majority? What conclusions might you draw from these results regarding a) 5. The essay "Government and Democracy the extent to which the elections were fair, in the Arab World" suggests that higher and b) the general population's desire for education levels facilitate the development change? of democratic institutions and practices. Do the literacy rates provided in the country profiles substantiate this hypothesis (are Pages 62-64 contain perspectives on the countries that exhibit higher literacy democracy held by various Arab leaders and rates those that have a longer or stronger journalists. The following questions encour- record of political reform)? What factors age students to compare and contrast these that affect the overall literacy rate might diverse views and their implications. you also want to consider? (For example, differences between urban and rural areas I. Based on the excerpt from Abu Bakr's in both literacy and the ability to influence accession speech (A), what are the respon- government policies.) sibilities of a just Muslim leader? What obligations does the leader have towards his followers? How similar or different is On pages 58-61 is a timeline of events this relationship between leader and people leading to reform in Algeria, Jordan, Kuwait, to that in a democracy? and Yemen. Distribute the timeline to students and allow time for them to review it 2. Discuss the differences and similarities before raising the questions below. between the standard definition of democracy and the definition given by Libyan 1. Identify the conditions and/or events leader Muammar al-Qadhafi (B). Could the that appear to have served as catalysts for United States be considered a democracy democratic reform in the four countries by the latter definition? Is the implementa- listed. Which occur in more than one tion of Qadhafi's proposed government country? Which in only one country? organization sufficient to guarantee the development of a democratic system? Do 2. Identify the responses of the Algerian, you think there can be different forms of Jordanian, Kuwaiti, and Yemeni govern- democracy? Explain your answers. ments to the conditions and events dis- cussed in #1 above. What do you think 3. Other political parties in Algeria feared motivated these governments to make such that if the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS)

46 51 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

won the national elections, its leaders compatibility of Islam and democracy. would reverse recent moves toward de- Would your conclusions be similar or mocracy and rule by Islamic law. Based different concerning the compability of on the quote by FIS leader Ali Belhadj Christianity and Judaism with democracy? (C). do you think these fears were justi- fied? To what extent do you find Belhadj's 5. King Hussein of Jordan has bcen one of arguments convincing? Discuss possible the most vocal of Arab leaders in support reasons why the FIS attracted such a of democracy. In his speech (G), he identi- significant following. fies a number of factors conuibuting to other governments' failures to reform their 4. Compare and contrast the views con- political systems. How do these compare cerning Islam and democracy expressed by with the obstacles to democracy identified Ali Belhadj (C), Hassan al-Turabi (D), in the essay "Government and Democracy Fahmi Howeidi (E), and Rachid Ghannou- in the Arab World"? To be successful, the chi (F). Consider the role of popular par- king must address the concerns of those ticipation and sovereignty, the nature of advocating seculai ...form as well as the governmental institutions, limits to govern- strong Islamist segment of Jordanian soci- mental power, and the role of Islam and ety. Identify components of his speech that Muslim clerics in government. After con- might have been drafted to appeal to each sidering these various perspectives, what of these audiences. generalizations can you make regarding the

47 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

Government and Democracy in the Arab World

by Robert Hurd

Robert Hurd is one of the "Democratic" is not among the words most Muhammad stressed the need to reform the editors ofArab World observers would choose to characterize the social order of Mecca. He sought to reestab- Almanac. governments of the contemporary Arab lish an egalitarian society, but this time world. Throughout the region, the basic inspired by the principles of Islam rather The editors appreciate the contributions to this essay of building blocks of democracypublic than the bonds of kinship. Dr. Susan Ziadch, director, accountability between ruler and ruled and and Ms. Nag la El-Bassiouni, the balance and sharing of power among Islam introduced to Arab society a number Senior Program Specialist, of governmental institutionsare minimal. of democratic principles that continue to AMIDEAST's Development of States dominated by singlc parties, family serve as models for Islamic behavior even Democratic Institutions project. monarchies, and military regimes dominate though they have not always been imple- the region's political spectrum. Popular mented in practice. For example, although 1. It is important to frustration over the lack of political free- Islamic law distinguishes between Muslims dirtinguish between the words doms, manifested in the rise of Islamist' and non-Muslims and between men and "Islamist" and "Islamic." groups and popular protests, has contributed women, it does not recognize differences While the latter is an adjective that describes something to an increase in human rights abuses and based on class or race. There arc no special politically, culturally, or restrictions on freedom of the press. privileges for the wealthy or powerful, and religiously related to Islam, all believers are expected to adhere to the the former is used to describe In contrast, historical evidence points to same standards of conduct. the so-called "fundamentalist" established traditions of democracy in the Muslims who call for a more political role for Islam in Arab world. The earliest such traditions in Islamic law also established community con- public life. the region were practiced by the bedouin of sensus as a means of deciding legal matters pre-Islamic Arabia. Thesz Arab nomads that are not specifically dictated in the 2. Hadith are the collected organized themselves according to kinship Qur'an or Hadith2. It does not require an sayings and instructions of the ties. An individual's loyalty was first to the Prophet Muhammad. actual vote on the issue in question, but in- Together with the Qur'an, the family, then to the clan, and finally to the, stead involves the examination of existing word of God as transmitted to tribe. At the level of the clan and tribe, the community standards surrounding the issue. Muhammad, they form the system of government was highly egali- basis of Islamic law. tarian. The group leader was chosen on the Similarly, the initial practice of selecting a basis of merit and was considered to be thc leader for the Muslim community reflected "first among equals." Decisions affecting the democratic principles, such as the account- livelihood of thc group required participa- ability of a ruler to his subjects. This tradition from everyone involved, and the leader tion began with the death of the Prophet, had no authority to impose his will. Failure who left no specific instructions regarding to fulfill his responsibilities would result in succession. The first several caliphs, or the leader's removal and his replacement by successors to the Prophet, were chosen the most worthy successor. through the agreement of the Muslim community. This practice is often cited as In cities such as Mecca, where the Prophet historical precedent to justify calls for coop- Muhammad was born inA.D.570, urban eration and consensus in Islamic societies. society had become more stratified than that of the bedouin. Mecca had developed into The fifth caliph was not selected by consen- an important center of religious and com- sus but seized the position and established mercial activity, and the wealth gained the leadership of the Muslim community as through trade and commerce broke the a hereditary position passed down through egalitarian relationships among families, his family. Thus began the first in a long clans, and tribes. series of Islamic dynasties in which political

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authority was concentrated in the hands of a new laws, and the reorganization of the ruling family, and the general Muslim popu- judicial system. The spirit of these reforms lation no longer participated in decisions influenced the Constitution of 1876, which regarding succession and related political included the creation of a cabinet, an elected issues. parliament, and guaranteed press and reli- 3. From the phrase salaf as- gious freedoms for all subjects of the salihin"the pious empire. Unfortunately, corruption and mis- ancestors" referring to the The last of the Islamic dynasties was the first generation of Muslims Turkish Ottoman dynasty, which ruled the management throughout the Ottoman gov- who were the companions of Ottoman Empire for over five hundred ernment, as well as the threat of bankruptcy, the Prophet Muhammad. years. In addition to the area of modern-day undermined the impact of the Tanzimat Turkey, the Ottoman Empire encompassed reforms and the constitution. Soon after the 4. Secular reforms in Turkey constitution was implemented, the new began on a large scale after much of the Arab world. During its decline the collapse of the Ottoman in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries sultan suspended it during a war with Empire and the establishment and the simultaneous emergence of Euro- Russia, and it was never reinstated!' of the Republic of Turkey pean powers, Muslims were forced to under the leadership of address the sources of stagnation in their The first democratic reforms in Egypt Mustafa Kemal. Kemal also appeared in 1829 when the governor, known as Ataturk "father societies. Their responses generally reflected of the Turks" redigned two distinct ideologies. The first, known as Muhammad Ali,' established an advisory Turkey's institutions of the salafiyyah3 movement, strove to reexam- council to assist in his administration of the government according to ine Islam in terms of its original principles country. One of Muhammad Ali's Western models and restricted and to remove the burden and inflexibility successors, Khedive Ismail, continued the the influence of religion in public life. imposed by centuries of rigid scholarship idea of a governing council when he estab- and interpretation. The movement's founders lished the Assembly of Delegates in 1866, claimed that Islam's compatibility with composed mainiy of wealthy Landowners. S. Scholars believe that Ismail's objective in establishing the assem- Muhammad Ali was originally modernity could be found within the re- an Albanian who came to ligion's original framework and intentions, bly was less to empower his subjects than to Egypt in 1798 to help defend and they advocated a return to these associate himself with an influential segment against Napoleon's invasion. concepts. of society and protect his position from By 1806, Muhammad Ali had outside interference. However, by 1875, consolidated his rule over Egypt's financial crisis forced Ismail to Cairo and was declared the Others looked outside the Islamic world for governor of Egypt by the models of reform, advocating the adoption initiate new taxes, angering the landowners Ottoman Sultan Selim Ill. of Western methods and ideas. Many Arabs and transforming the Assembly of Delegates Throughout his forty-year viewed the power and prosperity of Europe into a more critical and actiNist institution. reign, Muhammad Mi was as a product of its superior technology and both a vassal and a rival to Ismail's efforts to address Egypt's economic the Ottoman Empire. The democratic institutions, and they believed governorship of Egypt was that the adoption of the latter would lead to problems also angered the European powers, ultimately designated as a similar success and prosperity in their own who forced the Ottoman sultan to remove hereditary position for his societies. him in 1879. Three years later, the Egyptian heirs. military's frustration over European Throughout the nineteenth century, this sec- influence in Egypt and worsening economic ond approach inspired governmental reforms conditions culminated in a mutiny led by in the Ottoman Empire and Egypt. In the Colonel Ahmad Urabi. An invasion of Ottoman Empire, the most notable attempts British troops quickly suppressed the rebel- at building democratic institutions were the lion and marked the beginning of the British Tanzintat reforms and the Constitution of occupation of Egypt. However, in spite of 1876. Launched by Grand Vizier Reshid its failure, the Urabi rebellion inspired many Pasha in 1846, the motivating principle be- Egyptians to examine new political ideas hind the Tanzimat reforms was to transform and explore new methods of participatory government from an institution that served government. the ruler to an institution that served the people. These reforms included the develop- By the end of the first world war, European ment of provincial government councils, the control had been established over most of creation of legislative assemblies to review the Arab world. North Africa and Egypt

49 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

were under the administration of various French territory. The Fertile Crescent was European powers, and the Arab lands of the divided into French and British protector- former Ottoman Empire were divided into a ates. French officials created new systems of scrics of protectorates and mandates under government for Syria and Lebanon, includ- the admini-stration of England and France. ing Lebanon's confessional system which Although the Arab people resented Europe's divided political powe- among the country's interference in their affairs, they were at- many religious communities. British authori- tracted to Europe's systems of democratic ties indirectly controlled Jordan and Iraq, 6. British officials established government. Many Arab nationalists and dominating the monarchies that they estab- 1wo sons of the Grand Sharif others who sought to rid themselves of the lished for their Arab allies from the first of Mecca as the kings of Iraq and Transjordan in return for European presence cited democratic princi- world war,' and British officials directly their support during the Arab ples in their calls for independence. administered the region of Palestine. Revolt against the Turks. Abdullah became the king of Despite historical precedents and the wide- With the exception of Algeria and Egypt Transjordan, and Feisal spread support of democratic ideas through- under Gamal 'Abd el-Nasser, most of the became king of Iraq. In both out the Arab world, stable, democratic countries, the British Arab governments that emerged from controlled the economy and governments have failed to develop in most colonial rule had little popular support and foreign policies as well as the Arab countries. Factors contributing to this weak political legitimacy. They continued to military establishment, while failure range from domestic conditions rely on Europe for political and economic the kings supervised various within the state to regional and international support, which thereby diminished their aspects of local administration. problems that affect the region as a whole. independence and sovereignty in the eyes of Combined, they have createa a fragile and many citizens. In the wake of their colonial unstable political environment which has experiences, many Arab countries experi- deterred democratic reform. enced revolutions, coups, and similar forms of political upheaval. Today, political scientists categorize the governments of the Arab Obstacles to Democracy world into three general patterns: the totalitarian state, the oil kingdom, and the multi- European colonialism left a legacy of diffi- party state. Each pattern possesses its own cult domestic conditions in the Arab world. obstacles to the development of democratic During the colonial period, the European institutions. powers established the borders of most of the modern Arab states. In the process, they The governments of Hafez al-Assad of Syria divided regions with historical and economic and Saddam Hussein of Iraq are examples tiessuch as Sudan and Egypt, and of the totalitarian state. In both countries, Lebanon and Syriaand they merged un- the Ba'ath (Renaissance) party dominates related regions to form new countries. In the state institutions and political activity. Indi- eastern part of the Arab world, the colonial viduals with religious and ethnic ties to the powers created national boundaries where leader occupy important party and govern- none had existc,d before, and the resulting ment positions, helping to secure the states lacked a strong sense of national leader's power and providing a strong base cohesion. This contributed to political frag- of support. Censorship and political repres- mentation and instability which continues sion are widespread, and security forces and today. secret police use coercive tactics to control the general population. The leaders of these The reorganization of the Arab world's countries have few checks and balances borders brought changes in leadership. Cir- upon their authority. cumstances varied from counuy to country, as some areas were under direct colonial The oil kingdom is illustrated by the coun- administration, while others were ruled indi- tries of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the rectly through local leaders selected by the smaller Gulf monarchies. In each country, a colonial powers. In North Africa, Morocco single family exercises political authority and Tunisia were ruled as French protector- and controls the revenues generated by oil ates, while Algeria was actually annexed as

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production. During the colonial period, these mental policies. In the Arab world, restric- families maintained power with aid and tions on professional associations and assistance from the British military. Today, political activity have prevented the full they have preserved their positions through development of such organizations. In the distribution of economic benefits and response, some groups have adopted more reliance on traditional institutions such as radical methods in their attempts to institute tribal groups and family alliances. These reforms. governments have developed large bureau- cracies, but real political power remains in Until recent years, limited educational op- the hands of the ruling families. Popular portunities and widespread illiteracy contrib- political participation is extremely limited, uted to a lack of awareness of democratic and in many cases, civil liberties and free- principles and values. In the past, discus- dom of the press are restricted. sions of democracy were limited to the educated minority, while most people had Multiparty states, like Egypt, Jordan, Yemen little exposure to democratic ideas or and Tunisia, provide for greater political arguments for political reform. participation than do the totalitarian states or the oil kingdoms. They possess written The issue of politically motivated aid has constitutions and active, representational been another impediment to democratiza- parliaments, but the executive branch is the tion. During the cold war, various states dominant political authority and it usually throughout the region aligned themselves rules in close association with the military. with the United States or the Soviet Union For the most part, the executive branch uses in return for military and economic support. popular participation to secure support for The United States, eager to prevent Soviet its rule rather than to encourage competition advances in the region and to secure West- or empower political rivals. ern supplies of oil, supported regimes that were friendly towards American interests In all three governmental patterns described regardless of their domestic political above, the dominance of the state and state systems. The Soviets did likewise. institutions serve as an obstacle to demo- With the collapse of the Soviet Union in the cracy. Throughout the Arab world, the state fall of 1991, the United States emerged as is the largest single employer. Between the the single global superpower. It is unclear military and government bureaucracy com- whether the Soviet demise will ultimately bined, some governments employ over result in democratic reforms in this region, twenty percent of their populations. In addi- as some observers have predicted. The tion, the state frequently controls most of United States has the stated goal of support- the country's natural resources, finances, ing and encouraging democratic develop- and major industries. Employees of state ments elsewhere in the world, but scholars institutions are unlikely to push actively for and diplomats alike continue to debate to democratic reforms for fear of jeopardizing what extent the United States should wel- their jobs. For its part, the state can often come parties or policies that promote demo- generate political support and quell popular cratic principles but which might be anger and resentment through special pro- opposed to U.S. interests in the region. grams and subsidies without actually reforming government practices. As the Gulf war demonstrated, the United States has made the protection and security The pervasive nature of the state in the of Arab oil a major focus of its foreign Arab world has hindered the development of policy in the region. Although the Gulf political, economic, and professional organi- countries have attempted to make regional zations that promote and protect the interests security arrangements to protect against of citizens. In parts of the world where foreign aggression, they continue to rely these organizations have developed freely, upon Western countries, especially the they empower citizens and provide the United States, to assist in matters of ni..ional opportunity to lobby for changes in govern- security. This reliance includes special sales

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of military equipment as well as pledges of either in state institutions or the private Western assistance in the face of foreign sector. Those who do manage to find work aggression. These special relationships often can barely survive on their salaries. between Western leaders and the ruling Combined with high population growth rates families of the Gulf have led to what some and a migration of people from rural to consider contradictions in American foreign urban areas, the Arab employment crisis has policy; rather than endorsing movements for become more serious in recent years, greater democratization, the United States affecting larger and larger segments of the has pledged support for the ruling families population. which themselves often discourage or repress such movements. Other sources of popular frustration include the failure of Arab leaders to solve disputes of special significance to both Arabs and The Demand for Change Muslims. The most notable examples are the Arab-Israeli conflict and the Gulf war. Despite the numerous obstacles to demo- These disputes relate to feelings at the core cratic reform, the Arab people are increas- of Arab and Islamic identity, such as the ingly voicing their dissatisfaction with the notions of Arab unity and the universal current state of their societies. As a whole, brotherhood of Islam. In the case of the the region is suffering from a host of Arab-Israeli conflict, Arab leaders have been economic, social, and political difficulties, unable to liberate Palestinian land or achieve and as conditions worsen, feelings of alien- a territorial compromise with Israel, and ation and hostility towards governing accompanying these failures are huge finan- authorities are growing. Many people now cial and human losses and the frustration of feel that their governments are unable to defeat in numerous Arab-Israeli wars. The solve the problems facing Arab society. Gulf war and the Western-led destruction of Iraq further contributed to Arab feelings of Economic troubles are perhaps the most se- resentment. The inability to find an Arab vere. Many of the large, state-controlled, solution to the original dispute between Iraq national industries have become bloated and and Kuwait and the resulting polarization of unproductive, and the development plans of the region is a source of anger and even the wealthier Gulf countries have been embarrassment for many Arabs. hurt by the decline in global oil prices. Still the center of economic activity, the state can No other single movement within the Arab no longer provide sufficient jobs or new world has been able to capitalize on the sources of revenue. Unemployment levels current discontent like the growing Islamic are rising, and many Arab countries face resurgence. While movements in Algeria, serious international debt. In light of these Egypt, Tunisia, and Jordan are the most problems, many experts believe that the visible, Muslims throughout the Arab world only solution is greater privatization and a are mobilizing into different groups and loosening of state economic controls. Both associations. While they may promote dif- developments require a greater degree of ferent means of accomplishing their goals, government accountability and public partic- all share the desire to build societies cen- ipation to ensure a stable economic environ- tered around Islamic law. Some groups have ment and to restore public confidence in adopted radical programs that include vio- domestic investment opportunities. lent attacks against the state, but others follow more peaceful agendas and work Poor economic conditions have hit the within the political system. In Algeria, educated as well as the uneducated. In re- Jordan, and Egypt, Muslim groups have de- cent years, educational opportunities for veloped successful educational and public both men and women have proliferated, and service programs, some of which have been literacy rates have risen accordingly. How- more effective than those of state-sponsored ever, upon completing their education, many institutions. They have offered inspiration people are unable to find employment, and hope and have provided Islamic organi-

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zations with a proven record of accomplish- tions on the press and political parties. ment. These accomplishments, combined Recent developments in Jordan, Kuwait, and with their religious message and Yemen exemplify this process. Saudi Arabia motivations, have made the Islamic has pledged to create organizations that movements the chief rival to the current would assist the government in decision Arab regimes. making, such as advisory councils and consultative assemblies. Algeria represents a In evaluating the challenge of the Islamic special case. Economic problems in the late resurgence, Arab leaders have acknowledged 1980s forced the government to open the the multitude of problems facing Arab political process and hold national elections, society. While they recognize the demand but the success of a strong Islamic party, the for change, fear of losing power discourages Islamic Salvation Front, threatened the most from initiating significant reforms. ruling elite and resulted in a military take- This dilemma has provoked a variety of over which reversed earlier reforms. responses. The totalitarian states have not tolerr wl the rise of any opposition move- While the government reforms mentioned ments, Islamic or secular, and they have above represent recognition of the need for suppressed attempts at rebellion. The oil popular participation, some view them as kingdoms and multiparty states are aimed at winning new legitimacy for current searching for new sources of legitimacy and regimes rather than at empowering the gene- popular support, but they do not want to ral population. Others question to what lose their power or positions. extent the Islamic opposition would institute democratic institutions if it succeeded in The methods and patterns of reform vary obtaining power. The Arab people, just like from state to state and include attempts to everyone else in the world, want to partici- minimize the Islamic opposition as well as pate in determining the policies and deci- to reform government institutions in order to sions that affect their daily lives. It remains satisfy popular demand. Some leaders have to be seen whether the obstacles to the chosen to open their societies to greater par- development of democracy in the Arab ticipation from opposition movements by world can be surmounted and this goal holding new elections and removing restric- realized.

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Country Profiles

ALGERIA Independence date: February 28, 1922 Head of State: President Muhammed Hosni Mubarak; Official name: Democratic and Popular Republic of previously vice-president under Anwar Sadat, Algeria inaugurated after Sadat's assassination in October Official government type: republic 1981 Independence date: July 5, 1962 Suffrage: universal and compulsory at age 18 Head of State: President Ali Kali; appointed by the Constitution: September 1971 High Council of State after assassination of President Legal system: based on English Common Law, Muhammad Boudiaf in June 1992 Islamic law, and Napoleonic codes Suffrage: universal at age 18 Major government bodies: unicameral People's Constitution: November 1976 Assembly, Supreme Constitutional Court Legal system: socialist, based on French and Islamic Major political parties: National Democratic Party, law New Wafd, Socialist Labor Party, Nationalist Unionist Major government bodies: unicameral National Progressive Party, others People's Assembly, Sapreme Court Last elections: presidential elections in October 1987; Major political parties: National Liberation Front People's Assembly elections in November 1990 (FLN), Algerian Movement for Democracy (MDA), GNP per capita: $620 (1991) Front of Socialist Forces (FFS), Assembly for Culture Literacy rate: 48.4% and Democracy (RCD), Hamas (separate and distinct from the Palestinian Hamas movement) Last elections: June 1990 for town and regional IRAQ councils; December 1991 for National People's Assembly, subsequent military coup prevents Official name: Republic of Iraq implementation Official governmental type: republic GNP per capita: $2,020 (1991) Independence date: October 3, 1932 as a kingdom, Literacy rate: 57.4% July 14, 1958 as a republic Head of State: President Saddarn Hussein; formerly vice-chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council BAHRAIN and the Ba'ath party regional command, succeeded General Hasan al-Bakr, who resigned due to poor Official name: State of Bahrain health, in July 1979 Official government type: monarchy Suffrage: universal at age 18 Independence date: August 15, 1971 Constitution: July 1970; new constitution drafted in Head of State: Emir Isa bin Salman al-Khalifa; 1990 but not yet ratified succeeded his father, Salman al-Khalifa upon his Legal system: Islamic law in special religious courts, death in 1971 civil law elsewhere Suffrage: none Major government bodies: Revolutionary Command Constitution: May 1973 Council, unicameral National Assembly, Court of Legal system: based on Islamic law and English Cassation (appeal) Common Law Major political parties: Ba'ath, Progressive National Major government bodies: 30-member National Front Assembly established in 1973, dissolved in 1975; Last elections: April 1989 for National Assembly High Civil Appeals Court GNP per capita: estimated $1,500 $3,499 (1991) Major political parties: none Literacy rate: 59.7% Last elections: none GNP per capita: $6,910 (1991) Literacy rate: 77.4% JORDAN

Official name: Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan EGYPT Official government type: constitutional monarchy Independence date: May 25, 1946 Official name: Arab Republic of Egypt Head of State: King Hussein ibn Talal; ascended to Official government type: republic throne in August 1952 after abdication of his father

54 5 9 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

Suffrage: universal over age 20 Party, Amal, Independent Nasserite Movement Constitution: January 1952 Last elections: September 1992 for National Legal system: based on Islamic law and French codes Assembly Major government bodies: bicameral National ONP per capita: estimated S1,500 S3,500 (1991) Assembly; Court of Cassation (appeal) Literacy rate: 80.1% Major political parties: Mustaqbal Party, the Islamic Action Front, Al-'Ahd (The Pledge), the Unionists, Jordanian Progressive Party LIBYA Last elections: National Assembly elections held November 1989, ncxt elections to be held with Official name: Socialist People's Libyan Arab participation of political parties in November 1993 Jamahiriya GNP per capita: $1,120 (1991) Official government type: popular democracy Literacy rate: 80.1% Independence date: December 24, 1951 Head of State: Colonel Muammar al-Qadhafi, led coup that overthrew King Idris in September1969 KUWAIT Suffrage: universal and compulsory at age 18 Constitution: December 1969, amended March 1977 Official name: State of Kuwait Legal system: based on Italian civil law and Islamic Official government type: constitutional monarchy law Independence date: June 19, 1961 Major government bodies: unicameral General Head of State: Emir Jabir al-Ahmad al-Sabah; People's Congress, Supreme Court succeeded his relative Sabah al-Salim al-Sabah upon Major political parties: none his death in 1977 Last elections: none at national level Suffrage: adult males residing in Kuwait before 1920 GNP per capita: estimated $3,500 S6,000 (1991) and thcir male descendants Literacy rate: 63.8% Constitution: November 1962 Legal system: civil law system with Islamic law significant in personal matters MOROCCO Major government bodies: National Assembly, High Court of Appeal Official name: Kingdom of Morocco Major political parties: officially banned, but a Official government type: constitutional monarchy number of opposition groups exist Independence date: March 2, 1956 Last elections: October 1992 for National Assembly Head of State: King Hassan II; succeeded his father, GNP per capita: over S6,000 (1991) King Muhammad V, upon his death in 1961 Literacy rate: 73.0% Suffrage: universal over age 20 Constitution: March 1972; new constitution ratified October 1992 LEBANON Legal system: based on Islamic law and Frcnch and Spanish civil law systems Official name: Republic of Lebanon Major government bodies: unicameral House of Official government type: parliamentary republic Representatives, Supreme Court Independence date: November 22, 1943 Major political parties: National Union of Popular Head of State: President Elias Hrawi; elected by Forces, Ist'qlal (Independence), Socialist Union of Parliament after the assassination of President René Peoples' Forces, Party of Progress and Socialism, The Moawad in November 1989 Organization of Democratic and Popular Action Suffrage: compulsory for males over age 21; Last elections: House of Representatives elections in authorized for women over age 21 with elementary September 1984; next elections scheduled for June school education 1993 Constitution: May 1926 (amended) GNP per capita: S1,030 (1991) Legal system: mixture of Ottoman law, canon law, Literacy rate: 49.5% Napoleonic code, and civil law Major government bodies: unicameral National Assembly; Courts of Cassation (appeal) Major political parties: Progressive Socialist Party (PSP), Hizbullah, National Liberal Party, Phalange

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OMAN selected by the king; assembly will function similar to a parliament except members have no authority to Official name: Sultanate of Oman enact laws Official government type: monarchy Major political parties: none Independence date: 1951 Last elections: none Head of State: Sultan and Prime Minister Qaboos ibn GNP per capita: $7,070 (1990) Said; overthrew his father, Sultan Said ibn Taimur in Literacy rate: 62.4% July 1970 Suffrage: none Constitution: none SUDAN Legal system: based on English Common Law and Islamic law; ultimate appeal to the sultan Official name: Republic of the Sudan Major government bodies: State Consultative Official government type: military dictatorship Assembly (advisory function only) Independence date: January 1, 1956 Major political parties: none Head of State: Prime Minister Lt. General Umar al- Last elections: none Bashir; led military coup that overthrew the civilian GNP per capita: $5,650 (1990) government of Sadiq al-Mahdi in June 1989 Literacy rate: unavailable Suffrage: none Constitution: April 12, 1973 (suspended); interim constitution ratified October 1985 and suspended after QATAR 1989 coup Legal system: originally based on English Common Official name: State of Qatar Law and Islamic law; in January 1991, Islamic law Official government type: monarchy became the legal standard for the six northern states Independence date: September 3, 1971 under government control Head of State: Emir and Prime Minister Khalifa bin Major government bodies: Revolutionary Command Hamad al-Thani; overthrew his cousin, Ahmad al- Council, Supreme Court, special Revolutionary Courts Thani, in 1972 Major political parties: none Suffrage: none Last elections: none Constitution: April 1970 (provisional) GNP per capita: $400 (1990) Legal system: discretionary system controlled by Literacy rate: 27.1% emir; Islamic law significant in personal matters Major government bodies: unicameral Advisory Council, Court of Appeal SYRIA Major political parties: none Last elections: none Official name: Syrian Arab Republic GNP per capita: $15,870 (1990) Official government type: republic Literacy rate: 75.7% Irdependence date: April 17, 1946 Head of State: President Hafez al-Assad; organized coup d'etat against Prime Minister Nur al-Din Atasi SAUDI ARABIA and General Salah Jadid in October 1970 Suffrage: universal at age 18 Official name: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Constitution: March 1973 Official government type: monarchy Legal system: based on Islamic law and civil law Independence date: September 23, 1932 (date of system unification) Major government bodies: unicameral People's Head of State: King and Prime Minister Fahd bin Council, Supreme Constitutional Court Abd al-Aziz al-Saud; succeeded his brother, King Major political parties: Arab Socialist Renaissance Khalid, upon his death in 1982 (Ba'ath) Party, Syrian Arab Socialist Party, Arab Suffrage: none Union Socialist Party, Unionist Socialist Party, Constitution: none Communist Party of Syria Legal system: based on Islamic law, secular codes Last elections: presidential elections in February Major government bodies: Council of Ministers; 1992; People's Council elections in May 1990 Supreme Council of Justice; king pledged to establish GNP per capita: $1,110 (1991) a new advisory assembly in 1992, with members Literacy rate: 64.5%

61 56 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

TUNISIA YEMEN

Official name: Republic of Tunisia Official name: Republic of Yemen Official government type: republic Official government type: republic Independence date: March 20, 1956 Independence date: May 22, 1990 (unification date) Head of State: President Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali; led Head of State: President Ali Abdullah Saleh; former coup which removed president-for-lifeHabib President of Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen), Bourguiba in November 1987 chosen as interim president during negotiations on Suffrage: universal at age 20 unification Constitution: June 1959 Suffrage: universal at age 18 Legal system: based on French civil law and Islamic Constitution: April 1991 law Legal system: based on Islamic law, Turkish law, Major government bodies: unicameral Chamber of English Common Law, and local customary law Major government bodies: unicameral House of Deputies Major political parties: Constitutional Democratic Representatives, State Security Court Party, Tunisian Communist Party, Social Democratic Major political parties: People's General Congress, Movement Yemeni Socialist Party, al-Islah (Reform) Last elections: presidential and Chamber of Deputies Last elections: April 1993 for House of elections in April 1989 Representatives GNP per capita: S1,510 (1991) GNP per capita: $540 (1991) Literacy rate: 65.3% Literacy rate: 38.5%

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Official name: United Arab Emirates Official government type: federation of emirates Independence date: December 2, 1971 Head of State: President Shaykh Zayed bin Sultan al- Nuhayyan; appointed by the Federal Supreme Council in December 1971, reappointed 1976, 1981 Suffrage: none Constitution: December 1971 (provisional) Legal system: ; Islamic law influential; secular codes being introduced Major government bodies: Federal Supreme Council, Council of Ministers, Federal National Council,Union Supreme Court Major political parties: none Last elections: none GNP per capita: S19,870 (1990) Literacy rate: unavailable

63 57 on Pre-1989 THE COURSE OF REFORM: ALGERIA, JORDAN, KUWAIT, YEMEN JanuaryMarch 1989 AprilJune 1989 JulySeptember 1989 OctoberDecember 1989 economyOct. 1988 undermines government's Algeria's declining makingFeb. elections and political New constitution ratified, Julyallow formation of "associa- New electoral laws Algeria changeployment;commitment and demand nuts to welfare result; for political andstate em- of pluralism possible strikeexpressionandtions guarantee of a political and freedom the character" right of to emergency declared legitimateFrontSept. (NS) politicalrecognized party as Islamic Salvation priceriotsApril in increases, response lackto sharp of politi- Demonstrations and seatsheld;Nov. Islamistsin Chamber win of majority Deputies; of Parliamentary elections Jordan corruptioncal Mayfreedoms, government King Hussein lifts meritinvestigateparliamentvoter agencies;tumout andcorruption low; politicalKing Jordanian Hussein in groupsgovern - press,manymentaryprisoners, restrictionsfrees electionsmany schedules on political the for parlia- partiespledges and to legalizeend martial political law IraqJuly war1986 lead emir to suspend Tensions over Iran- November Kuwait pressed,ArabianNational representative freedoms GulfAssembly states) body (the and in allonly restrict thc elect- G Yemen G 4 January-June 1990 July-September 1990 October-December 1990 January-March 1991 municipalJune and provincial elections, PIS is biggest ss i n n er in ploymentOct.government and economic relaxes restrictions conditions; on for- Protests and riots over unem- Algeria dentialforemostNationalandFIS Algeria's winselections, Liberationloser; parliamentary ruling concerns it will Frontparty, abolish raised (FLN), andthe presi- thatthe is if mation of civic associations constitution and rule by Islamic law nianAug. cnticism of allied policies leads Iraq invades Kuwait; Jorda- completed;Dec. calls for democracy, plural- Draft of a National Charter Jordan dan'sJordanianSauditinianto expulsion biggestArabia;workers commerce of trading U.Nfrom Jordanian blockade Kuwait withpartner andIraq,.Jor- andhalts Pales- tionism, and rule of law under the constitu- Ktmalt rulingandAug. occupy family Kuwait; flees the majority country of Iraqi armed forces invade afterthatcesOct. fromNational Kuwait's capital-in-exile Assembly liberation will infrom Saudi be Iraq; restored Arabia 800 Kuwait's ruling family announ- collaboratorsabuseofMarch allied of coalition;expatriate with Iraq accountsworkers reach andof the Kuwaiti suspected Westem Iraqi occupation ends with help menYemen'sdacy subsequently for electionsdenunciation announce of anti-Iraqtheir candi- coali- pressIslamist politicians call for strengthening Yemen licMay Yemen")Yemenof Yemen Arab merge ("South Republic to Yemen")form ("North Republic and of People's Democratic Repub- regisuOfficial18-20 press political censorship parties curtailed;prepare to Saudiexpulsionforeigntion in Arabia; Gulf aid of from warYemeni unemployment resultsWestern workers in donors cutback increasesfrom and in Maytutionimportance schedoled of Islamic for popular law in referendumnew consti- in ticalpartyunifiedscheduledYemen; freedoms, c)stem leadership first for multipartywith November political guaranteesadvocates electionsparticipation, 1992; multi- of nev, poll- to further strain Yemen's economy human rights 5 C 8 AprilJune 1991 JulySeptember 1991 OrtuberDecember 1991 JanuaryMarch 1992 dulesApril first round of legislative President Bendjedid sche- electionsOct. -- President for December Bendjedid 26 schedules forcesJan. -- President Citing election I3endjedid fraud, to resign,military an- Algeria redistrictselectionsMay for voting June areas to favor National Assembly elections;participateDec. 49 in parties first round submit of candidatesmultiparty 60% of Algeria's eligible voters underindefinitelyondnuls round;first Muhammad round postponed;presidential of elections, Boudiaf ncwelections bansgovemmentcancels all non-sec- legislativestategovernmentFUN; of FIS emergency, stageselections declares stkes postpones indefinitely four-month and riots; Januaryseats;withfor 430 188 runoff seats; seats, elections HS while emerges 1;1,N scheduled winsthe victor only for 15 year-longreligiousFeb. activities state of emergencyat mosques lligher Statc Council calls for Unemployment rises after return of July King Hussein cancels most March Government bans F1S Jordan positionhaltfromJordanian aid Gulf; inon andretaliationU.S. Gulf Palestinian andwar Gulffor Jordanian countriesworkers martial1967 law Arab-Israeli provisions war imposed after the CharternianJunc politicians sign National King Ilussein and Jorda- promoteencouragesApril dernocracy Kuwaiti andofficials respect to for U.S. Secretary of State JulyIraqiits first occupation; meeting since plans the for end parliamen- of the Kuwaiti National Council holds partybecomesDec. country's first open political Kuwaiti Democratic Forum agreecensorshipJan. not to of show newspapers disrespect after to journalistsgovern- Government lifts prepublication Kuwait militaryhumanMay rightsand political in return support for U.S. Martial law court tries 20 OctobertaryAug. elections, 1992 still scheduled for Government announms new continuesnewspapersment; government to thatcontrol print retains broadcast objectionable right media to close reports, no evidenceaccusedessuspected testify, presented, nocollaborators, lawyers no represent witness- convicts the 5, timelaw limiting a prisoner to six can months be held the without length trial of Yemen demandsofthatApril legislation, Islamic to lawmodify but will refuses constitution be a sourceIslamist Government promises forparhammtaryconstitutionMay November approved elections1992 and scheduled new Referendum held; draft AprilJune 1992 JulySeptember 1992 OctoberDecember 1992 JanuaryJune 1993 electionsconvitutionalApril --- President in two review years; lioudiaf and FIS reschedules announces and Islamic leadersJuly -- Military to 12-year court pnson sentences terms FIS Governmentstate;with contents confrontations cracks accused down between ofon undermining publications police and the Algeria Junementmilitancy increase attacks against the govern- lioudiaf assassinated; Islamic Islamic activists escalate governmentinvestigationsgroupslioudiaf's are initially investigationsofficials suggest blamed; womed involvement intofurther about corruption of of Bendjedid's administration Government denies three leftist parties Nov. King Hussein proclaims amnesty Jordan applyinglawsNationalsuccessfully on for press Assemblylegal appeal whichstatus; draft.;to would Supremethcy restrictive forbid Court; membersfor 140 political of Islamic prisoners opposition) (including writesanctionedpermitcriticism for only newspapers,of journalists' royalmembers family forceof andofficially journalists military, isociation to to reveal sourcvs in court Oct. Parliamentary elections held; 2,78 Kuwait votelivedmencandidates (lessagedin Kuwait than21 run or 14%forbefore older 50 of whoseseats; 1920population); areonlyfamilies eligible Kuwaiti 80% to datesof electorateNov. win -- majorityGe,.emment cast votes; of seats suspends opposition two candi- news- governmentPolitical violence officials increases; killed orseveral uounded; parliamentaryNov.papers elections for April 1993; Presidential Council reschedules protests,Jan. demonstrations, assaults Voter registration begins; Yemen democraticSaudilosingsuspects Arabia,power range Yemen in for froma whomunified poses Yemenis a Yemen apowerful, threat who to tofear its intomisesgeneral corruption; salary strike increases follows; strike calledgovernmentand investigations off pro- People'sApnlcontinue General Congress Party President Ali Saleh's politicalArabian legitimacy Peninsula and supremacy in ernmentkilled,lingDec. living towounded, fulfill standards promises; or arrested and many failure are of gov- Thousands march to protest fal- tionalis victoriousgreatersuccessful observers democratization in and elections; declare a major elections interna- step toward 7 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

Perspectives on Democracy in the Arab World

A. Then Abu Bakr spoke and praised and lauded God as is fitting, and then he said: "0 people, I have been appointed to rdle over jou, though I am not the best among you. If I do well, help me, and if I do ill, correct me. Truth is loyalty and falsehood is treachery;the weak among you is strong in my eyes until I get justice for him, please God, and the strong among you is weak in my eyes until I exact justice from him, please God.... Obey me as long as I obey God and His Prophet. And if disobey God and His Prophet, you do not owe me obedience. Come to prayer, and may God have mercy on you."

The Accession Speech of Abu Bakr, the first caliph or successor to the Prophet Muhammad, from Al-Siraal-Nabawiyya, written by Abu Muhammad Abd ibn Hisham, from Islam, from the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople, Volume I : Politics and War, edited and translated by Bernard Lewis, Oxford University Press,1987.

B. Democracy has but one method and one theory. The disparity and dissimilarity of the systemsclaiming to be democratic is evidence that they are not democratic in fact. Thepeople's authority has only one face and it can be realized only by one method, namely, popular congresses and people'scommittees. No democracy without popular congresses and committees everywhere.

First, the people are divided into basic popular congresses. Each basic popular congresschooses its secretariat. The secretariats together form popular congresses, which are other than thebasic ones. Then the masses of those basic popular congresses choose administrative people'scommittees to replace gov.,:rnment administration. Thus all public utilities are run by people'scommittees which will be responsible to the basic popular congresses and these dictate the policy to be followed by thepeople's committees and supervise its execution. Thus, both the administration and the supervision become popular and the outdated definition of democracy--Democracy is the supervision of the governmentby the peoplecomes to an end. It will be replaced by the right definitionDemocracy isthe supervision of the people by the people.

from The Green Book by Muammar al-Qadhafi, the leader of the Socialist People's Libyan ArabJamahiriya

C. Among all the reasons for whVh we refuse the democratic dogma there is the fact that democracy relies on the opinion of the majority. The criteria for what is just andreasonable is understood as being the opinion of the majority. Starting from this principle, one seesthe heads of the democratic parties trying to win over the greatest possible number ofpeople, even if it is to the detriment of their faith, of their dignity, religion andhonor, in the sole objective of winning their votes in an electoral battle.... As for us, the people of thesunnd, webelieve that justice (haq) only comes from the decisive proofs of the sharr c? and not from a multitudeof demagogic actorc and voices. Those who followed the Prophet were a very small number,while those who followed idols were a multitude.

from an editorial in Al-Mounquid, the newspaper of Algeria's Islamic Salvation Front(FIS), by Ali Belhadj, one of the principle leaders of the FIS

In this context, the term sunna refers to the ahl al-sunna, the followers of the traditionsof the Prophet Muhammad (i.e., the Muslim community)

2 Islamic law 71 62 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

D. It follows that an Islamic order of government is essentially a form of representative democracy. But this statement requires the following qualification. First an Islamic republic is not strictly speaking a direct government of and by the people; it is a government of the shari' a. But, in a substantial sense, it is a popular government since the shari' a represents the convictions of the people and, therefore, their direct will. This limitation on what a representative body can do is a guarantee of the supremacy of the religious will of the community. The consultative system of government in Islam is related to and reinforced by similar features of Muslim society since politics is an integral part of all religious life and not simply a separate secular vocation. The fair distribution of political power through shurd, whether direct or indirect, is supported by an equally just distribution of economic wealth. So an Islamic democracy may never degenerate to a formal system where, because of the concentration of wealth, the rich alone exercise their political rights and determine what is to be decided. Also, ideally there is no clerical or ulama4 class, which prevents an elitist or theocratic government. Whether termed a religious, a theocratic, or even a secular theocracy, an Islamic state is not a government of the ulama. Knowledge, like power, is distributed in a way that inhibits the development of a distinct, religious hierarchy. Nor is an Islamic democracy government by the male members of society. Women played a considerable role in public life during the life of the Prophet; and they contributed to the election of the third caliph. Only afterwards were women denied their rightful place in public life, but this was history departing from the ideal, just like the development of classes based on property, knowledge (um), or other status. In principle, all believers, rich or poor, noble or humble, learned or ignorant, men or women, arc equal before God, and they are His vicegerents on earth and the holders of His trust.

from "The Islamic State" by Hassan al-Turabi in Voices of Resurgent Islam, edited by John Esposito, Oxford University Press, 1983

E. Sovereignty belongs to the people. It is the people who choose their rulers and the people's continued satisfaction is the prime condition for the perpetuation of a ruler's power. The people have the right to choose their Imams and to dismiss them. In other words the people have supervisory powers over authority. This is a model of a civil authority elected by the representatives of the people. The authority's commitment to Islamic law does not vest in them religious legitimacy. This is a common misconception in the West where divine right was an essential component of monarchical authority. In Islam, religion is the source of values and law, but not of power.

from "Thc Misunderstandings between Islam and Democracy" by columnist Fahmi Howeidi in the Egyptian English-language weekly Al-Ahram, August 6-12, 1992

F. I can say in all honesty and sincerity that there is no contradiction whatsoever between Islam and democracy....The state in Islam is not thc voice of God, but it is the voice of the people. This means that the Islamic state goes against the theocratic state and is indeed a democratic state. The system provided by democracy for people to express their will we consider it an Islamic system, and a very good one....As Muslims we have no problem with the democratic system in terms of elections, parliamentary representation, alternation of power, various freedoms of speech, the press, human rights, etc.

from an interview with Rachid Ghannouchi, exiled leader of Tunisia's al-Nahda movement

consultation

In its classical sense, the term ulama refers to the unofficial body of religious scholars who issued edicts on various points of Islamic law and theology for the guidance of the Muslim community.

63 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

G. We perceive Jordanian democracy as a model and an example as well as an ultimate choice for our people from which them will be no turning back. Also, our respect for freedom, justice, human rights and human dignity is a solid commitment whose underpinningsof thought, method, and messageare firmly rooted in every part of our land.

Attempts at achieving a true (Arab) rengissance and union have failed in the past because they had rio proper foundations. They lacked the eement of self-criticism, suffered from short-sightedness and were not based on right, freedom, equality, or justice. They failed also because many of them took the form of grandiose or showcase projects. They have failed to solve cumulative problems of social backwardness, illiteracy, low standards of living, the chasm between the elite and the people, cultural crises, extremism, tribalism, sectarianism and dependence on others. Above all was the absence of guarantees ensuring freedom, dignity and means of livelihood. Can we then aspire to rejuvenate ourselves and recreate a national fabric in the spirit of true liberty, commitment to our Arab heritage and adherence to the [Islamic] message? It is imperative that there be a connection with our roots but also an openness to life and a release from despair.

from a speech by King Hussein of Jordan to the Jordanian people on November 23, 1992

64 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

Suggested Background References

American-Arab Affairs, Number 26, Spring 1991. The Middle East Journal, Vol. 47, No. 2, Spring 1993. Contains a synopsis of presentations from a three-day workshop on "Democratization in Dedicated to the evolution of civil society and the Middle East" hosted by the American democracy in the Middle East, this special Political Science Association, documenting issue features case studies of Egypt, Syria, general trends as well as individual country and Kuwait, as well as related political and studies. economic issues.

"Democracy in the Arab World." Middle East Report, Muhlberger, Steven and Phil Paine. "Democracy's No. 174, January/February 1992. Place in World History." Journal of World History, Vol. 4, No. 1, Winter 1993. An entire issue dedicated to the development of democracy in the Arab world. Articles Inattemptingtodispelthenotionthat survey conditions in Jordan, Syria, Algeria, democracy is a purely Western concept, the and the Arabian Peninsula, as well as issues authorsoffercompelingexamplesof of human rights and liberalization. democratic organization and behavior in a variety of non-Western cultures. Esposito,JohnandJamesPiscatori. "DemocratizationandIslam."MiddleEast Muslih, Muhammad, and Augustus Richard Norton. Journal, Vol. 45, No. 3, Summer 1991. "The Need for Arab Democracy." Foreign Policy, Summer 1991. (pages 3-19) Focusing on the compatibility of Islam and democracy, this article examines the rise of Describesproblemsoflegitimacyand Islamic movements in the Arab world and the governmental systems that have prevented the social and religious motivations behind them. growth of democratic institutions in the Arab world. The authors also suggest possible Hudson, Michael. "After the Gulf War: Prospects modelstoassistfutureeffortstowards for Democratization in the Arab World." Middle democratization. East Journal, Vol. 45, No. 3, Summer 1991. Wright, Robin. "Islam, Democracy, and the West." Examines the potential for greater Foreign Policy, Summer 1992. (pages 131-145) democratization in Egypt, Algeria, Jordan, and Yemen in light of political and economic A discussionofIslamic movements' developments before and after the Gulf war. participation in thepolitical process, highlighting recent developments in Algeria Karbal, Mohamad M. "Obstacles to Democracy in the and Central Asia, as well as the response of Arab World." Middle East Affairs Journal, Vol. 1, Western governments. No. 2, Winter 1993. (pages 24-33)

Refuting the idea that Islam has prevented democratization in the Arab world, the author examines obstacles to democracy created by secularArabgovernments,international pressures, and the region's colonial legacy.

65 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

Individual Country Maps

The statistics accompanying the maps on the following pages were compiled from The World Bank's World Development Report 1992 and the Central Intelligence Agency's World Factbook 1991.

66 ALGERIA

Algiers Annaba Oran Constantine Tlemcen Sétif

Official Name: Democratic and Popular Republic ofAlgeria Capital: Algiers Area: 2,381,740 km2 Population: 26,022,188 (1991) Tlemcen Major Cities: Algiers, Annaba, Constantine, Oran, Setif, Major Ethnic Groups: Arab-Berber 99%, European 1% and Jewish 1% Major Religions: Sunni Muslim (state religion) 99%, Christian Languages: Arabic (official), French, Berber dialects Per Capita GNP: $2,020 (1991) Literacy Rate: 57.4% (1990)

67 BAHRAIN

Official Name: State of 13ahrain Capital: Manama Area: 620 km2 Population: 536,974 (1991) Major Cities: Manama Major Ethnic Groups: Bahraini 63%, Asian 13%, other Arab 10%, Iranian8%, other 6% Major Religions: Muslim (Shi'a 70%, Sunni 30%) Languages: Arabic (official), English widely spoken, Farsi,Urdu Per Capita GNP: $6,910 (1991) Literacy Rate: 77.49 (1989)

68 77 EGYPT

Official Name: Arab Republic of Egypt Capital: Cairo Area: 1,001,447 km' Population: 54,451,588 (1991) Major Cities: Cairo, Alexandria, Port Said,Asyilt, Luxor, Aswan Major Ethnic Groups: Eastern Hamitic 90%, Greek,Italian, Syro-Lebanese 10% Major Religions: Muslim (mostly Sunni) 94%,Coptic Christian and other 6% Languages: Arabic (official), English andFrench widely understood by educated classes Per Capita GNP: $620 (1991) Literacy Rate: 48.4% (1990)

7 69 IRAQ

Official Name: Republic of Iraq Capital: Baghdad Area: 434,920 km2 Population: 19,524,718 (1991) Major Cities: Baghdad, Basra, Karbala, Kirkuk, Mosul, Sulaimaniya Major Ethnic Groups: Arab 75-80%, Kurdish 15-20%, Turkoman, Assyrian, and other 5% Major Religions: Muslim 97% (Shi'a 60-65%, Sunni 32-37%), Christian or other 3% Languages: Arabic (official), Kurdish, Assyrian, Armenian Per Capita GNP: Estimated in $1,500 to $3,499 range (1991) Literacy Rate: 59.7% (1990)

70 t JORDAN

Official Name: Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan Capital: Amman Area: 91,880 km2 Population: 3,412,553 (1991) Major Cities: Amman, Petra, Al 'Aqabah, Irbid Major Ethnic Groups: Arab 98%, Circassian 1%, Armenian 1% Major Religions: Sunni Muslim 92%, Christian 8% Languages: Arabic (official), English widely understood among upper and middle classes Per Capita GNP: $1,120 (1491) Literacy Rate: 80.1% (1990)

71 KUWAIT

Official Name: State of Kuwait Capital: Kuwait Area: 17,820 km2 Population: 2,204,400 (1991) Major Cities: Kuwait Major Ethnic Groups: Kuwaiti 27.9%, other Arab 39%, South Asian 9%, Iranian 4%, other 20.1% Major Religions: Muslim 85% (Shi'a 30%, Sunni 45%, other 10%), Christian, Hindu, Parsi, and other 15% Languages: Arabic (official), English widely spoken Per Capita GNP: over $6,000 (1991) Literacy Rate: 73% (1990)

72 LEBANON

Official Name: Republic of Lebanon Capital: Beirut Area: 10,400 km2 Population: 3,384,626 (1991) Major Cities: Beirut, Tripoli, Sidon, Tyre Major Ethnic Groups: Arab 95%, Armenian 4%, other 1% Major Religions: Muslim 75%, Christian 25%, Judaism neg1%, 17 legally recognized sects Languages: Arabic and French (both official), Armenian,English Per Capita GNP: Estimated in $1,500 to $3,499 range (1991) Literacy Rate: 80.1% (1990 estimate)

73 LIBYA

Official Name: Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Capital: Tripoli Area: 1,759,540 km' Population: 4,350,742 (1991) Major Cities: Tripoli, Benghazi, Misratah, Port Brega, Sabha, Sidra, Tobruk Major Ethnic Groups: Berber and Arab 97%, other 3% Major Religions: Sunni Muslim 97% Languages: Arabic (official) Per Capita GNP: Estimated in $3,500 to $6,000 range (1991) Literacy Rate: 63.8% (1990)

74 S 3 MOROCCO

Tangier

Kénitra Tétouan Oujda Rabat Fez Casablanca Meknes El Jadida Beni Me llal Marrakech

h Agadir

MO flEbil m11.0=0 =11.11.1=11a Me WESTERN SAHARA (Disputed Territory)

Official Name: Kingdom of Morocco Capital: Rabat Area: 446,550 km2 Population: 26,181,889 (1991) Major Cities: Rabat, Casablanca, Tangier, Fes, Marrakech Major Ethnic Groups: Arab-Berber 99.1%, non-Moroccan 0.7%, Jewish 0.2% Major Religions: Muslim 98.7%, Christian 1.1%, Jewish 0.2% Languages: Arabic (official), several Berber dialects, French is the languageof business, government, diplomacy and post-primaryeducadon. Per Capita GNP: $1,030 (1991) Literacy Rate: 49.5% (1990)

75 OMAN

Official Name: Sultanate of Oman Capital: Muscat Area: 212,460 km2 Population: 1,534,011 (1991) Major Cities: Muscat, Sur, Nlzwa, Suhar, Salalah Major Ethnic Groups: Mostly Arab, with small Balochi, Zanzibari, and South Asian groups Major Religions: Ibadhi Muslim 75%, Muslim (Sunni and Shi'a), Hindu Languages: Arabic (official), English, Balochi, Urdu, Indian dialects Per Capita GNP: $5,650 (1990) Literacy Rate: Not available

76 r, QAT'AR

Official Name: State of Qatar Capital: Doha Area: 11,000 km2 Population: 518,478 (1991) Major Cities: Doha Major Ethnic Groups: Arab 40%, Pakistan! 18%, Indian 18%, Iranian 10%, other 14% Major Religions: Muslim 95% Languages: Arabic (official), English Per Capita GNP: $15,870 (1990) Literacy Rate: 75.7% (1986)

77 SAUDI ARABIA

Official Name: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Capital: Riyadh Area: 2,149,690 km2 Population: 17,869,558 (1991) Major Cities: Riyadh, Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Taif Major Ethnic Groups: Arab 90%, Afro-Asian 10% Major Religion: Muslim 100% Language: Arabic Per Capita GNP: $7,070 (1990) Literacy Rate: 62.4% (199W

78 L 7 SUDAN

Official Name: Republic of the Sudan Capital: Khartoum Area: 2,505,810 km2 Population: 27,22Q088 (1991) Major Cities: Khartoum, Dongala, Juba, Kosti, Omdurman, Port Sudan, Wadi Haifa Major Ethnic Groups: Black 52%, Arab 39%, Beja 6% Major Religions: Sunni Muslim 70%, indigenous beliefs 20%, Chnstian 5% Languages: Arabic (official), English, Nubian and other dialects Per Capita GNP: $400 (1990) Literacy Rate: 27.1% (1990)

79 SYRIA

Official Name: Syrian Arab Republic Capital: Damascus Area: 185,180 km2 Population: 12,965,996 (-1991) Major Cities: Damascus, Aleppo, Horns, Hamath, Latakia, Palmyra Major Ethnic Groups: Arab 90.3%, Kurds, Armenians, and other 9.7% Major Religions: Sunni Muslim 74%, Alawite, Druze, and other Muslim sects 16%, Christian 10%, tiny jewish communities Languages: Arabic (official), Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic, Circassian, French widely understood Per Capita GM': $1,110 (19g1) Literacy Rate: 645% (1990)

80 b 3 TUNISIA

Official Name: Republic of Tunisia Capital: Tunis Area: 163,610 km' Population: 8,276,096 (1991) Major Cities: Tunis, Carthage, Gabes, Qairouan, Sfax, Sousse Major Ethnic Groups: Arab 98%, European 1%, Jewish less than 1% Major Religions: Muslim 98%, Christian 1%, Jewish less than 1% Languages: Arabic (official), Arabic and French (commerce) Per Capita GNP: $1,510 (1991) Literary Rate: 65.3% (1990)

9 0 81 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Official Name: United Arab Emirates Capital: Abu Dhabi Area: 83,600 km2 Population: 2,389,759 (1991) Major Cities: Dubai, Ash Sharigah, Ajman, Umm al Qaymayn, Ra's al Khaymah, Al Fujayrah, Al Ayn Major Ethnic Groups: Emirian 19%, other Arab 23%, South Asian (fluctuating) 50%, other expatriates 8%. Less than 20% of population are UAE citizens. Major Religions: Muslim 96% (Shi'a 16%), Christian, Hindu, other 4% Languages: Arabic (official), Persian, English, Hindi, Urdu Per Capita GNP: $19,870 (1990) Literacy Rate: Not available

82 C 1 WEST BANK/GAZA STRIP

Haifa

Tel Aviv ti Ramallah ; % i 1,...t WEST BANK 1 t JerusaleT Bethleheig I Gaza , I I f Hebrsn GAZA STRIP,' t.-,-- /

ISRAEL

Official Name: West Bank/Gaza Strip (Israeli Occupied Territories) Capital: To Be Determined Area: 6,240 km2 (WB - 5,860 km2; G 380 km2) Population: 1,728,334 (WB1,086,081; G - 642,253) (1991) Major Cities: West Bank - East Jerusalem, Nablus, Nazareth, Ramallah, Hebron, Bethlehem; Gaza StripGaza. Major Ethnic Groups: WB Palestinian and other Arab 88%, Jewish 12%; G Palestinian and other Arab 99.8%, Jewish 0.2% Majcr Religions: WB Muslim (predominantly Sunni) 80%, Jewish 12%, Christian and other 8%; G Muslim (predominantly Sunni) 99%, Christian 0.7%, Jewish 0.3% Languages: Arabic, Israeli settlers speak Hebrew, English widely understood Per Capita GNP: WB - $1,000 (1990); G $430 (1990) Literacy Rate: Not available

83 YEMEN

*Al Hudaydah Al Mukalla

Al Mukha Aden

Official Name: Republic of Yemen Capital: Sanaa Area: 527,970 km' Population: 10,062,633 (1991) Major Cities: Sanaa, Aden, Al Hudaydah, Ta'izz, Al Mukha, Al Mukalla Major Ethnic Groups: NorthArab 90%, Afro-Arab 10%, South - Arab, some Indians, Somalis, Europeans Major Religions: NorthMuslim (Sunni and Shi'a) 100%, SouthSunni Muslim, Christian, Hindu Language: Arabic Per Capita GDP: $540 (1991) Literacy Rate: 38.5% (1990)

84 Evaluation Arab World Almanac

In order to develop future issues of the Arab World Almanac, AMIDEAST would like to hearfrom teachers who have used our materials. We are constantly searching for new and creative methods of introducingthe Arab world to the classroom, and we need your feedback to evaluate our efforts. Thank youfor taking the time to complete this evaluation and return it to AMIDEAST.

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