JUNE 2014 . Vol 7 . Issue 6

Contents The Islamic State in Iraq and

FEATURE ARTICLE 1 The Islamic State in Iraq and the the Levant: More than Just a Levant: More than Just a June Surprise By Daniel Milton, Bryan Price and Muhammad al-`Ubaydi June Surprise By Daniel Milton, Bryan Price and Muhammad al-`Ubaydi Reports 5 A Glimpse into the Minds of Four Foreign Fighters in Syria By Vera Mironova and Sam Whitt 8 Foreign Fighters from the Western Balkans in Syria By Timothy Holman 13 Three Hurdles to Peace: Negotiations with the FARC in Colombia By Abigail Jeffers and Daniel Milton 17 The Radicalization of Tunisia’s Mosques By Anne Wolf 20 A Profile of Syria’s Strategic Dar`a Province By Nicholas A. Heras

24 Recent Highlights in Political Violence 28 CTC Sentinel Staff & Contacts

A spokesman for Baghdad Operations Command discusses the state of Iraqi security forces on June 22, 2014. - Washington Post/Getty n june 29, 2014, the Islamic roots in Iraq, going back as early as 2002, State in Iraq and the Levant when the leader of the ISIL’s predecessor (ISIL) declared a caliphate group, Abu Mus`ab al-Zarqawi, set up in territories it holds in Iraq operations in Baghdad.2 In 2004, al- Oand Syria. 1 In the past few weeks, the Zarqawi pledged bay`a to Usama bin world has watched as the rapid advance Ladin and his group became known as of the ISIL has offered a serious and al-Qa`ida in Iraq (AQI).3 During its significant challenge to the stability of existence, AQI conducted numerous About the CTC Sentinel Iraq. Combined with the announcement attacks against coalition forces, but it The Combating Terrorism Center is an from President Barack Obama about the was Iraqis who bore the brunt of the independent educational and research deployment of 300 U.S. military advisers campaign.4 institution based in the Department of Social to help combat the threat posed by the Sciences at the United States Military Academy, ISIL, the quickly evolving nature of the West Point. The CTC Sentinel harnesses crisis has focused public attention more 2 U.S. Intelligence Community’s Prewar Intelligence Assess- the Center’s global network of scholars and on recent developments. ments on Iraq S 108-301, U.S. Senate Select Committee on practitioners to understand and confront Intelligence, 2004, pp. 337-338. contemporary threats posed by terrorism and While the importance of understanding 3 “Al-Qaeda in Iraq,” U.S. National Counterterrorism other forms of political violence. the ISIL’s current actions is clear, it is Center, available at www.nctc.gov/site/groups/aqi.html. also critical to understand the group’s 4 Scott Helfstein, Nassir Abdullah, and Muhammad al- past actions. Indeed, the ISIL has deep Obaidi, Deadly Vanguards: A Study of al-Qa’ida’s Violence The views expressed in this report are those of Against Muslims (West Point, NY: Combating Terrorism the authors and not of the U.S. Military Academy, Center, 2009). Separately, while AQI is the commonly- the Department of the Army, or any other agency of the U.S. Government. 1 Together with the declaration of a caliphate, the ISIL also used name for al-Zarqawi’s organization after it joined shortened its name to the “Islamic State.” al-Qa`ida, the group refers to itself as al-Qa`ida in Meso-

1 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6

Since al-Zarqawi’s death from a U.S. The ISIL in its Own Words of the ISIL’s attacks (those which airstrike in Iraq on June 7, 2006, AQI One interesting characteristic of the occurred in Baghdad) and attempted to has undergone several changes. In late ISIL is that it has placed a large amount find corroborating evidence in various 2006, al-Zarqawi’s successor declared of information in the public sphere to media reports. One of the challenges the Islamic State of Iraq (ISI) and AQI further its goals. This section presents highlighted in the previous section came to be known by that name from some of that information in an effort is that international media attention that time forward. Finally, in April to contextualize the ISIL’s success and on this group and its activities in Iraq 2013, the leader of the ISI, Abu Bakr illustrate its actions in the year leading was at a low-point during this period al-Baghdadi, announced in an audio up to June 2014. of time. This forced a reliance on local message that his group was merging Iraqi media sources, where questions with Jabhat al-Nusra (JN) in Syria to In early April 2014, the ISIL posted a of accuracy and the government’s own form the “Islamic State in Iraq and 410-page document through the Twitter incentives come into play. al-Sham.”5 This merger triggered a account of its media arm—al-I`tisam public rift between JN and Ayman al- Establishment for Media Production— Of the 345 attacks that the ISIL Zawahiri on one side and the ISIL on that listed each of its operations in says took place in Baghdad during the other.6 In the end, al-Qa`ida and JN detail from November 2012-November the November 2012-November 2013 broke from the ISIL, leaving the ISIL to 2013.8 It is worth noting that, in addition timeframe, the authors found a operate on its own. to publishing their attack data on an media match in 198 cases (57.39%). annual basis, the ISIL also posts attack Before it can be determined whether This article offers a recent operational information in the hours and days after the ISIL overstated its operations, history of the ISIL. It relies on a an attack to their Twitter feed. Such the possibility that the media new source of data: the words of the a public and real-time accounting by systematically overlooked incidents ISIL itself. The ISIL has published a terrorist organization is rare and and failed to report on many operations an extensive listing of its operations highlights the ISIL’s savvy propaganda must be considered. If underreporting from November 2012-November 2013, campaign as it seeks to spread fear, was a factor, then the media would including where and how each of attract recruits, and raise money. have likely underreported minor its operations were carried out.7 attacks that produced small numbers Reviewing this record, particularly Before presenting some of the of casualties. Indeed, of the ISIL given the ISIL’s recent actions in descriptive statistics from the ISIL’s operations for which no media match Iraq, allows the examination of the annual report, it is important to could be found, 85% produced fewer ISIL from a different perspective. recognize that the report is ISIL than three casualties. Therefore, even Indeed, this brief exploration of the propaganda. Terrorist organizations though the possibility exists that ISIL’s actions demonstrates that the like the ISIL often publicize their the ISIL exaggerated the number of events of the past few weeks are not attacks for their own self-interested operations it conducted, the media has surprising, but consistent with the reasons.9 Whether to gain a competitive also likely underreported the number of ISIL’s activities during the past year. advantage over other organizations or their attacks. The sheer number of successful ISIL simply to spread more fear, terrorist operations between November 2012- groups have powerful incentives to November 2013 suggests that a limited exaggerate their activities and their military solution that rolls the ISIL capabilities. For example, the Afghan back to its pre-May 2014 state will not Taliban claimed to have killed more than eliminate the threat posed by the group 5,000 foreign troops during 2008, a in the future. number 20 times higher than the actual figure.10 potamia. Because of this dynamic, the authors 5 This is the name used by Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi in were understandably skeptical about this statement. This article uses ISIL to refer to the same the validity of the casualty and attack group. See “Iraqi al-Qaeda and Syrian Group ‘Merge,’” numbers in the ISIL report. To offer al-Jazira, April 9, 2013. some assessment of the veracity of the Table 1. Purported ISIL Attacks by Province. 6 Nelly Lahoud and Muhammad al-`Ubaydi, “The War report, the authors took a small sample * This does not refer to the entire southern half of Iraq (Basra, of Jihadists Against Jihadists in Syria,” CTC Sentinel 7:3 Najaf, etc.). Rather, when the ISIL refers to “The South,” they are (2014); “Al-Qaeda’s Zawahiri Disbands Main Faction 8 This time period corresponds with one year in the Hijri referring to an area that includes the very southern neighborhoods Operating in Syria,” al-Arabiya, November 9, 2013. calendar (1434), which started in the middle of November of Baghdad, to include the portions of Babil, Karbala, and Wasit 7 This is not the first article to make use of the ISIL’s 2012. provinces that border Baghdad. “annual report.” See Alex Bilger, “Backgrounder: ISIL 9 For an excellent discussion and analysis on why groups Annual Reports Reveal a Metrics-Driven Military Com- claim credit for attacks, see Aaron M. Hoffman, “Voice By examining the 198 instances in mand,” Institute for the Study of War, May 22, 2014. This and Silence: Why Groups Take Credit for Acts of Terror,” which corroborating media stories article builds on Bilger’s work with the insight of recent Journal of Peace Research 47:5 (2010): pp. 615-626. about the ISIL’s purported attacks events, as well as with a dedicated effort to corroborate 10 Jason Straziuso and Rahim Faiez, “Taliban Whop- were found, it is possible to address what the ISIL puts in its annual report using local media per: 5,220 Foreign Troops Killed,” Army Times, January the question of whether the ISIL sources. 5, 2009.

2 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6

Table 2. ISIL’s Self-Reported Operations By Province, November the aggregate numbers of operations it enjoyed the most success in that area 2012-November 2013.11 that the ISIL claims to have carried during the past year. out across several Iraqi provinces in exaggerated its casualty count. Within a one-year span from November 2012- The ISIL also broke down its purported these 198 operations, the average November 2013. operations by attack type. This data number of casualties as reported by the is presented in Table 2. The group ISIL is 25.95, while the media reported At the aggregate level, the ISIL accounted for every time it used a an average of 21.47. Of course, it is purportedly conducted the fewest different weapon during an operation. not clear if this is a result of the ISIL attacks in Baghdad and the most in For example, if the ISIL detonated a exaggerating figures, media under- Ninawa Province, the latter of which vehicle-borne improvised explosive counting, or a combination of the includes Mosul where the events of this device (VBIED) and simultaneously 12 two. What is relatively surprising, month captured the world’s attention. launched a mortar attack, it then however, is the fact that the numbers In this context, the ISIL’s recent success accounted for both the VBIED and the are as close as they are. If the ISIL in June 2014 was not an anomaly, but mortar attack as separate operations. were padding its numbers, one would a continuation of the group’s proven The ISIL also recorded the types of expect to see a larger discrepancy. organizational capability over several attack by province. This breakdown of years. operations provides additional insight Up until this point, the descriptive into the ISIL’s operational capability statistics presented have focused only In light of the group’s rapid advance and organizational priorities. on the figures that could be extracted through northern and western Iraq from the ISIL’s report of its Baghdad in June, one interpretation of the The data also offers insight into the operations. As one might imagine, data in Table 1 suggests that the ISIL ISIL’s strategy in the year leading up to the numbers tell a far more sobering purposefully focused the majority of its 2014 advance. For example, “parked tale when considered in the aggregate its operations in Ninawa and Salah VBIEDs” were a key component of the across the entire country. Table 1 shows al-Din in 2013 (~57% of their attacks) ISIL’s strategy in Baghdad. Assuming to prep the battlefield for its June this count to be comprehensive, 11 A number of categories were dropped to streamline 2014 assault. The purpose of these about 47% of all parked VBIEDs it the presentation. For example, in Ninawa there were attacks may have been to soften used during this period of time were four reports of “sniping,” as well as “dozens” of reports the government’s defenses and lay in Baghdad. This stands in stark of “the removal of cameras spying on Muslims.” Neither a psychological foundation of fear contrast to Ninawa, where other types of these categories appeared in all of the other provinces. and intimidation in these specific of IEDs were primarily used. It is For the “Other IED” category, the ISIL does not just em- provinces prior to the campaign. also worth noting that, particularly in ploy large-scale IEDs. It also, particularly when targeting Another theory suggests that the ISIL Ninawa, the ISIL employed a strategy of individuals, uses smaller IEDs that can be attached to the chose to advance on Baghdad from intimidation and coercion through more undercarriage of a car or thrown at a particular target. north to south via Mosul, Tikrit, and personal assassinations using small In the document summarizing their operations, the ISIL Samarra rather than from west to east arms. This strategy appears to have refers to these IEDS as “explosive, sticky, flying, etc.” through Anbar Province because it paid off, as month after month of these For the “Assassinations and Eliminations” category, the enjoyed more operational success in types of tactics against security forces ISIL notes that these were operations conducted “using Ninawa and Salah al-Din provinces and civilians may have contributed to silenced weapons, normal weapons or cold weapons.” in 2012-2013. Like any good business the military’s willingness to drop their 12 It should be noted that this second possibility can- wanting to reinforce success and arms, shed their uniforms, and flee.13 not be discounted. A number of media stories relied on exploit operational gains earned in casualty figures from local police, the Interior Ministry, the past, the ISIL may have chosen or other government sources. Each of these actors has an the north to south axis simply because 13 Bryan Price, Dan Milton and Muhammad al-`Ubaydi, incentive to downplay the magnitude of violence. “Al-Baghdadi’s Blitzkrieg, ISIL’s Psychological Warfare,

3 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6

The data presented in Table 2 also on the cost of the vehicles alone, Given the preceding analysis of the reveals the extent of the logistical several thousand dollars for 537 parked ISIL’s record of its own actions from network that the ISIL has built to VBIEDs means that the ISIL spent November 2012-November 2013, it support these operations. For example, millions of dollars on these operations is clear that returning to the status the use of a VBIED involves the from November 2012-November quo ante bellum will not eliminate purchase of a vehicle and explosives. 2013.16 Add to that the salaries of the threat posed by the ISIL in the Often, the actual execution of an those involved in planning, preparing, future. The insights gleaned from the operation may include a team that and executing the operation, and it is ISIL’s accounting of its operations, apparent that this organization has even allowing for some exaggeration been well-funded for years. After in their own reporting, indicate the “Given the preceding raiding Mosul’s central bank and group is more capable, dangerous, analysis of the ISIL’s stealing an estimated $429 million in and organized than most mainstream June 2014, one report speculated that media outlets gave it credit for prior record of its own the ISIL may now be sitting on nearly to this month’s alarming activity, and actions from November $1.5 billion in assets.17 it will likely remain so regardless of how the short-term military campaign 2012-November 2013, it is Avoiding Going Back to the Future ends. clear that returning to the Sun Tzu stated that “he who lacks foresight and underestimates his Daniel Milton, Ph.D., is a Research status quo ante bellum will enemy will surely be captured by Associate at the Combating Terrorism not eliminate the threat him.”18 The ISIL, as an organization, Center and Assistant Professor in the has existed in some form or another for Department of Social Sciences at the U.S. posed by the ISIL in the a number of years. It has undergone Military Academy in West Point, NY. future.” many changes since its inception, however, which have allowed it to Major Bryan Price, Ph.D., is the Director become a very active and capable of the Combating Terrorism Center. terrorist organization. In attempts to positions the VBIED, another one that understand the ISIL and to avoid the Muhammad al-`Ubaydi is a research films the operation, and follow-up shortcomings identified by Sun Tzu, it assistant at the Combating Terrorism reconnaissance to assess the success is critical not just to focus on recent Center and monitors Arabic jihadist or failure of the operation. Each of actions, but also on what the group websites. these individuals likely receives some has done in the past. financial incentive from the ISIL, The views presented are those of the if not a salary.14 Given that the ISIL The sharp and sudden focus on the authors and do not necessarily represent claims to have conducted an average ISIL’s recent advances alone may the views of the Department of Defense, of more than one VBIED attack per day lead some policymakers to seek an the U.S. Army, or any of its subordinate during the course of a year, this is an attractive but unwise solution to the commands. astonishing feat from an organizational problem at hand: simply roll the ISIL perspective. back to where it was on May 31, 2014.

The cost of such operations is not Wired, September 8, 2011; Tom Vanden Brook, “Afghan inexpensive. The total cost of a VBIED Bomb Makers Shifting to New Explosives for IEDs,” USA ranges from several thousand at the Today, June 25, 2013; “Car Bombs: History and Facts,” 15 lowest end to over $15,000. Focusing Sky News, February 24, 2014. 16 Of course, one may argue that the group need not and What It Means for Syria and Iraq,” Combating Ter- spend money on the vehicles and instead just steal them. rorism Center, June 12, 2014; Liz Sly and Ahmed Rama- The authors do not have evidence to determine the pri- dan, “Insurgents Seize Iraqi City of Mosul as Security mary mode of acquisition of vehicles for VBIEDS. Theft Forces Flee,” Washington Post, June 10, 2014. of a vehicle that will later be used in an operation, how- 14 Salary numbers of ISIL fighters/personnel are hard ever, carries risks for a terrorist group of having the plot to assess in the current environment. Based on captured discovered beforehand and/or unnecessarily raising the documents, however, salaries were paid in the past. For awareness of security forces. For a group with no short- details, see “ISI Fighter Registry March-April 2007 age of money available, this seems an unwise course of (English Translation),” Combating Terrorism Center, action. Even if they were to steal them, there would be Harmony Program, undated. In addition, current report- some cost associated to carry out the theft. The purpose is ing suggests that the ISIL continues to pay competitive not to state the primary mode of acquisition, but to offer salaries and death benefits to its members in a more reli- a crude minimum estimate of the ISIL’s financial capa- able fashion than the Iraqi Army. See Mitchell Hartman, bilities. “ISIL Gets Rich in Attack on Iraq’s Cities,” Marketplace, 17 Martin Chulov, “How an Arrest in Iraq Revealed Isis’s June 13, 2014. $2bn Jihadist Network,” Guardian, June 15, 2014. 15 Spencer Ackerman, “$265 Bomb, $300 Billion War: 18 Sun Tzu, The Art of War (Oxford: Oxford University The Economics of the 9/11 Era’s Signature Weapon,” Press, 1971), p. 122, translated by Samuel G. Griffith.

4 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6

A Glimpse into the Minds take part in a violent jihad, which with the ISIL. The interview was they intend to wage well beyond Syria’s conducted in Qasab. of Four Foreign Fighters in borders. Syria The Russian fighter is 29-years-old. He The Fighters converted to Islam at the age of 21. He By Vera Mironova and Sam Whitt The foreign fighters interviewed for says his conversion was influenced by a this article were concerned about close Muslim friend, but did not specify since the syrian conflict began three revealing personal information that the nature of the friendship. He has two years ago, thousands of foreigners authorities in their home countries Russian wives and two daughters who have entered the country to fight either could use to identify them. They all live in Turkey. He studied at al-Azhar alongside rebels with the Free Syrian refused to reveal their true names or University in Egypt. His family does not Army (FSA), various Islamist groups even a nom de guerre. The data presented know that he is a mujahid; they think including those with links to al-Qa`ida, in this article is the most that could that he works for a charity organization. and pro-government forces loyal to be gathered from anecdotal comments He is a commander in his own “all Bashar al-Assad. Although many pieced together in the course of the Russian” brigade. The interview was foreign fighters hail from locations interview. In some instances, the conducted in the rural area near Idlib. in the Middle East and North Africa, authors have incomplete information they are also arriving in Syria from the because the fighter refused to answer The Algerian Fighter did not reveal his United States, Western Europe, Russia, the question or did not reveal an answer age. He indicated that he is in his late and Central Asia. during the interview.3 30s. He was traveling only with a laptop and a change of clothes. He is currently In May 2014, the authors interviewed The Saudi Arabian fighter was born in fighting with Jabhat al-Nusra. The foreign fighters from Saudi Arabia, 1986, is 28-years-old, and unmarried. interview was conducted in Turkey. France, Algeria, and Russia. He once worked in the field of higher This article profiles those four education. He is from a wealthy family “Why Did You Come to Syria?” fighters, identifying their goals and and even in a combat zone appeared Following brief introductions, the foreign motivations, what inspired them to clean and well-dressed, wearing fighters explained what compelled them leave their homes and fight in Syria, expensive clothing brands.4 He claims to come to Syria. Their motivations and what they hoped to achieve by that he lost nearly $150,000 from appeared largely divorced from political joining radical Islamist groups.1 investments in the U.S. stock market grievances against the al-Assad regime. Although this article primarily quotes as a result of the 2008 economic Instead, these four fighters are driven from the French and Saudi fighters, recession. He is a big fan of the soccer primarily by religious motives. Most the others expressed similar views. teams Real Madrid in Spain and the see the Syrian conflict as a test of their It finds that in contrast to other Al Nasr Team in Saudi Arabia. He is faith and devotion to Islam. They often Syrian-born rebel fighters, civilians, currently fighting with the Islamic reference jihad, but it is unclear exactly and refugees interviewed as part of a State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). The what jihad means to them in the context special project2 during the past year, interview was conducted in Qasab. of the ongoing violence in Syria and the the foreign fighters are not driven struggle against al-Assad. ultimately by a desire for victory The French fighter was born in against the al-Assad regime. For Toulouse in 1990, is 24-years-old, Fighter from France these four foreign fighters, vengeance and has a degree in construction “In the beginning of 2013 [sic] the against the al-Assad regime is a engineering. He says he was born a Syrian crisis started, and I had already peripheral concern at best. Rather, Christian, but his father is an atheist. heard that the Levant is a Holy Place, disillusioned by life in their home As a teenager, he acknowledges that recommended for protection by The countries, they came to Syria on a he drank alcohol, was around drugs, Prophet (may prayer and peace be mission for spiritual fulfillment. They and was sexually active at an early upon Him). It was then that I flew to sought out like-minded idealists to age. He converted to Islam at the age Turkey and then on into Syria…The of 19, in part as a means of escape from easiest thing now is entering Syria. We 1 Interviews were conducted in Idlib and Qasab regions his drug, alcohol, and relationship do not actually say that we are going of Syria and in Turkey in May 2014. The authors chose problems. The following year, he for jihad [in Syria]. We said that we these four fighters because they agreed to be interviewed moved to Morocco to marry his first were going for commercial business or and to reflect the heterogeneity of people coming to Syria wife, learn Arabic and study the for philanthropic work [in Syria]. No from different parts of the world. All interviews were Qur’an. He married his second wife one ever doubted us. Now I am leading conducted in Arabic by a local journalist. Because of the in Syria. He came to Syria through the best life, and I am so satisfied dangers involved, the authors were not able to ask all the Turkey. He is also currently fighting with it. Life is all about dignity and questions in which they were interested, but only ques- pride, which is something I am doing tions that were not considered controversial and would 3 The foreign fighters often shifted focus from one topic now. I do not live at my own pace in not anger the participant (and as a consequence endanger to another in stream of conscious fashion, offering tan- the Western countries because they the interviewer). gential anecdotes along the way, ignoring some questions are racist and they do not believe in 2 This article is based on the authors’ larger project called entirely, and refusing to answer others. the religious freedom. They intervene Voices of Syria. For more details of the project, see www. 4 As identified by the journalist who was interviewing in my affairs and even prevent me vmironova.net/voices-of-aleppo/. him. from exercising my religious rites.

5 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6

They sin for 24 hours and seven days life there, but I am more comfortable witness my martyred friends, noticing a week but they deprive me of a five here. I mean, psychologically speaking, contentment on their faces and the smell minute prayer…For example, in France, life is better because I am abiding by of musk coming out of their corpses, women are not allowed to wear niqab [a our Messenger’s recommendations unlike those of the dead disbelievers, cloth that covers the face] which is one (may prayer and peace be upon Him) the enemies of Allah, whose faces only of the Islamic dictations. Every single and fighting for the cause of Allah.” exhibit ugliness, and corpses smell woman caught wearing it is charged 150 worse than pigs.” euros, whereas if you decide to go out Fighter from Russia naked, nobody will utter a word about “I had a Muslim friend, and he told The fighter continued, saying, “I’ll this, claiming it to be ‘freedom.’ It has me about Islam and I converted. I was give you the example of my friend Abu turned into a war with Islam, they have always questioning myself. Why we Ahmed al-Maghrabi, who was martyred a problem with it. It even became a war are here? Why we are alive? But when by my side. From night till morning, between Muslims and non-Muslims. All I converted to Islam I found all the his face still wore a bright smile and we want is the religious freedom…” missing answers. I have read the history his corpse smelled pleasantly. How can and nothing convinced me, but just one we ever cast doubt? The only thing left When asked why he joined the ISIL phrase in Qur’an was enough…The main for us to go through in order to reach instead of the FSA, he said, “I actually reason why I came here was that my paradise is death. We are praying Allah refuse the label ‘free army.’ This label is government [Russia] is fighting against for victory and then martyrdom. We invalid because we are not ‘free’; we are Islam, but in subtle ways. I faced a lot of Muslims, and we are a ‘Muslim army.’ pressure from my government because “If the Syrian conflict They [the FSA] are fighting under I am a converted Muslim. They came to the banner of democracy and having my house several times searching for is resolved, the fighters political purposes. It is undeniable that anything that will harm me but they intend to continue their many of them are good people. All of found nothing. The Russian intelligence us are fighting for the same cause, but always puts pressure on Muslims. Also struggle elsewhere, if they as ‘fighters for the cause of Allah’ we I have two little girls so I felt terrible are still alive. They see the are fighting under the banner of Islam when I saw what’s going on in Syria, [with the ISIL], having nothing to do especially with raping women and Syrian war as part of a with politics.” killing children.” broader regional struggle.”

Fighter from Saudi Arabia “What Does Jihad Mean to You?” “We cannot talk of an ‘army’ in my Because several of the foreign home country [Saudi Arabia]. They fighters reference Islam and jihad as will conquer them, God willing, and are dictators, not Muslims! They are a motivation for coming to Syria, they we will liberate Syria from oppression. only fighting to preserve thrones were asked to explain more clearly God willing, one day, Muslims will gain [government], not for the cause of what they mean by “jihad.” The fighters possession of this land. I am not at all Allah…When I told my family that I were very animated and emotional sad, I am rather extremely happy, a decided to go to Syria, it depressed them when answering this question. Jihad, happiness that will double up once I get a lot. They were somehow religiously for them, is an ultimate, purifying martyred and meet my friends. Thirty- distant…but they could not refuse me, expression of faith, culminating in seven of my friends have been martyred nonetheless! This is what Allah called martyrdom and heavenly rewards. in 10 days, and I swear that I did not see for. He prescribed fighting for His cause Fighting in Syria is a means to a any one of them dying without a smile in At-Tawbah and Al-Anfal [chapters spiritual rather than political end. It on his face!” of the Qur’an]. My family was mis- fills an existential void. conceptualizing Islam; if they take a Fighter from Saudi Arabia closer look at Qur’an, in At-Tawbah, Fighter from France “Usama bin Ladin is the one who revived they would understand everything. “I am but a contribution to the conquest the notion of jihad. Jihad returned They would be aware that those who do of Islam, and I also look forward to thanks to Allah and thanks to Bin Ladin. not listen to the call of Allah for jihad reach paradise via Al Jihad for the He used to be one of the wealthiest would be penalized severely; Allah cause of Allah. We are all promised people in the world, but he abandoned warned against not responding to the paradise because we listened to the all that wealth for the sake of the religion call for jihad, this warning was directed words of Allah. Islam is a really great of Allah. Everyone disagreeing with to Muslims, not to disbelievers! Even religion, it includes all aspects of life… Usama bin Ladin definitely does not in the history of Islam, those who did it gives meaning to the human life. I comprehend religion. Jihad is all about not join with the Messenger in jihad is have devoted my entire life for jihad. aqidah [faith], it’s not simply choosing not forgiven…Also, I was engaged, but All my bodily parts are wounded. I am to go for jihad. It’s about firmness. I broke off my marriage for the sake of only looking up to paradise, is there Martyrs do not feel the hurt of death, jihad. She [his fiancé] refused to go to anything better than this? As for us, that’s firmness given by Allah. There Syria so I gave her the freedom to choose. we believe in the afterlife, a blissful life are fighters whose faith is eminent, but Here, I miss being surrounded by my in the vicinity of Allah. Martyrdom is they do not execute martyrdom actions family, relatives and friends; I miss the probably the shortest way to paradise, but you find others that have just places I used to visit. I led a luxurious which is not something I was told. I did converted to Islam that do! For example

6 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6 myself, if I am put in a situation where as a martyr…If granted the chance of if they want to apply the laws of Allah I should slaughter a chicken, it’s likely martyrdom, I can intercede for the sake in ruling.” that I will not be able to. But if it were in of other people I will not have come a case where I should kill a disbeliever, across in heaven. I mean, anybody I Conclusion I would bravely do it.” used to know in this current life and I The goals and motivations of these don’t see in heaven, I can intercede for foreign fighters are a stark contrast to Fighter from Russia them. Even if you were not a martyr Syrian-born civilians and rebel fighters “If there is a call for jihad, we need to and you ask the Lord for intercession interviewed by the authors during the support our brothers. Muslims are weak; of those persons, He will tell you past year. Unlike Syrian-born civilians they need our support. The war in Syria ‘they are in Hell, go bring them over and rebel fighters, these foreign fighters is between the Alawite and Shi`a people here’ [to heaven]. That’s how merciful are not driven by specific political and Sunni. We have to follow the orders Allah is…” grievances against Bashar al-Assad’s of God and help them [the Sunni].” regime and his supporters; they are “Does Your Jihad Extend Beyond Syria?” guided instead by religious ideations “Do You Have Any Plans for the Future?” If the Syrian conflict is resolved, the concerning jihad.6 War is instrumental The foreign fighters have no plans to fighters intend to continue their struggle to their understanding of jihad, which return home once the Syrian conflict elsewhere, if they are still alive. They necessitates purification through concludes. They have come to Syria see the Syrian war as part of a broader martyrdom. expecting to die as martyrs for Islam. regional struggle, frequently referencing Since they have families, the only Jerusalem and the Palestinians.5 Their presence in Syria severely question that concerns them is what complicates the ability to resolve the is going to happen to their families Fighter from France civil war, since many appear to be should they die? In contrast to other “The Levant does not only include Syria, seeking conflict for conflict’s sake. Syrian rebel fighters interviewed by it also includes Lebanon, Jordan and They have little incentive to negotiate the authors, these foreign fighters are Palestine...and we are always keeping for peace. Finally, in contrast to Syrian- generally unconcerned with ultimate an eye on Jerusalem. The war in Syria born rebel fighters and civilians, these political outcomes from the Syrian civil is only three-years-old, whereas the four foreign fighters claim that they war or their own long-term prospects war of Palestine has lasted for over 60 will never disarm, demobilize, and and well-being. They are all living in years. We are asking Allah, Almighty, reintegrate into society should the the moment. to attain conquest of Jerusalem, which is Syrian conflict be resolved. They are a certainty, God willing. We must point deeply committed and will continue to Fighter from France out that the Levant is not a regular land; pursue other avenues for jihad if they “Going back. That’s impossible! How it is a land of the prophets, whereby cannot realize their goals in Syria. For could I leave such a glorious life and many prophets were sent.” now, the Syrian conflict provides a return to the animalistic one? Never! venue for motivated foreign fighters to Besides, if I go back to Morocco, I will Fighter from Saudi Arabia obtain spiritual fulfillment and practical be put in jail for 30 and 15 years. Also, “Jihad is all the way. It’s not limited to training for combat that might extend in France they now associate my name Syria. As our Prophet says (may prayer beyond Syrian borders. with weapons and bombing, so what and peace be upon Him), the Levant, would motivate me to return? Nothing… the Arabian Peninsula, and then the Vera Mironova is a Ph.D. candidate at the My family and my wives are able to Islamic caliphate, God willing. And I University of Maryland. afford life after I am dead. Allah will have made an oath that, if I will still never give up on us because He answers not be martyred yet, I will go back, as a Sam Whitt is assistant professor of political our needs, not me. I do not want my wife fighter to free the Arabian Peninsula.” science at High Point University. to work; I don’t want her to experience any exhaustion. She is a queen; every Fighter from Algeria Muslim wife is a queen! And my wives “After Syria, in case we will still be alive, will get married after my death, God we will head to Golan and then straight willing. They have the right to, if they to Jerusalem. Jerusalem has been ever consider doing it. It is something disconnected from the Islamic attention that Islam grants them. The wife is a for over 60 years. It is downright human being, not an angel, and she shameful to leave it occupied…And needs a man to protect her and love her Palestine would be a place of the for the rest of her life. You never know, government. And in terms of law we Allah may grant me the chance to return will have a referendum, asking people to them and die in my house.”

5 The interviewer was reluctant to ask the foreign fight- Fighter from Saudi Arabia ers whether they were interested in conducting attacks 6 The authors acknowledge that the interviews of four “I really wish I could get a chance to against the West for fear of provoking them or raising fighters cannot be generalized to speak for the goals and marry, but for the time being, jihad suspicions about intelligence gathering. None of the motivations of all foreign fighters, but it does provide a is my priority. All I’m asking from fighters specifically mentioned attacks against the West window into cognition and decision-making processes of Allah is giving me the chance to die in the course of the interviews. members of a difficult to reach population.

7 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6

background on prior foreign fighting identification details of a resident of Foreign Fighters from the activity by militants from the Western Bosnia-Herzegovina were listed in Western Balkans in Syria Balkans. It gives overall estimates documents recovered by U.S. military for involvement in the Syria conflict, forces at Sinjar in Iraq.11 An associate By Timothy Holman and provides analysis of the Western of the Rustempašic group12 is believed Balkans foreign fighter groups in Syria to have fought in Chechnya.13 An on march 20, 2014, three foreign fighters and comparisons with other foreign undetermined number of Bosnians from the Islamic State in Iraq and the fighter contingents. It concludes with traveled to Yemen.14 Levant (ISIL) killed three people and an examination of efforts by states in wounded five others, including law the region to counter foreign fighter In sum, perhaps fewer than a dozen enforcement officials, in Nigde, Turkey.1 activity. Research for this article known individuals from the Western Although the three were variously found that between 218-654 foreign Balkans had engaged in foreign fighter reported as Albanian, German, or Swiss, fighters have traveled from the Western activity prior to the conflict in Syria. later reports indicated that two were Balkans to fight in Syria since 2012. citizens of Macedonia, one of whom had Initially the vast majority of fighters Based on a review of press reporting previously resided in Germany. The (83%) joined Jabhat al-Nusra (JN) with between January 2013 and June 2014, third was a Kosovar, who had lived 10% joining the ISIL. Reports from late it is estimated that since mid-2012 in Switzerland.2 Three weeks later, 2013 and early 2014, however, suggest between 218-654 foreign fighters from on April 10, two female teenagers of that foreign fighters from the region are Albania (50-90 fighters), Bosnia (50- Bosnian origin traveled from Vienna, increasingly joining and fighting with 330 fighters), Kosovo (80-150 fighters), Austria, to Syria.3 These incidents the ISIL over other groups. Macedonia (6-12 fighters), Montenegro pointed to the presence of foreign (two fighters) and Serbia (30-70 fighters) fighters from the Western Balkans Foreign Fighters from the Western Balkans: have traveled to Syria.15 The number in Syria as well as ties between Then and Now killed in Syria is 38-51 individuals the Western Balkans and Western Prior to the war in Syria, a small (Albania: 6-8; Bosnia: 10-15; Kosovo: 12; Europe.4 number of foreign fighters from the Macedonia: 4-10; Montenegro: 1; Serbia: former Yugoslav Republics (Bosnia- 5). The returnee total varies from 69-93 Although attention has been given to Herzegovina, Macedonia, Kosovo, (Albania: 22-28; Kosovo: 15; Bosnia: 32- foreign fighters originating in Western Serbia, and Montenegro) and Albania 50). Europe who have traveled to Syria in the reportedly traveled or attempted to past two and a half years, less notice has travel to fight or train in various jihadist 11 Brian Fishman, Al-Qa’ida’s Foreign Fighters in Iraq: a been paid to foreign fighters originating 6 conflicts between 2003 and 2011. First Look at the Sinjar Records (West Point, NY: Combat- from other parts of Europe. To date, ing Terrorism Center, 2007). no consolidated estimates of numbers A Bosnian with connections to Germany 12 Rijad Rustempašc, Abdulah Handžic and Edis Velic fighting, returned or killed have been 7 trained in Afghanistan in 2005. In were accused of being part of a “..group [that] was formed made available for the Western Balkans October 2005, a national of Macedonia and acted with the intention of carrying out a terror- region.5 This article provides a brief was listed in a Multinational Force ist attack on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina…” in Iraq (MNF-I) briefing containing Rustempašic and his brother were also charged with captured foreign fighter nationalities.8 1 Semih Idiz, “ISIS Emerges as Threat to Turkey,” al- weapons trafficking offenses. On November 10, 2011, Ri- In the same month, an Australian Monitor, March 25, 2014. jad Rustempašic, Abdulah Handžic and Edis Velic were national was alleged to have been 2 Branko Gjorgjevski and Biljana Arsovska, “Ohrid- found guilty and sentenced to prison terms ranging from introduced to the Abu Mus`ab al- Born Jihadist Aged 18 Has Fought in Syria for Three three to four years. Rustempašic and his brother were ac- Zarqawi network via a Bosnian based Years,” Dnevnik, March 26, 2014; Branko Gjorgjevski, quitted of weapons trafficking charges. In a decision on in Lebanon.9 In November 2005, Syrian “Chinese From Grcec Village Also Among Jihadists Who September 6, 2012, the Court upheld the sentences. See authorities arrested an Albanian Attacked Turkish Police,” Dnevnik, March 27, 2014. “The Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina: First Instance national in Damascus on suspicion of 3 S. Degirmendzic, “Police ‘Tighten Noose’ Around Verdict in Rijad Rustempašic et. al.,” Court of Bosnia and being involved with foreign fighter Wahhabis in Vienna,” Dnevni Avaz, April 24, 2014; Su- Herzegovina, November 10, 2011; “The Court of Bosnia activities.10 In September 2007, the zana Mijatovic, “Have You Seen the Girls?” Slobodna and Herzegovina: Written Copy of the Second Instance Bosna, April 24, 2014. Verdict Sent in the Case of Rijad Rustempašic et al,” 4 An individual from Sweden with family connections to for the Study of Radicalization, December 17, 2013. Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina, September 10, 2012. Albania is mentioned in Per Gudmundson, “The Swed- 6 Suzana Mijatovic, “Gornja Maoca Is Transit Point for 13 Anes Alic, “Bosnia: Catching Up with ‘Terrorists,’” ish Foreign Fighter Contingent in Syria,” CTC Sentinel 6:9 Wahhabis Who Go to Jihad,” Slobodna Bosna, March 29, ISN Security Watch, October 1, 2009. (2013): pp. 5-9. 2012. 14 Alic, “Re-Arrests Hope to Prove Bosnia Terror Plots”; 5 An exception was an article in Jane’s Islamic Affairs Ana- 7 Ibid.; Anes Alic, “Re-Arrests Hope to Prove Bosnia Mijatovic, “Gornja Maoca Is Transit Point for Wahhabis lyst that noted the presence of militants from the Balkans Terror Plots,” ISN Security Watch, December 11, 2009. Who Go to Jihad.” in Syria in September 2013. See “Balkan Salafists Join 8 Dexter Filkins, “Foreign Fighters Captured in Iraq 15 These estimates are based on 36 articles from regional ‘Jihad’ in Syria,” Jane’s Islamic Affairs Analyst, September Come From 27, Mostly Arab, Lands,” New York Times, press between January 2013 and April 2014. The lowest 1, 2013. In December 2013, Aaron Zelin provided initial October 21, 2005. and highest estimates are cited. In one case, a report sug- estimates for Albania, Bosnia, Kosovo, Macedonia and 9 Martin Chulov, “Sydney Fugitive Linked to Zarqawi,” gested that there were 1,500 persons from Bosnia. This Serbia, but not Montenegro. See Aaron Y. Zelin, “ICSR Australian, October 30, 2005. figure is not used, as it is unlikely to be accurate based Insight: Up to 11,000 Foreign Fighters in Syria; Steep 10 “Syrian Police Reportedly Arrested Albanian Terror on what is known about the broader European foreign Rise Among Western Europeans,” International Centre Suspect on 17 November 2005,” B92, January 4, 2006. fighter mobilization in Syria. See Zelin.

8 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6

What is Known about Foreign Fighters in Based on the dataset, foreign fighters suggested that some of the children in Syria? from the Western Balkans range in age their late teens were being trained for To date, details of 159 individuals from 16-74, and on average they are military operations.22 In eight cases, associated with foreign fighter 32.6-years-old. Given that the majority the date of arrival and the date of death activity in the Western Balkans have of ages are not known, it is possible are known. Based on this figure, time been made available in press reports.16 that the average is not representative. spent in Syria ranges from one to eleven The analysis that follows draws from In comparison, French foreign fighters months, with an average of five months this smaller but more detailed dataset are reported by government sources between entry and eventual death. of foreign fighters from the Western to be an average of 27-years-old, and Balkans compiled by the author. the Belgians 23.5-years-old based In 65 cases, there is information about Based on the roles attributed to these on estimates compiled by Pieter van whether the foreign fighters are dead, individuals, 125 are foreign fighters, Ostaeyen, a Belgian researcher.18 There have returned, or have been arrested. 18 are facilitators, 10 are identified are very few minors in the Western There are 35 persons who have died as the wives of foreign fighters, and Balkans sample in contrast to France fighting in Syria, 19 who have been the role of six people could not be (3.5-4.6%) and Belgium (4.7%).19 The arrested in their country of origin, clearly identified. The majority of the minors from Belgium and France are eight returnees who have not been persons listed are male (94%) with a reported to be engaged in fighting, arrested, and three returnees who small number of females (6%). whereas those who are mentioned in the were arrested in Turkey.23 Unlike Western Balkans dataset appear to be the European or Australian foreign In terms of nationality, the dataset the children of the foreign fighters.20 fighter contingents where the number contains 70 individuals from Bosnia- of known former military personnel is Herzegovina, 42 from Kosovo, 25 from The data provides some insight into low—one Australian, one Dutch, and Albania, nine from Serbia, five from the arrival of foreign fighters to Syria, one French national—there are almost a Macedonia, and two from Montenegro. although the sample is limited to 40 out dozen foreign fighters from the Western There are also a number of dual of the 159 cases. Based on the author’s Balkans with prior military service.24 nationals, including one from Algeria/ dataset, the earliest recorded mention These include the seven Bosnians, who Bosnia, two from Egypt/Bosnia, one of foreign fighters from the Western are former el-Mujahid unit members, as from Lebanon/Bosnia, one from Syria/ Balkans arriving in Syria is August well as four former members from the Bosnia, and one from Switzerland/ 2012, when a group of seven reportedly Albanian Army’s Commando Brigade Bosnia. The dual nationals, with the arrived. The next group—comprised based in Zall-Herr.25 exception of the Swiss/Bosnian, are of four individuals—allegedly arrived all ex-members of the disbanded el- in January 2013, while small numbers

Mujahid unit that was active during continued to arrive throughout 2013: 22 Mijatovic, “Trip to Promised Land.” the conflict in the former-Yugoslavia seven in February, five in March, 23 The number of dead foreign fighters in this dataset, 17 in the 1990s. three in May, three in June, five in 22%, is higher than the estimates for France (26 to 31 July, two in August, three in October, persons or 3.6% to 4% of the contingent of 650 to 850) 16 The author compiled a datasheet of 159 individuals. and finally one in December 2013— and Belgium (27 persons or 7.6% of the contingent of 357 The datasheet contains among other items biographic de- with no reports yet of travelers in persons). The number of returnees in the dataset for the tails, information related to network or group affiliation 2014. There were 23 cases of foreign Western Balkans (6.9%) is lower than France (105 to 160 and dates associated with travel or death of foreign fight- fighters traveling with their families persons or 16.2% to 18.8% of the contingent) and Belgium 21 ers. The information comes from press reports. Searches to Syria. In some cases, press reports (29 persons or 8.1% of the contingent). See “L’inquiétant were run in BBC Monitoring from 2012 to June 2014 to Retour Des Jihadistes en France”; Stephane Mantoux, identify press articles mentioning foreign fighters from also Bosnians. The detachment was part of the Bosnian “GUEST POST: “Hide These Jihadists That I Can’t See: the Balkans. Regional press and magazine sources were Third Army Corps. For a detailed account of the forma- The French Volunteers In Syria,” Jihadology.net, Febru- also monitored using keyword searches. Facebook and tion of the unit, see pp. 39-75 in “The Prosecution Final ary 25, 2014; Tourancheau, “French Counter Terrorism: other webpages were searched using names from press Public Redacted Trial Brief in The Prosecutor versus En- A Matter of Proper Sorting”; Vanostaeyen, “Belgium’s reporting or links from Twitter. Additional searches ver Hadzihasanovic and Amir Kabura,” The Internation- Syria Fighters – a Statistic Analysis.” were run on names of individuals in BBC Monitoring al Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), 24 “Former Dutch Soldier Trains Jihad Fighters in and additional reports dating back to 2010 were located August 10, 2005. A copy is available with the author. Syria,” DutchNews.nl, January 27, 2014; Dan Oakes, about the activities of individuals prior to their engage- 18 “L’inquiétant Retour Des Jihadistes en France,” Le “Former Australian Soldier Caner Temel Killed Fighting ment in foreign fighting. Online records from the Court of Parisien, April 3, 2014; Pieter Vanostaeyen, “Belgium’s Alongside Syrian Rebels,” Australian Broadcasting Cor- Bosnia and Herzegovina were checked and information Syria Fighters – A Statistic Analysis,” Pietervanostaeyen poration, March 19, 2014; Klodiana Lala, “Four Zall-Herr about current foreign fighters and their prior activities blog, March 21, 2014. Commandos in Syria,” Gazeta Shqiptare, March 21, 2014; was found. The data sample does not include all foreign 19 Ibid.; “24 candidats au jihad en Syrie signalés en dix Georges Malbrunot, “Un militaire français passé au dji- fighters from the Balkans but it likely contains the ma- jours, dont cinq ont quitté la France,” Agence France- had en Syrie,” Le Figaro, April 22, 2014. jority of persons publicly identified in press, media and Presse, May 8, 2014; Patricia Tourancheau, “French 25 The Albanian Commando Regiment and the Special social media sources since 2012. This dataset represents Counter Terrorism: A Matter of Proper Sorting,” Libera- Operations Battalion are based at Zall Herr, a few miles 24.3% to 72.9% of the reported estimates for foreign tion, June 16, 2014. from Tirana. Units are trained by the U.S. military and fighters from the Balkans. 20 Suzana Mijatovic, “Trip to Promised Land,” Slobodna have served in Iraq and Afghanistan. See Lala, “Four 17 The el-Mujahid, el-Muzahid or el-Mujahedin detach- Bosna, December 26, 2013. Zall-Herr Commandos in Syria”; Blerina Toslluku, “12th ment was formed in August 1993 and was comprised pri- 21 A. Corbo-Zeco, “BH­ Women Also Go to Syria,” Dnevni Contingent Leaves for Iraq,” Rilindja Demokratike, Sep- marily of foreign fighters already fighting in Bosnia but Avaz, November 28, 2013. tember 5, 2008.

9 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6

The number of dead foreign fighters one for JN and the other for the ISIL.31 reported that Imamovic himself had in this dataset (22%) is much higher Facebook pages of foreign fighters traveled to Syria, possibly in December than the estimates for France (4%) from the Western Balkans now tend to 2013.34 This radical community in and Belgium (8%), but if the higher display ISIL material, images of ISIL Gornja Maoca, which was at one point estimates—218 or 654—are used, then operations, pictures of foreign fighters 300-strong, has been the subject of a the figure falls to between 5% and 16% from the region who have died in Iraq, number of security investigations and of the Western Balkans contingent.26 and comments that are hostile to JN.32 was raided by Bosnian security forces in 2010 and 2012.35 The community In 71 cases, the group that the foreign Foreign Fighter Clusters is based in an isolated rural area and fighters joined is known: 83% joined The data suggests that there are a its members had over time purchased JN, 10% joined the ISIL, 3% joined number of clusters or small groupings all of the houses in the village.36 Kataib al-Muhajirin in Latakia, 3% within the foreign fighter community The community lived according to joined the Free Syrian Army, and 1% from the Western Balkans. The their interpretation of Shari`a and joined JN and then switched to the ISIL. smallest identified cluster consists of “functioned as an extraterritorial The connection to Kataib al-Muhajirin 11 individuals who were members of the zone.”37 It was connected to is based on that group’s provision of now disbanded el-Mujahid unit. This individuals in Austria, Croatia, training to incoming foreign fighters cluster is comprised both of Bosnians Germany, Montenegro, Serbia and from the Western Balkans in Azaz.27 At (seven individuals) and dual-nationals Switzerland, who traveled to live or one period, approximately 40 foreign (four individuals from Egypt, Algeria stay in the community or contributed fighters from the Western Balkans were and Syria). Some of these individuals money for others to purchase homes.38 staying in the same villa near Azaz appear to have traveled relatively early Mevludin Jašarevic, a Serb from managed by Bajro Ikanovic.28 to Syria in August 2012. Novi-Pasar, convicted for his attack on the U.S. Embassy in Sarajevo in The division between the groups is A second cluster is comprised of at October 2011, was a former resident likely to have altered, as the ISIL least 18 individuals associated with of the community.39 Gornja Maoca is continues to attract more foreign the community based in Gornja Maoca, not the only such community; others fighters. The three individuals which was established by Nusret have been set up along similar lines involved in the firefight in Turkey Imamovic.33 In June 2014, Bosnian press in 10 villages across Bosnia.40 The were reported to have initially joined International Crisis Group refers to

JN and then switched allegiances to the 31 Mijatovic, “Bosniak Fratricidal War.” these communities as “unincorporated 29 ISIL. A Kosovar who died recently 32 For example, the Facebook page of Lavdrim Muhax- Islamists” as they do not accept the in a suicide attack in Iraq was also heri, an Albanian foreign fighter, carries comments about supremacy of the official or recognized 30 41 fighting with the ISIL. Bosnian press fighting for ISIL against JN. A second Facebook page has Islamic community or the state. reported on the Bosnian government references to an ISIL produced video, Saleel al Sawarim 4 debriefing of a returnee who stated (Clanging of the Swords 4). A YouTube channel for Al- A third grouping is the “Albanian” that foreign fighters from Bosnia banian foreign fighters carries a five minute video titled, cluster comprised of fighters from now found themselves caught up in ISIS Albanian Mujahideen Celebrating the Liberation of Mo- Kosovo, Albania and Macedonia. This the inter-group rivalry, with sets of sul in Irak. cluster appears to have developed brothers fighting on different sides— 33 Nusret Imamovic is a 42-year-old Bosnian citizen. Ac- when fighters from Albanian-speaking cording to press reports, he studied at an Islamic school areas arrived in Syria and organized 26 “L’inquiétant Retour Des Jihadistes en France”; in Sarajevo prior to the conflict in the former Yugoslavia. themselves into a semi-structured Vanostaeyen, “Belgium’s Syria Fighters – a Statistic During the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, he fought Analysis”; Tourancheau. in the Bosnian army. He served at some point during 34 Amarildo Gutic, “Bosnian Salafi Leader Reportedly 27 Suzana Mijatovic, “Bosniak Fratricidal War,” Slobod- the war as a religious instructor and came into contact Joins Jabhat Al-Nusra in Syria,” Bosnia-Herzegovina na Bosna, March 20, 2014. with foreign fighters. It is alleged that he became more Federation TV, June 3, 2014; S. Degirmendzic, “Finan- 28 Ibid. Ikanovic had previously been sentenced to eight radical in his religious views at this time. After the war, ciers Cut Off Supply,” Dnevni Avaz, June 5, 2014. years for terrorism offenses linked to the Bektaševic case Imamovic went to Vienna, Austria, from where he trav- 35 Ibid. on January 10, 2007, which was reduced to four years on eled and studied in Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and the United 36 Majda Tatarevic, “Our Numbers Are Growing Daily,” appeal on May 21, 2007. He was released from prison in Arab Emirates. He returned to Vienna, and in mid-2005 Dani, April 5, 2013. 2011. According to the prosecution, “Mirsad Bektaševic was sent to establish and lead a community in Gornja 37 Mijatovic, “Gornja Maoca Is Transit Point for Wahha- and Abdulkadir Cesur [had] the intention of committing Maoca near Brcko. At this time, Imamovic fell out with bis Who Go to Jihad”; “Bosnia’s Dangerous Tango: Islam a terrorist act on the territory of BiH or some other Eu- one of his contacts in Vienna. Imamovic has been arrest- and Nationalism,” International Crisis Group, February ropean country…the aim of this attach [sic] was to force ed twice, once in 2010 when Gornja Maoca was raided by 26, 2013. the Bosnian government or government of another state the Bosnian authorities and in 2012 in connection with 38 “Gornja Maoca - Biggest Joint Police Operation After to withdraw their forces from Iraq and Afghanistan.” the October 2011 attack on the U.S. Embassy in Sarajevo Dayton: Six Hundred Police Officers, Long Barrel Guns, For more information on the Bektaševic case, see “Mir- by Jašarevic. He was released without charge on both and Personnel Carriers Against Wahhabis”; Tatarevic. sad Bektaševic, Abdulkadir Cesur, Bajro Ikanovic and occasions. See “Gornja Maoca - Biggest Joint Police Op- 39 Mijatovic, “Gornja Maoca Is Transit Point for Wah- Senad Hasanovic Found Guilty,” Court of Bosnia and eration After Dayton: Six Hundred Police Officers, Long habis Who Go to Jihad.” Herzegovina, January 10, 2007. Barrel Guns, and Personnel Carriers Against Wahha- 40 Dragan Sladojevic, “Wahhabis Creating Community 29 Gjorgjevski and Arsovska. bis,” Dnevni List, March 3, 2010; Zdenko Jurilj, “Wahha- Near Maglaj,” Nezavisme Novine, April 9, 2012; Tatarev- 30 “Kosovar Albanian Blerim Heta Announced ‘Meeting bis in Favour of War Against US, Oppose B-H’s NATO ic. with Allah,’” Independent.mk, April 3, 2014. Accession,” Vecernji List, April 24, 2012. 41 “Bosnia’s Dangerous Tango: Islam and Nationalism.”

10 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6 unit.42 Benjamin Hu and Muhamed Rijad Rustempašic.50 In June 2014, a social media presence. Mevuldin Zekiri, two of the individuals arrested in a Swedish journalist reported on Cicvara and Mirza Ganic ran a series Turkey in March 2014, met in this unit his blog that Bektaševic had posted of Facebook pages, including their commanded by Hu’s father, Nimetula pictures on a Facebook page that personal pages as well as group pages Imeri.43 A video entitled Albanian seemed to indicate that he was in Syria for the Balkan foreign fighters in Mujahideen Joins Islamic State of Iraq fighting.51 There are also connections Syria.57 These Facebook pages show and Sham and subtitled in English was between the clusters; Rustempašic is multiple connections within the released in early June 2014, via the a former member of the el-Mujahid unit region, to Europe as well as further Dawla Islamiya YouTube channel.44 and Jašarevic has connections to the afield to Saudi Arabia. Since the death The video featured a speaker outlining Imamovic cluster.52 of Ganic, some of the Western Balkans the unit’s support for the head of the ISIL, surrounded by approximately Similarities and Connections with Western 16 individuals, supposedly Albanian Europe “Foreign fighters from foreign fighters. Zekiri was also The data for the region suggests that the Western Balkans are reported to have attended a mosque patterns observed elsewhere in Europe in Tirana, although it is unclear if are present in the Western Balkans: reported to have traveled a his voyage to Syria was organized there are larger numbers of fighters number of routes to Syria. during his time in Albania.45 Press than for previous conflicts, and there reports have suggested that radical are a small number of females traveling One report indicates that imams operating between Kosovo and with their husbands to Syria, in some fighters from Bosnia flew Macedonia may have played a role in cases with their children. Similar to radicalizing potential foreign fighters, Belgium, where a large number of from Slovenia to Austria although the details remain vague.46 foreign fighters were associated with and then to Turkey.” radical groups like Sharia4Belgium, A final grouping consists of individuals a number of the foreign fighters from connected to past terrorist activity in the Western Balkans have connections Bosnia-Herzegovina through direct to radical communities in Bosnia foreign fighter pages have ceased involvement, friendship or kinship ties. and the Sandzak region of Serbia.53 activity, although other sites remain Emrah Fojnica, a foreign fighter, was These communities have tended to active.58 The Albanian group led by previously acquitted of the charge of be isolationist and based in remote Balla and Hysa ran three websites, helping Mevlid Jašarevic, who was villages.54 Physical networks as well but the facilitation of foreign fighting sentenced to 15 years in prison in as kinship and friendship connections activity appears to have been based December 2012 for attacking the U.S. appear to play a role in facilitating more around the radical community Embassy in Sarajevo.47 Elmedin Velic, foreign fighter activity. In the case of developed through the two mosques another foreign fighter, is the brother Albania, it is possible that one network, and a religious school attached to one of Edis Velic, who was convicted of led by Genci Balla and Bujar Hysa, was of the mosques.59 terrorist offenses as a member of responsible for the quasi-totality of Rijad Rustempašic’s group.48 Edis known foreign fighters.55 This network Foreign fighters from the Western Velic was alleged to have fought operated around two informal mosques Balkans are reported to have traveled in Chechnya.49 Bajro Ikanovic, the and radical communities associated a number of routes to Syria. One report reported head of the Western Balkans with Balla and Hysa.56 indicates that fighters from Bosnia guesthouse in Azaz, has connections flew from Slovenia to Austria and then to Mirsad Bektaševic as well as As with the Belgian and French foreign fighters, the Albanian, Bosnian, and 57 Aleksandar Apostolovski, “Road to Hell of Syria,” 42 Gjorgjevski, “Chinese From Grcec Village Also Serbian foreign fighter clusters have Politika, September 9, 2013; A. Corbo-Zeco, “Mevludin Among Jihadists Who Attacked Turkish Police.” Cicvara Killed in Combat,” Dnevni Avaz, January 6, 2014; 43 Ibid.; Gjorgjevski and Arsovska. 50 “Mirsad Bektaševic, Abdulkadir Cesur, Bajro Boris Vukovic, “Serbie: des bancs du lycée au djihad en 44 The video is available at www.youtube.com/ Ikanovic and Senad Hasanovic Found Guilty.” Syrie,” Le Courrier Des Balkans, December 17, 2013. watch?v=2rdIptNnaCU. 51 Per Gudmundson, “Mirsad Bektasevic Poserar Med 58 Foreign fighter specific pages included the Balkans 45 Gjorgjevski, “Chinese From Grcec Village Also Vapen I Syrien,” Gudmundson Blog, June 5, 2014, avail- Emirat page which has not been updated since November Among Jihadists Who Attacked Turkish Police”; able at http://gudmundson.blogspot.sg. 2013. The page is available at www.facebook.com/pages/ Gjorgjevski and Arsovska. 52 Alic, “Bosnia: Catching Up with ‘Terrorists’”; Mi- Emirat-Balkan/150042905201595. Or see Mirza Ganic’s 46 Vehbi Kajtazi, “‘Kosovars’ Jihad in Syria,” Koha Di- jatovic, “Gornja Maoca Is Transit Point for Wahhabis Facebook page, which has not been updated since his tore, published in three parts on November 6, 7, and 8, Who Go to Jihad.” death in early January 2014. Prior to his death, Ganic had 2013. 53 Vanostaeyen, “Belgium’s Syria Fighters – a Statistic more than 1,800 followers. The page is available at www. 47 “First-Instance Verdict Revoked in Relation to Mev- Analysis.” facebook.com/mirza.ganic.ebu.sheheed.1994. More gen- lid Jašarevic,” Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina, July 12, 54 Dejan Sajinovic, “SIPA Keeping an Eye on Wahha- eral pages that are still active include www.putvjernika. 2013; “Mevlid Jašarevic Sentenced to 15-Year Imprison- bis,” Nezavisne Novine, April 7, 2012; Sladojevic. com or the Salafi Media Balkans YouTube channel, avail- ment,” Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina, November 20, 55 Klodiana Lala, “Interceptions of ‘Imams’: They Sent able at www.youtube.com/user/SalafiMediaBalkans. 2013. 50 Albanians to Syria’s War,” Gazeta Shqiptare, March 59 Lala, “Interceptions of ‘Imams’: They Sent 50 Alba- 48 Alic, “Bosnia: Catching Up with ‘Terrorists.’” 12, 2014. nians to Syria’s War”; Klodiana Lala, “Videos Calling for 49 Ibid. 56 Ibid. Jihad Blocked,” Gazeta Shqiptare, March 14, 2014.

11 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6 to Turkey.60 Another report suggests Following the April 2014 departure of Responding to the Foreign Fighter some drove by car from Bosnia to two teenage females of Bosnian origin Mobilization Turkey via Serbia and Bulgaria.61 from Vienna, reports emerged that There have been attempts to counter Fighters from Albania have either individuals based in Vienna, but born foreign fighter activity in Kosovo flown by plane from Albania to Turkey in Serbia, were allegedly involved in (November 2013 and June 2014), Albania or traveled overland via Macedonia organizing and facilitating the travel (March 2014), and Serbia (March 2014) and Bulgaria to Turkey. It has been where individuals involved in foreign suggested that some of the travelers “The May 2014 attack in fighter facilitation or travel to Syria have may have used false identities.62 been arrested.75 In the case of Kosovo, Belgium by a returning the arrests were connected to terrorist Once in Turkey, the foreign fighters French foreign fighter is attack planning and preparation. have used at least two points of entry While investigators recovered weapons into Syria. One report indicates that an indicator that greater and “explosive devices connected to they gathered in Reyhanli and crossed coordination between cellphones,” no target was mentioned over through Bab al-Hawa into Syria.63 in press reports about the arrests.76 A returned foreign fighter told Bosnian foreign fighter source One of those arrested had returned investigators that this route was used, as countries is necessary. The from Syria, where it is alleged he took well as an entry point near Kilis where part in combat operations.77 Two other guides helped them cross illegally.64 He threat posed by foreign people arrested were alleged to have also stated that the majority of fighters fighters is no longer limited been involved in a physical assault on from the region gathered in Azaz, two U.S. citizens in Pristina three days Syria, where they underwent initial to the fighter’s country of before the counterterrorism operation.78 training.65 origin.” To date, no further details have emerged about the arrests.79 In June 2014, Kosovo Fighters appear to use a mix of travel authorities arrested three people and facilitators and cover stories. Nusret were looking for a fourth suspect in Imamovic is alleged to have used the of children of former Bosnian refugees relation to forming a terrorist group services of a former human smuggler residing in Western Europe to Syria.70 and recruiting foreign fighters.80 The to organize his trip to Syria.66 The The two are connected to the community individuals arrested are alleged to have same individual was said to have in Gornja Macoa and were reportedly fought for both the ISIL and JN. One organized the travel of many foreign Imamovic’s “key people” in Vienna.71 of the individuals arrested has a social fighters from Bosnia.67 Mirza Ganic, One of the girls was supposedly met by media presence with photographs of the now deceased Serb foreign fighter her future husband, a Chechen foreign trips into Syria showing the individual from Novi-Pasar, used a cover story to fighter, and another report suggested dressed in military garb and handling explain his departure for Syria to his that the celluar phone signal from one weapons. parents. He told them he was going of the girls had been tracked to northern to Cairo, Egypt, to study Arabic. He Syria.72 This again points to links not Bosnia, with the largest number of phoned his parents from the Turkish just within the Western Balkans, but foreign fighters, has yet to launch border to tell them that he was in also to the wider diaspora in Western operations similar to that of Kosovo or fact entering Syria to fight.68 Another Europe.73 There is also some anecdotal Albania against identified networks fighter told his employer he was going evidence that foreign fighters from the and facilitators. There have been to Germany for medical treatment for Western Balkans in Syria are mixing media reports that Bosnia’s State a month; he then spent eight months with other contingents from Europe, Investigation and Protection Agency fighting in Syria.69 such as the Belgians.74 (SIPA) had interviewed individuals in relation to facilitation activities, but no arrests have been reported.81 The

60 Corbo-Zeco, “BH­ Women Also Go to Syria.” 75 Lala, “Interceptions of ‘Imams’: They Sent 50 Alba- 61 Mijatovic, “Trip to Promised Land.” nians to Syria’s War”; Vehbi Kajtazi, “Police Looking for 62 Aurora Koromani, “Builder Who Funded Terrorist Intimidator’s Address,” Koha Ditore, November 15, 2013; Cell Revealed,” Gazeta Shqiptare, March 25, 2014; Vesna 70 Mijatovic, “Have You Seen the Girls?” M. Niciforovic, “Instead of Syria, Wahhabis Land in Jail,” Peric Zimonjic, “Religion: Balkans Feed the Syria Battle,” 71 Mijatovic, “Gornja Maoca Is Transit Point for Wah- Vecernje Novosti, March 8, 2014; “Kosovo Terror Suspects Inter Press Service, August 2, 2013. habis Who Go to Jihad.” in 30-day Detention,” Associated Press, June 27, 2014. 63 Zimonjic, “Religion: Balkans Feed the Syria Battle.” 72 Mijatovic, “Have You Seen the Girls?”; Degirmendzic, 76 Vehbi Kajtazi, “Fighters Who Returned From Syria 64 Mijatovic, “Bosniak Fratricidal War.” “Police ‘Tighten Noose’ Around Wahhabis in Vienna.” Arrested as Terror Suspects,” Koha Ditore, November 12, 65 Ibid. 73 Ibid.; Dan Oakes, “Muslim ‘Cult Leader’ Revealed,” 2013. 66 Gutic, “Bosnian Salafi Leader Reportedly Joins Jabhat The Age, September 24, 2012; Tatarevic; “Ils ont grandi en 77 Ibid. Al-Nusra in Syria.” Suisse et combattent en Syrie,” Le Matin, May 4, 2014. 78 Ibid. 67 Ibid. 74 Belgians were also involved with the Chechen group 79 Ibid. 68 Vukovic. Kataib al-Muhajirin. See Pieter Vanostaeyen, “GUEST 80 “Kosovo Terror Suspects in 30-day Detention.” 69 Suzana Mijatovic, “Diplomatic Offensive Against Mu- POST: Belgian Jihadis in Syria,” Jihadology.net, Septem- 81 Goran Maunaga, “Ex-Mujahedin - Connection to Holy jahedin,” Slobodna Bosna, June 13, 2013. ber 5, 2013. War,” Glas Srpske, May 25, 2013.

12 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6 absence of arrests has been explained Furthermore, the measures come Three Hurdles to Peace: by loopholes in Bosnian law, which without apparent coordination between did not criminalize facilitating or the countries in the region despite the Negotiations with the participating in foreign fighting.82 In intra-Western Balkans connections. FARC in Colombia June 2014, media reports suggested They also seem to have been slow that Bosnian authorities could soon to take the initiative to engage with By Abigail Jeffers and Daniel Milton start investigations into approximately international partners; countries from 20 returnees once a new law passes the region were not among those who colombia has been engaged in internal targeting foreign fighters.83 The new participated in an INTERPOL foreign armed conflict since the early 1960s, law provides for sentences of up to 10 fighter meeting in July 2013.89 Officials with the impact of the fighting taking years for recruitment and participation from the U.S. and some EU countries a tremendous toll on the country in foreign fighting and four years for traveled to Sarajevo to discuss the issue politically, economically, and socially. inciting via media channels participation with Bosnian authorities in June 2013.90 The decades-long armed struggle in foreign conflicts.84 In May 2014, the counterterrorism between left wing terrorist groups, coordinator of the European Union right wing paramilitaries, and the In Bosnia, the head of the Bosnian outlined measures that the EU was in the government has left more than 215,000 Islamic community and other figures process of taking in relation to foreign Colombians dead and five million have made statements against foreign fighters. The countries in the Western displaced, the most of any other active fighters traveling to Syria and in Balkans are mentioned as an area where conflict in the world.1 A strong military support of changes to the criminal increased cooperation is required and offensive from 2000 to 2012 against code.85 Some of these statements a number of proposed initiatives are all of the violent non-state actors, with have caused a virulent online reaction outlined.91 significant support from the United from within the pro-foreign fighter States, has diminished the opposition community in the region but also among It remains to be seen whether these groups’ capabilities.2 the diaspora in Western Europe.86 responses to the foreign fighter Others have taken a more ambiguous challenge at the national level or wider In October 2012, the Colombian line, refusing to condemn outright coordination efforts to mitigate against government began peace negotiations involvement in foreign fighting.87 the risk of terrorist activity by returning with the Fuerzas Armadas foreign fighters will prove enough to Revolucionarias de Colombia Albania has also introduced changes avoid terrorist attacks in the region or (Revolutionary Armed Forces of to the criminal code to allow for the in the European Union. The May 2014 Colombia, FARC), the country’s prosecution of individuals traveling attack in Belgium by a returning French largest and historically most powerful abroad to participate in conflicts, and foreign fighter is an indicator that armed group.3 Since the start of these in Macedonia there have been calls for greater coordination between foreign negotiations, the FARC, the Colombian changes to the law to criminalize travel fighter source countries is necessary. government, and the international for the purposes of fighting as well as The threat posed by foreign fighters community have expressed optimism facilitation activities.88 Similar to France is no longer limited to the fighter’s about the talks and the outlook for and the United Kingdom, however, country, but also to neighboring states. Colombia’s future. the announcement of these measures and their eventual implementation Timothy Holman is a first year Ph.D. Colombian President Juan Manuel come more than two years into the candidate at the S. Rajaratnam School Santos noted that the most recent conflict, and after the departure of large of International Studies in Singapore. negotiations between the government numbers of foreign fighters. Whether He holds a BA (Hons) in Persian and and the left-leaning insurgent these measures will prove dissuasive is Development Studies from the School of organization are the “furthest we have unclear. Oriental and African Studies in London ever come in trying to end the war.”4 and an MLitt in Terrorism Studies from Negotiators have agreed on three of the the University of St. Andrews in Scotland. five issues that divide the two groups, 82 S. Degirmendzic, “Investigation Against Syria Re- He is a former criminal intelligence analyst with agreements on reparations and turnees,” Dnevni Avaz, June 18, 2014. with INTERPOL, The Swiss Federal Police transitional justice outstanding. Many 83 Ibid. and The International Criminal Court. see Santos’ recent victory in Colombia’s 84 Ibid. presidential election as a positive sign 5 85 A. Nuhanovic: “Sarajevo Could Be Leader in Interpre- 89 “‘Foreign Fighters’ Threat Focus of INTERPOL Coun- for the prospects for peace. While his tation of Islam,” Dnevni Avaz, June 15, 2014. terterrorism Meeting,” Interpol, July 12, 2013. 86 “Disgraceful: After Invitation to Salafis Not to Send 90 Mijatovic, “Diplomatic Offensive Against Mujahe- 1 “Estadisticas del conflict armado en Colombia,” Centro Children to Other Peoples’ Wars, Grahovic Attacking din.” Nacional de Memoria Historica, 2012; “Colombia Dis- Imam Beganovic,” Dnevni Avaz, November 27, 2013. 91 EU Counterterrorism Coordinator, “Foreign Fight- placement,” Reuters, August 29, 2013. 87 Kajtazi, “‘Kosovars’ Jihad in Syria.” ers and Returnees From a Counter-Terrorism Perspec- 2 Dana Priest, “Covert Action in Colombia,” Washington 88 “Punishment Against ‘Jihad’ in Albania,” ATA, April tive, in Particular with Regard to Syria: State of Play and Post, December 21, 2013. 7, 2014; Branko Gjorgjevski, “There Is Nobody to Stop Proposals for Future Work,” Council of the European 3 “FARC,” Insight Crime, undated. the Jihadists,” Dnevnik, March 27, 2014; Daria Sito-Sucic, Union, Brussels, May 5, 2014, available at http://www. 4 “The Politics of Peace,” Economist, May 17, 2014. “Bosnia Introduces Jail Terms to Curb Recruitment for statewatch.org/news/2014/may/eu-council-coter-syri- 5 Katalina Vásquez Guzmán, “‘Este es el momento de la Syria,” Reuters, April 29, 2014. an-fighters-9280-14.pdf. paz,’ dijo Santos,” Pagina 12, June 2014.

13 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6 victory helped the peace talks remain Given this history of broken promises could bring an end to the conflict with afloat, a number of difficult hurdles following a change in political the FARC. remain to any implementation of a peace leadership and retaliation against the agreement between the government and FARC’s attempt at political legitimacy, These are doubts upon which Zuluaga the FARC. the strong showing of Oscar Ivan capitalized during the campaign, making Zuluaga (a critic of the peace process) in a tough line on potential peace talks a This article highlights the three the May 25, 2014, presidential elections key part of the runoff campaign.15 Such most difficult hurdles that remain in and in the subsequent runoff has criticism forced Santos to explicitly an effort to assess the longevity of significant implications for the peace state that he would not allow war any agreement reached in Havana: process.10 crimes committed by FARC members to overcoming the history of mistrust go unpunished.16 Santos finds himself between the government and the After narrowly beating Santos in the in a difficult position politically, as FARC, convincing the Colombian first round of the 2014 Colombian any attempt to ward off the criticisms public to back the final agreement, and presidential election, polls indicated from the right may be met by criticisms implementing an agreement within the a narrow victory was possible for from the left that he is unable to be fully FARC’s organizational structure. Given Zuluaga in the runoff.11 These results trusted, as was shown in a recent article these hurdles and despite the recent reflected the fact that support for written by Ivan Marquez, a member of electoral success of President Santos, President Santos had been declining the FARC’s Secretariat.17 the Colombian government will have recently as he has faced increasing a difficult time eliminating the FARC criticism since his term began in In the end, even though Santos was able and the long term threat posed by the 2010, particularly on the issue of to secure the presidency, overcoming group. peace talks with the FARC. Former the historical mistrust between the President Álvaro Uribe, who oversaw government and the FARC will be A History of Mistrust the military offensive against the FARC difficult. Zuluaga’s surprisingly strong In past negotiations, the government under Plan Colombia,12 has been one of campaign and narrow defeat is a has been able to find common ground the strongest voices against President reflection of a fair amount of angst over with the FARC. In 1984, during the Santos. He has criticized the president the peace talks, which may not fade negotiations that occurred under for easing off militarily and granting over time.18 Indeed, Santos’ opponents President Belisario Betancur, both sides the FARC, whom he had worked so hard are painting his victory as the product maintained a cease-fire throughout to defeat militarily, political power of his corruption and voter intimidation the negotiations and the government through the peace talks.13 by the FARC.19 While many have seen reached an agreement with the FARC that promised agrarian reform and While Santos has not gone so far as to 15 Adriaan Alsema, “Zuluaga Makes Suspending FARC allowed the group to form a political accept the FARC’s multiple calls for Peace Talks Central Point in Race to 2nd Round,” Colom- 6 party, the Patriotic Union. When the a cease-fire, he has stated that given bia Reports, May 26, 2014. Despite the initial tough line, next president was elected in 1986, the opportunity, he would think twice there have been some signs of Zuluaga’s willingness to however, the agreements generated about killing the FARC’s commander, continue talks. See Julia Symmes Cobb and Peter Mur- through the negotiations process were Rodrigo Londoño, viewing it as a phy, “Colombia’s Zuluaga Softens on FARC Peace Talks all but ignored and as many as 3,000 move that could intensify the violence Ahead of Run-off Vote,” Reuters, May 29, 2014. members of the FARC’s political party and draw the FARC away from the 16 In one recent interview, Santos said quite bluntly: “I 14 were killed following the political negotiating table. Although such would never accept general impunity for the guerrillas!” 7 transition. The government, which had a move could derail the peace talks, See Juliane von Mittelstaedt and Helene Zuber, “Colom- promised to protect the new political Santos’ public proclamation of such bian President Santos: ‘Waging War Is More Popular party, did little to stop the violence as intentions has been unpopular, and than Negotiating,’” Spiegel Online, May 21, 2014; Adri- members were killed, often by right similar comments have sparked doubt aan Alsema, “Santos Assures Colombian Military That wing paramilitary groups that had been both in Santos’ leadership and the FARC Will Not be Granted Impunity,” Colombia Reports, 8 known to work with the military. In likelihood that successful negotiations November 27, 2013. 2011, the Colombian government even 17 In this article, Marquez claims that President Santos admitted to ordering the assassination 10 William Neuman, “Peace-Talk Critic Takes Lead in told military leaders and fellow politicians over a phone of Patriotic Union senator Manuel Colombia Presidential Vote,” New York Times, May 25, conference that they could not let up the offensive against 9 Cepeda, who was killed in 1994. 2014. the FARC until the peace agreements were signed. See 11 “The Prospects for Peace,” Economist, May 26, 2014. Ivan Marquez, “Juan Manuel Santos habla de paz vomi- 12 Plan Colombia was the U.S. aid package that provided tando fuego,” FARC-EP.co, May 26, 2014. 6 Camilo González Posso, “Negotiations with the FARC: military support for counternarcotics and counterterror- 18 Indeed, some analysts have called for caution in inter- 1982-2002,” Conciliation Resources, 2004. ism in Colombia. preting these election results as a resounding mandate. 7 Ibid. 13 Juan Forero and Marina Villeneuve, “Colombian Ex- There are still elements of the Colombian Congress, in- 8 “Colombia’s FARC Rebels Face History in Considering President Sounds Off on his Successor’s Peace Talks cluding former President Uribe, who are completely op- Return to Politics,” Public Radio International, Septem- with FARC Rebels,” Washington Post, October 5, 2013. posed to the talks. See Jim Wyss, “Santos Predicts ‘Begin- ber 3, 2013. 14 “Santos lo pensaría dos veces antes de atacar a ning of a New Colombia’ After Victory,” Miami Herald, 9 Constanza Vieira, “RIGHTS-COLOMBIA: Govern- ‘Timochenko,’” Vanguardia.com, April 11, 2014. For an June 15, 2014. ment Apologises for Senator’s Murder,” Inter Press Ser- example of the FARC’s call for a cease-fire, see “Electoral 19 Frank Bajak and Libardo Cardona, “Pressure on San- vice, August 10, 2013. Ceasefire,” FARC-EPEACE.ORG, May 18, 2014. tos to Reach Peace for Colombia,” News and Observer,

14 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6 the victory of Santos as the Colombian committed hundreds of massacres, and country in the last 50 years, which is public’s endorsement of the peace drove people from their lands. The half- why it would prefer an assembly. An process, the narrow victory sends a century conflict between the FARC, assembly might be under more pressure message of caution regarding the future other left wing terrorist organizations, to ratify the results of the negotiations. of any peace agreement. paramilitaries, and the government has affected the lives of all Colombians and That said, even though Colombians in Convincing the Colombian Public there are few who would like to see the general do not support the FARC, the Even if the talks reach conclusion, the perpetrators of violence obtaining even farmers who traditionally have made up Colombian people will play a critical more political influence than the talks the core of the FARC’s support are upset role in the fate of the FARC as well as have already given them. with the government as well. Given that the future stability of the country. In they are living in poverty, they will October 2013, Colombia’s Congress Polling data from March 2014 collected support the group that enables them to passed a bill requiring that any peace in Colombia reflects the uncertainty live peacefully and to make a living off deal between the government and the that the Colombian people have towards FARC be put to a referendum and voted the FARC and the peace process. “Although the FARC on by the public.20 This means that even Although the Colombian people if the FARC and the government are able want peace, they are skeptical about started as a group to agree upon terms acceptable to both the negotiations. This poll showed committed to peasant parties, the agreement may ultimately that 34% of Colombians believe that fail if the public opposes them. the best way to solve the conflict rights, over time the FARC with the FARC is through a military moved away from a strong Unfortunately, the Colombian people defeat, with only 30% believing in have plenty of reason to disapprove. the negotiations and 29% behind initial focus on ideology The conflict, which has involved other promoting the demobilization of and began to exploit the left wing terrorist groups such as the members (the other 6% were unsure).24 National Liberation Army (ELN), right A total of 58% of Colombians believe very people it set out to wing paramilitaries such as the United that the government’s current protect.” Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC), approach will not bring the conflict and drug cartels, has claimed more than to an end.25 Another sticking point is 215,000 lives, the vast majority of which how the FARC fighters will be treated are thought to have been civilians.21 It once an agreement is reached, with the land. In their view, the FARC has has resulted in one of the world’s largest 78% of Colombians disagreeing with protected them from government forces internal displacements, with nearly five the idea that former FARC terrorists that have worked to eradicate the coca million Colombians having fled their be allowed to serve in political roles crops upon which both the FARC’s and homes only to face challenges ranging without first serving time in jail.26 the farmers’ livelihoods depend.29 from future employment to threats of violence.22 For their part, the FARC has come out Simply eradicating the coca crops will in strong opposition to the national not be enough to stop the cocaine trade, Although the FARC started as a referendum on the results of the and taking away farmers’ ability to group committed to peasant rights, negotiations, even halting the talks earn a living in this way serves only to over time it moved away from a when the bill was proposed.27 The increase support for armed groups that strong initial focus on ideology and FARC has instead proposed that the protect the coca farmers.30 When the began to exploit the very people it agreements made through the peace FARC became violent against the coca set out to protect.23 The group turned process be ratified by a constituent farmers that it had once protected, the to narcotics trafficking for income, assembly, which would consist of government was able to offer a better representatives of different groups alternative: protection against the

June 16, 2014. such as the guerrillas, peasants, retired FARC and agrarian reform that allowed 31 20 Daniel Freeman, “Colombia’s Congress Approves soldiers, indigenous Colombians, and the farmers to earn a legal living. These 28 Referendum to Seal Eventual Peace Deal with FARC,” victims of the conflict. Perhaps the policies spurred a shift in the farmers’ Colombia News, October 24, 2013. group feels that the public will not support away from the FARC and in 21 “Colombian Conflict has Killed 220,000 in 55 years, pass the referendum given the toll that favor of the government. Commission Finds,” Associated Press, Guardian, July 26, the FARC’s actions have taken on the 2013. 22 “Safe Haven: Sheltering Displaced Persons from 24 “Polimétrica: La Encuestra Elecciones 2014,” Cifras & 29 Ricardo Vargas, “The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Sexual and Gender-Based Violence. Case Study: Colom- Conceptos, March 2014. Colombia (FARC) and the Illicit Drug Trade,” Transna- bia,” Human Rights Center & UNHCR, May 2013; Diana 25 Ibid. tional Institute, June 7, 1999. Diaz Rodriguez and Liva Mota, “Colombia’s Indigenous 26 “Uribe’s New Platform,” Economist, March 11, 2014. 30 Vanda Brown, Shooting up Counterinsurgency and the Pushed to Find Safety in Cities,” UNHCR, October 18, 27 Helen Murphy and Peter Murphy, “Colombia Peace War on Drugs (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution 2012; Obinna Anyadike, “Colombia’s Internally Dis- Talks Suspended After FARC Call for Pause,” Reuters, Press, 2010). placed People Caught in Corridor of Instability,” Guard- August 23, 2013. 31 Lyda Fernanda Forero, “Colombia and Free Trade ian, August 12, 2013. 28 “Press Conference End of 18th Round,” Peace Delega- Agreements: Between Mobilisation and Conflict,”Trans - 23 “World Report 2013,” Human Rights Watch, 2013. tion of the FARC-EP, December 20, 2013. national Institute, June 3, 2014.

15 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6

Colombia may see another shift away unclear whether the central command of September 2013, a senior Colombian from governmental support as the FARC can implement an agreement official reported that the FARC only thousands of farmers across Colombia within its constituent parts. had real control of 15 out of 67 fronts.41 recently protested the government’s lack of progress on agricultural The FARC has sat down with the Given this potential lack of policies introduced last August.32 government on official terms in three organizational control, it is possible Should the peace talks fail, the FARC separate sets of negotiations during that any agreement may result in a might be able to regain the confidence the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s, fracturing of the organization and a of the rural farmers who are losing with the last round of talks resulting continuation of violence. An example their faith in the government. Knowing in the concession of a large area of land of this is what happened in Northern that the farmers are upset with the to the FARC, which the group used Ireland following the progress of the government and that the referendum to consolidate its cocaine production peace talks between the Provisional that comes out of the peace talks may operations.35 In addition, various fronts Irish Republican Army (among others) not pass a popular vote gives the have been known to partner with drug and the British and Irish governments. FARC reason to back out of the peace cartels in their areas of operation to be The Real Irish Republican Army talks altogether. In other words, the able to sustain operations.36 The FARC’s formed in response to the peace talks Colombian public plays a key role reach into the drug trade extends and began planning and executing acts in any eventual peace deal and it is outside Colombia’s borders in Mexico of violence and remains in existence uncertain how they will vote. and beyond.37 today.

Implementing the Agreement within the As recently as April 2013, after the In addition to the potential for the FARC peace talks began, an alleged member FARC to produce splinter groups in the Even assuming that the first two of the FARC was arrested in Algeria result of top-down demobilization, there hurdles can be overcome, the question for trying to trade cocaine for weapons are other armed groups still active in then becomes what the impact of with members of a group linked to al- Colombia that must be addressed by the a peace agreement would have on Qa`ida in the Islamic Maghreb.38 There government as well. Regardless of the overall FARC operations. On this also have been allegations that the front, there are two issues that call terrorist group Lebanese Hizb Allah into question the efficacy of any is a beneficiary and participant in the “Should the peace talks fail, agreement between the FARC and the FARC’s drug activities.39 This expansion the FARC might be able Colombian government. First, while of relationships makes the cessation the FARC’s ideological commitment of the drug trade (and the associated to regain the confidence to the drug trade is uncertain, what is conflict over the trade), whether under of the rural farmers who clear is that the group’s involvement the FARC name or a different banner, in the drug trade has increased over difficult to envisage. are losing their faith in the time.33 Although the group originally government.” opposed the drug trade on ideological Even setting aside FARC’s involvement terms, initially only imposing their in the lucrative drug market, an own taxes on large growers of illicit agreement within the organization may crops, by the mid-1980s they had be hard to implement because of the results of the government’s negotiations begun growing, processing, and differing levels of buy-in by various with the FARC, the Colombian trafficking cocaine because of the FARC commanders. Because the group government must also consider the financial opportunities it afforded.34 is decentralized and divided into other armed groups acting in Colombia, Because of the profitability of the drug fronts of around 200 fighters each, to include the left wing terrorist group trade and the FARC’s deep involvement, it is difficult to relay information the ELN, the various cocaine trafficking there are vested organizational interests throughout the network.40 In cartels, and the former paramilitary in the drug trade that may be difficult to members who have joined new armed end through negotiations. Second, it is 35 Juan Carlos Hidalgo, “Peace Talks with the FARC: A groups such as the Aguilas Negras 42 Good Idea?” Cato Institute, August 28, 2012. (Black Eagles). The government took 32 “Colombian Farmers Protest Against Government’s 36 “The FARC at their Worst Moment in History,” Minis- a step in this direction, announcing a ‘Broken Promises,’” BBC, August 28, 2014. try of National Defense - Republic of Colombia, undated. few days before the runoff election that 33 Helen Murphy and Luis Jaime Acosta, “FARC Con- 37 “Colombia Rebels Linked to Mexico Drug Cartels,” trols 60 Percent of Drug Trade - Colombia’s Police New York Times, October 7, 2008. Groups: A Comparative Study of FARC and Paramili- Chief,” Reuters, April 22, 2013. See the “FARCLANDIA” 38 James Bargent, “Arrests Point to FARC Ties to Al tary Groups in Colombia,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism section in Frank Cilluffo, “The Threat Posed from the Qaeda in North Africa,” Insight Crime, April 8, 2013. 32:6 (2009): p. 460. Convergence of Organized Crime, Drug Trafficking, and 39 Jo Becker, “Beirut Bank Seen as a Hub of Hezbollah’s 41 Ibid. Terrorism,” statement given to the U.S. House Commit- Financing,” New York Times, December 13, 2011. 42 “Colombia Ready to Negotiation with the ELN,” al- tee on the Judiciary Subcommittee on Crime, December 40 Douglas Farah, “Terrorist Groups in Latin America: Jazira, August 29, 2013; Olle Ohlsen Pettersson, “Neo- 13, 2000. The Changing Landscape,” testimony to the Subcom- paramilitaries Declare War against FARC, ELN in 34 “Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia – People’s mittee on Terrorism, Nonproliferation, and Trade in the Northeastern Colombia,” Colombia Reports, August 6, Army,” Mapping Militant Organizations, Stanford Uni- U.S. House of Representatives, February 4, 2014; Bilal Y. 2012; “‘Aguilas Negras’ amenazan a poblacion en zona de versity, August 13, 2012. Saab and Alexandra W. Taylor, “Criminality and Armed influencia de FARC,”Colombia.com, January 23, 2014.

16 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6 it had started preliminary discussions Instrumentalizing Religion with the ELN.43 The Radicalization of Tunisia’s tradition of Islamic Tunisia’s Mosques scholarship and preaching was long Looking Past the Hurdles centered around its important Zitouna Given the political climate and the By Anne Wolf mosque-university, created around 703 high social disapproval of the FARC, CE. Zitouna scholars have been divided there is a chance that the peace talks in august 2013, the Tunisian government between a conservative majority, may fail to reach a conclusion that is declared Ansar al-Shari`a Tunisia who were reluctant to the processes acceptable to both groups, or that any (AST) an illegal terrorist organization of modernization, and a more liberal agreement between the government following its alleged involvement in two minority who supported modernization and the FARC may not be passed in the political assassinations.1 Recently, the trends and called for the reopening public referendum. Unfortunately, a interim government of Mehdi Jomaa of ijtidad (interpretation of religious failure of the peace talks will result in has intensified efforts to crack down on texts).3 the continuation of one of the world’s violence by dismantling radical sleeper longest running civil conflicts. cells and preventing unauthorized Following independence in 1956, imams from preaching. Despite these Tunisia’s first president, Habib If the conflict does continue, the efforts, religiously-motivated violence Bourguiba, dismantled Zitouna FARC is a shadow of its former self remains a challenge to Tunisia’s University, replacing it with a simple and the military has already pushed democratic transition, as underground faculty of Shari`a and Theology. Since it to the point of peace talks; a jihadist networks continue to operate, Zine El Abidine Ben Ali’s regime, breakdown in the negotiations would often with close ties to neighboring imams are officially appointed by the allow the government to resume a countries. Tunisia’s vast southern Ministry of Religious Affairs, which persistent military campaign against border, shared with Libya, is especially also used to control the content of the FARC. While such a campaign difficult to control. In March 2014, a prayer services, mainly in an effort would continue to reduce the new Salafist media outlet known as to eradicate any political dissent, FARC’s operational force, unless the Shabab al-Tawhid (Youth of Pure which they believed could easily gain Colombian government provides relief Monotheism) was established, which momentum in mosques.4 Indeed, many to the underlying grievances fueling some analysts suspect is a front or imams were actually members of Ben the FARC’s base, they may find it rebranding for AST.2 While AST Ali’s Constitutional Democratic difficult to fully eliminate the threat has kept a low-profile following the Rally (RCD) party, an upfront posed by the FARC in the future. Tunisian government’s decision to instrumentalization of religion for label it a terrorist organization, many of political ends. Moreover, a law in 1988 Abigail Jeffers is a cadet at the U.S. its members are still active in Tunisia prohibited all activities and meetings Military Academy in West Point. and look for different channels to in mosques by people other than those continue their activities, which include appointed by the state.5 Daniel Milton, Ph.D., is a Research da`wa (proselytizing), the facilitation Associate at the Combating Terrorism of foreign fighters to Libya and Syria, Losing Control of the Mosques Center and Assistant Professor in the and in some cases religiously-motivated In the months that followed the 2010- Department of Social Sciences at the U.S. violence. 2011 revolution, several hundred Military Academy in West Point. imams were replaced, often by violent Within this increasingly clandestine Islamists who accused the imams The views presented are those of the network, mosques remain key locations of having collaborated with the authors and do not necessarily represent for AST members and other radical former Ben Ali regime. By October the views of the Department of Defense, Islamists to operate and spread 2011, the Ministry of Religious the U.S. Army, or any of its subordinate their views, especially as imams. To Affairs announced that it had lost commands. understand the root causes of this control of about 400 mosques.6 The problem, this article provides a brief “uncontrolled” classification means background on religious scholarship in that a mosque’s imams are operating Tunisia and then evaluates how certain imams use mosques to spread a radical 3 Ijtihad is commonly understood as “independent rea- interpretation of Islam. It concludes that soning” or “interpretation” of religious texts. For more some preachers will continue to incite information, see Arnold H. Green, The Tunisian Ulama violence or politicize their sermons 1873-1915: Social Structure and Response to Ideological Cur- if the state fails to pursue significant rents (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978). reform within the religious sector. 4 Anne Wolf, “An Islamist ‘Renaissance’? Religion and Politics in Post-Revolutionary Tunisia,” The Journal of North African Studies 18:4 (2013): pp. 560-573. 1 “Tunisia Declares Ansar al-Sharia a Terrorist Group,” 5 “La Tunisie veut récupérer les mosquées contrôlées par BBC, August 27, 2013. des radicaux,” Jeune Afrique, March 12, 2014. 43 Helen Murphy and Peter Murphy, “Colombia Gov- 2 Aaron Y Zelin, “Shabab al-Tawhid: The Rebranding of 6 For more information, see “Election de la Constituante: ernment in Preliminary Peace Talks with ELN Rebels,” Ansar al-Sharia in Tunisia?” The Washington Institute Ennahdha concurrencé par Attahrir et les Salafistes,” La Reuters, June 10, 2014. for Near East Policy, May 9, 2014. Tunisie Vote, October 17, 2011.

17 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6 without the official authorization of In Tunisia’s new political landscape, politician Chokri Belaid, a “martyr.”16 the Ministry of Religious Affairs. To the content of prayer services is also In December 2012, he stated on become an “authorized” preacher, no longer controlled by government Hannibal TV that “people [who] say one needs to either have a relevant authorities, a step many Tunisians there is no such thing as a time for education at the Zitouna institution approve of and view as part of the prayer” and “renounce prayer…should or take a special exam. Since October new liberties acquired through the be killed as infidels.”17 In March 2014, 2011, the state tried to reestablish revolution. Some imams, however, he was sentenced to three months control over these 400 mosques. have taken advantage of this by in prison for giving unauthorized On March 13, 2014, the Ministry of inciting violence, preaching jihad and Religious Affairs estimated that 149 politicizing their sermons. mosques remained out of government “Many of Tunisia’s control; yet earlier the same month, the Controversial Preachers controversial prayer Ministry of Interior put the number Many of Tunisia’s controversial prayer of uncontrolled mosques at 380, in services take place in mosques that services take place what illustrates the unreliability of are uncontrolled, but even official, in mosques that are publicly available figures.7 The latest state-approved imams have incited official figure from May 2014 estimates violence, which indicates that Tunisia’s ‘uncontrolled,’ but even that around 90 mosques remain out challenges within the religious sector official, state-approved of government control.8 Most of the are deeper than just a matter of replacing uncontrolled mosques are located in the unauthorized preachers with approved imams have incited densely populated Sahel region, a key ones. In March 2013, for example, then- violence.” destination for tourists. minister of religious affairs, Nourredine Khademi, called upon Tunisians to It is unclear how many of the join jihad in Syria, a position that is uncontrolled mosques are actually officially rejected by the government.12 prayers, but was conditionally released run by Salafists or jihadists, but the Moreover, Tunisia’s current mufti is shortly afterwards.18 Authorities claim fact that their leaders and followers from Zitouna’s conservative camp and that Mejri is no longer preaching,19 reject government authority over has supported polygamy; the previous but he still enjoys significant media their activities—and that they have mufti was forced to leave in 2013 as he attention. often taken over mosques by means of was known to have political ties to the force—indicates that radical elements Ben Ali regime.13 In January 2014, the imam of the Sidi may be present. Additionally, a Ali Ben Salah mosque in Kef Province number of unofficial places of worship, Nasreddine Aloui, the preacher of in northwest Tunisia was condemned generally estimated at less than 100, the Ennour mosque in the banlieu of for encouraging followers to kill police were also created after the revolution; Manouba in Tunis, called upon the officers.20 In addition, the official the government’s efforts to replace youth in November 2012 to die as preacher Ahmad al-Suhayli in Rades unauthorized preachers might increase martyrs in the fight against the then- called for the destruction of the Jews in such parallel structures.9 Islamist-led government. “Ennahda and one of his prayer services that was aired other political parties want elections on on Hannibal TV.21 He also declared that Besides two imams, at least two other the ruins and cadavers of the Salafist “the al-Nusra Front, Ansar al-Shari`a, people work at Tunisia’s approximately movement,” he claimed.14 Shortly before al-Qa`ida, the Islamic State of Iraq and 5,050 controlled and uncontrolled these statements, his predecessor, the mujahidin in Somalia, in Mali and mosques, and there is no transparent Khaled Karaou, and two other Salafists in Algeria – we all stand united against procedure for selecting these 20,200 died after attacking two National Guard the enemies.”22 Suhayli claims that the people.10 It is also difficult to find such posts in Manouba.15 a high number of qualified people given 16 “Tunisie-Religion: L’imam Khamis Mejri de nouveau that the level of religious scholarship Khamis Mejri, a self-proclaimed interpellé,” Kapitalis, March 19, 2014; “Tunisian Salafi 11 during the Ben Ali regime was low. preacher of the El-Wardia mosque Cleric Khamis Mejri Rejects Democracy and Praises Bin south of Tunis, has publicly called Laden,” Middle East Media Research Institute, June 7, 7 Ben Abda Sana, “Tunisia: 149 Mosques Under the Con- Usama bin Ladin a “hero” and Kamel 2013. trol of Radical Salafists,”Tunis Times, March 14, 2014. Gadhgadhi, the alleged murderer of 17 Ibid. 8 “Tunisie – Encore 90 mosquées non contrôlées par 18 Ibid. l’État,” Tunisie Numerique, May 3, 2014. 2014. 19 Personal interviews, officials at the Ministry of Reli- 9 Personal interviews, officials at the Ministry of Reli- 12 “Noureddine Khademi appelait les Tunisiens au jihad gious Affairs, Tunis, Tunisia, June 2014. gious Affairs, Tunis, Tunisia, May and June 2014. en Syrie,” Business News, March 19, 2013. 20 “Tunisie-Société: 6 mois de prison ferme pour un 10 For example, many Tunisians do not understand why 13 Personal interviews, Tunisian imams, June 2014. For imam appelant au meurtre des policiers,” Kapitalis, Jan- certain imams end up preaching at their local mosque; more information, see Asma Smadhi, “Controversial uary 29, 2014. the government occasionally places imams in villages to Figure Hamda Saïd Appointed as Tunisia’s New Mufti,” 21 “Tunisian Salafist Kamel Zarouq Talks about Future which they have no ties. The appointment process is not Tunisia Live, July 8, 2013. Conquest of Andalusia, Rome, and Jerusalem,” Middle transparent. 14 “Tunisie: un imam salafiste appelle au jihad contre le East Media Research Institute, December 24, 2012. 11 Personal interviews, officials at the Ministry of Reli- gouvernement,” Jeune Afrique, November 2, 2012. 22 “Uproar In Tunisia Over Antisemitic Friday Sermon gious Affairs and imams, Tunis, Tunisia, May and June 15 Ibid. Exposed,” Middle East Media Research Institute, De-

18 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6 media has exaggerated his statements, A New Legal Framework mosques, however, the new legislation and the Ministry of Religious Affairs Article Six of the Tunisian is observed.33 insists that he has the necessary Constitution, which was adopted in credentials to continue preaching.23 January 2014, defines the state’s role Popular Resistance as “the guardian of religion” which Besides such legal measures to Moreover, Adel Almi, a self-proclaimed “guarantees liberty of conscience curb the spread of radical Islamist preacher who heads the “Moderate and of belief, the free exercise of ideologies through mosques, there Association for Awareness and religious worship and the neutrality have been popular attempts to regain Reform,”24 has called for the death of the mosques and of the places of control of mosques. Among others, the of Tunisian Femen activist Amina.25 worship from all partisan inhabitants of Gammarth, a northern In December 2013, he also founded a instrumentalization.” It also suburb of Tunis, chased away their party called “Tunisia – Zaytouna,” in enshrines that the state is committed imam, saying that he accused people what is a claim to represent Tunisia’s to “the dissemination of the values of apostasy.34 Also, the inhabitants centuries-old tradition of Islamic of moderation and tolerance and to of the Jendouba Province town of scholarship. Indeed, following the the protection of the sacred and the Ghardimaou threw out their imam for revolution, Zitouna University declared prohibition of any offense thereto,” being an extremist.35 Even a famous itself an organization independent as well as “the prohibition of, and imam, Fadhel Achour, threatened to of the government, and now various the fight against, appeals to takfir lead an imam strike in 2013 to protest ideologues claim to represent its legacy; [excommunication] and incitement to security concerns within mosques, the actual status of the institution violence and hatred.”28 as well as to protest the lack of remains uncertain. accountability within the ministry Human Rights Watch Tunisia over the appointment of clergies.36 For his part, the imam of the Zitouna has warned that Article Six could When Adel Almi threatened to mosque, Shaykh Houcine Laabidi, has allow repressive interpretations of publicly shame anyone who eats called in the past for the death of the the definition of “sacred.”29 Most during Ramadan in 2013, a website artists of an exhibition he judged as preachers, for their part, have fiercely countering his efforts was launched blasphemous.26 Laabidi’s declarations criticized the article as it does not on Facebook with many people posting have led authorities in several instances include a reference to Shari`a. They pictures of themselves consuming to prevent him from preaching— have also maintained that “the food during the holy month.37 measures that were, however, only criminalization of apostasy is contrary effective in the short term. Laabidi Shari`a” and that such an important Conclusion continues to lead prayers and insists issue “should have been dealt with by Moderate imams observe that younger that given Zitouna’s self-declared a committee of ulama.”30 Tunisians in particular are influenced independence, authorities have no right by violent discourse within mosques, to decide over its imam.27 Besides the new constitutional while older generations seem to be framework, the Ministry of Religious more resilient.38 This is consistent A legal framework has also been adopted Affairs announced in March 2014 the with previous observations that Salafi- to respond to the challenges within establishment of fixed opening hours jihadi ideology is more common among the religious sector, but the current for mosques—half an hour before Tunisians under the age of 35.39 stipulations are likely to be insufficient and after services—to undermine to guarantee a moderate preaching of “negligence” of certain mosques.31 In security terms, the state has Islam. Earlier that month, security forces increased efforts to control seized molotov cocktails and cutting unauthorized activities within weapons in the al-Hidaya Mosque mosques and ensure that unlicensed in Menzel Abderrahmen in northern 32 cember 24, 2012. Tunisia. It is unlikely, however, that 33 Personal interviews, Tunisian imams, Tunis, Tunisia, 23 Personal interviews, officials at the Ministry of Reli- this law is properly applied to mosques June 2014. gious Affairs, Tunis, Tunisia, June 2014. that are not controlled by the Ministry 34 “Tunisie – Gammarth: Un imam chassé de la mos- 24 The civil society association was previously known of Religious Affairs. In many other quée,” Webmanager Centre, August 31, 2012. as “The Commission for the Promotion of Virtue and 35 “Ghardimaou: l’imam de la mosquée Errahma évincé the Prevention of Vice.” It wants to implement Shari`a 28 Amna Guellali, “The Problem with Tunisia’s New pour son discours jugé extrémiste,” 1Mosaique FM, Oc- in Tunisian society. For more information, see Asma Constitution,” Human Righs Watch, February 3, 2014. tober 2013. Ghribi, “Tunisia Recognizes Controversial Islamist Or- 29 Ibid. 36 Zied Mhirsi, “Imams Contest Government’s Role in ganization,” Tunisia Live, February 21, 2012. 30 “Tunisie/ Constitution: Des Imams appellent à se ré- Religious Affairs,” Tunisia Live, October 2, 2013. 25 “Tunisie: Amina doit être lapidée jusqu’à la mort, férer à la Charia,” Gnet.tn, January 21, 2014. 37 This page is available at www.facebook.com/pages/ estime un prédicateur islamiste,” Kapitalis, March 19, 31 Sarah Ben Hamadi and Adjil Kribi, “Tunisie: Le Photos-prises-durant-Ramadan-chmeta-fi-Adel- 2013. ministère des Affaires religieuses fixe des horaires Almi/295136230632655?ref=nf. 26 “Tunisia: Artists Under Attack,” Artsfreedom.org, d’ouverture et de fermeture des mosquées,” Al Huffington 38 Personal interviews, Tunisian imams, Tunis, Tunisia, June 22, 2012. Post Maghreb, March 11, 2014. June 2014. 27 “Tunisie: Appel au meurtre d’artistes - Houcine La- 32 “Tunisie: Des armes blanches et des cocktails Molotov 39 Anne Wolf, “The Salafist Temptation: The Radicaliza- bidi interdit de prêche,” Tunis Afrique Presse, June 16, dans une mosquée à Menzel Abderrahmen,” Tunisie Nu- tion of Tunisia’s Post-Revolution Youth,” CTC Sentinel 2012. merique, March 4, 2014. 6:4 (2013).

19 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6 preachers do not hold prayer services, government allowed the pan-Arab but the challenges go much further A Profile of Syria’s news channel al-Mayadeen to film than simple enforcement, as they touch Strategic Dar`a Province in June 2013, Syrian army planners upon the very substance of Islamic preparing a major military campaign education in Tunisia. Moderate By Nicholas A. Heras on the town of Khirbet Ghazalah, preachers insist that as long as the approximately 10 miles north of Dar`a state does not pursue reform within dar`a province is one of the most city, outlined how the major, inter- Islamic institutions and properly train important battle spaces in the Syrian provincial highways running through imams, some preachers will continue civil war. It is where the Syrian uprising Dar`a Province that form a junction to incite violence or politicize their began as popular demonstrations in at Khirbet Ghazalah could be utilized sermons regardless of government response to the imprisonment of 15 by the armed opposition to reinforce interventions, as a sufficient number children for writing anti-regime graffiti rebels in the Damascus suburbs that of well-trained imams simply do not in March 2011. Predominately populated could then threaten regime control over exist. by Sunni Arab tribes, the province is the capital.5 As a result of the strategic approximately 60 miles from the capital location of Dar`a, purported foreign Many Zitouna scholars and imams and is located in southern Syria. It assistance to Dar`a rebels has become constantly debate government policies, borders the country of Jordan, Syria’s the subject of conspiracy theories from so it is unlikely that the institution Golan Heights-bordering region of al- the al-Assad government and its allies.6 provides the necessary neutral Quneitra, and is the major land route Both Fars News and Lebanese Hizb ground needed to properly train from points south to Damascus.1 Dar`a Allah’s al-Ahed media agencies have imams. In February 2014, Tunisian is widely believed to be one of the most consistently asserted that Dar`a is the and Moroccan authorities agreed successful areas of operation for the prime location for what it views as a to train some Tunisian imams and armed opposition, particularly the Free Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)-led preachers in Morocco in an attempt Syrian Army (FSA), and an important proxy war aiming to occupy Dar`a city to elevate educational standards.40 conduit of foreign military support for and to eventually impose a no-fly zone A plan also exists to create a center the rebel fighters via Jordan.2 According in southern Syria to topple the al-Assad to train imams in the province of to the Syrian military, 95 (70%) of government.7 Kairouan, but concrete steps to that Dar`a Province’s cities, towns, and end have yet to materialize. Until such villages are directly under the control This article examines the human long-term reforms are implemented, of the armed opposition, although geography, particularly Sunni Arab any attempts to regain control over Dar`a city is predominately under the tribes, in Dar`a Province. It finds that preachers and their activities within control of the Syrian military.3 Further the potential for tribal conflict within mosques are likely to remain limited. underscoring the importance of Dar`a the armed opposition in Dar`a weakens to the FSA on the strategic level, one the rebels’ ability to resist the Syrian Anne Wolf is a graduate of Cambridge of the organization’s leaders, Brigadier military’s attempts to reinstate al- University specializing in North African General Abdullah al-Qarazi, stated in Assad’s rule. Dar`a Province is an affairs. She works in Tunisia as a February 2014 that “Dar`a Province is essential region for the FSA’s al-jabhat journalist, researcher and political risk the gateway to Damascus. The battle for al-janoobiya (Southern Front). The FSA’s analyst. Damascus starts from here.”4 ability to make gains in the Southern Front, which its leadership hopes will The strategic importance of Dar`a in result in the capture of Damascus from the greater battle for control of the the south, is dependent on the FSA’s country is not lost on the Bashar al- capacity to maintain its social harmony Assad government and its allies. In and cohesion in the province, to secure what was purported to be a Syrian lines of communication, supplies, and military briefing that the al-Assad potentially advanced weaponry, such as anti-aircraft missiles, from Jordan into 1 These details are based on the author’s trips from Da- Dar`a. mascus to southern Syria, including in Dar`a, in July 2009 and March 2010. Dar`a Province: Tribes and Conflict 2 Matthew Lee and Lolita C. Baldor, “US Eyes Train- Part of the larger geographical feature ing Moderate Syrian Rebels,” Associated Press, May 27, of the Hawran plain that extends from 2014; Zvi Bar’el, “Military Option Against Syria is Alive,” the southern suburbs of Damascus to Haaretz, February 24, 2014; Thom Shanker, “With Eyes northern Jordan, Dar`a has traditionally on Syria, U.S. Turns Warehouses Into Support Hub been a rich agricultural region of settled for Jordan,” New York Times, August 15, 2013; Michael Weiss, “The Southern Front, Part 1,” NOW Lebanon, 5 “Dar`a: Ma`rakat Hawran,” al-Mayadeen News, June August 15, 2013. 13, 2013. 3 Firas Choufi, “A Journey Through Syria’s Daraa,” al- 6 “Syrian Army Foils Rebels’ Infiltration Attempts in Akhbar, April 3, 2014. Daraa’s Countryside,” Fars News, June 6, 2014. 40 “Morocco to Train Tunisian Imams,” Yes Morocco, 4 “Syrian Rebels Say Planning Damascus Spring Offen- 7 “CIA Prepares for Invasion of Daraa via Jordan,” al- February 14, 2014. sive,” Naharnet, February 18, 2014. Ahed News, August 5, 2013.

20 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6

Arab tribes that stood on the edge existence of these traditional rivalries, of Dar`a city.18 Al-Rifa`i, the smallest of of the Syrian Desert. Dar`a, under the major tribes of Dar`a are reported the major tribes in Dar`a, are located in the Ottomans, was incorporated into to share common grievances, described several of the same towns as al-Zou`bi, Hawran district that also included accurately as a “tribal revolt” or a “blood with their greatest concentration in the areas of modern-day northern Jordan, feud,” against the al-Assad government villages of Nassib and `Uthman near and was attached to the Damascus in Dar`a, and to have established armed Dar`a city.19 velayet (province).8 It was considered groups in the province that are generally to be one of the “breadbaskets” that tribally integrated.14 Al-Na`ime tribesmen are reported fed Damascus.9 Modern-day Dar`a to be located in the greatest number Province retained its agricultural Geographically, al-Zou`bi are believed in the northwestern region of Dar`a importance and Dar`a city was also to be the most numerous tribal group from the city of al-Sheikh Maskin a major transit point for southbound in Dar`a, with extensive cross-border to Nawa and Jasim in Izra` district, commercial traffic and also the relations with al-Zou`bi living in and the north-central region of al- smuggling of goods between Turkey, northern Jordan’s Irbid Province, Sanamayn district, and in neighboring Syria, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia.10 particularly in and around the Jordanian al-Quneitra Province.20 Several of the border town of al-Ramtha and in the most prominent leaders within the Demographically, Dar`a Province is city of Irbid, where the tribe has a FSA’s Southern Front are members of predominately Sunni Arab with smaller large presence in the local population.15 the al-Na`ime tribe, including the FSA populations of sectarian minorities An estimate of the tribe’s population, Supreme Military Council’s (FSA-SMC) including Christians, Druze, and Shi`a. spread between southern Syria and commanding officer Brigadier General There are four major tribes in Dar`a northern Jordan, is over 160,000, not Abdel-Illah al-Bashir, and Colonel Abdo Province—al-Zou`bi, al-Hariri, al- all of whom in Syria have actively joined Na`ime, who was captured by Jabhat al- Na`ime, and al-Rifa`i—which are, with the armed opposition.16 Al-Zou`bi are Nusra’s Dar`a branch in May 2014.21 some controversy among them, believed predominate in and around Dar`a city, to have originated as part of the larger with populations of al-Zou`bi living Other tribal groups also exist in the al-Na`ime tribal confederation.11 The in towns and villages including al- province. Southwest of the city of Dar`a, major tribal groups in Dar`a have Na`ima, Saida, al-Ta`iba, Nassib, al- the most prominent tribal group is the experienced significant rivalries Museefra and al-Jeeza that are east of al-Miqdad, which is predominate in the in their modern history, including the city; Da`il and Khirbet Ghazalah towns of Ghasam and Ma’raba, and the between al-Hariri and al-Zou`bi, which northeast of the city; and `Uthman, al- city of Busra, near the Jabal al-‘Arab inhabit generally the same area of Dar`a Yaduda, Muzayrib, and Tafas that are mountain range on the Syrian-Jordanian Province and were rivals on opposing north and west of the city.17 Members border.22 In the city of Dar`a, which is sides of the Syrian national question of the al-Hariri tribe co-habit with the economic hub of southern Syria, during the French Mandate era,12 and the al-Zou`bi in generally the same tribes such as the Maslma, Mahameed, between the al-Hariri and al-Rifa`i, geographic location, with the tribe’s and Abizaid, and clans of the `Anaza which are reported to be closely related major concentrations in the towns of tribal confederation, co-habited with to each other, with the al-Rifa`i splitting Da’il, Bita’, and al-Sheikh Maskin north the province’s larger tribal groups and from the al-Zou`bi.13 In spite of the economic migrants from the Shammar tribal confederation of al-Hasakah 23 8 Hanna Batatu, Syria’s Peasantry, the Descendants of Its vember 2013, January 2014, April 2014. Al-Zou`bi assert Province. Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics (Princeton, NJ: that al-Rifa`i started as a family known for being Islamic Princeton University Press, 1999), p. 10. clerics which subsequently split from al-Zou`bi and es- 9 Dick Douwes, The Ottomans in Syria: A History of Justice tablished their own tribe in the Ottoman era. and Oppression (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2000), pp. 17, 19, 14 “The Destruction of Daraa,” Vice, June 2, 2014; Tareq 18 Batatu, pp. 25-26; personal interviews, Jordanian 20, 24. al-Abd, “Tribalism and the Syrian Crisis,” al-Monitor, tribesmen and Syrian tribesmen from Dar`a living in 10 Stephen Starr, Revolt in Syria: Eye-Witness to the Up- January 18, 2013; Rania Abouzeid, “Syria’s Revolt: How al-Ramtha, Jordan, November 2013, January 2014, April rising (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012), p. Graffiti Started an Uprising,” Time, March 22, 2011; per- 2014. 3. These details are also based on the author’s trips from sonal interviews, Jordanian tribesmen and Syrian tribes- 19 Personal interviews, Jordanian tribesmen and Syrian Damascus to southern Syria, including in Dar`a, in July men from Dar`a living in al-Ramtha, Jordan, November tribesmen from Dar`a living in al-Ramtha, Jordan, No- 2009 and March 2010. 2013, January 2014, April 2014. vember 2013, January 2014, April 2014. 11 Hassan Hassan, “Tribal Bonds Strengthen the Gulf’s 15 Muhammad al-Da`ma, “Al-Ramtha al-Urduniyya 20 Ibid. The controversy exists because al-Zou`bi and Hand in a New Syria,” The National, February 16, 2012; Tata`ataf ma` Dar`a al-Sooria Bisabab Tadakhul Al- al-Hariri tribesmen, generally more powerful than al- personal interviews, Jordanian tribesmen and Syrian `A’ilat wa al-Tijara,” Asharq al-Awsat, March 26, 2011; Na`ime in Dar`a Province, question the designation of tribesmen from Dar`a living in al-Ramtha, Jordan, No- personal interviews, Jordanian tribesmen and Syrian themselves as belonging to al-Na`ime. vember 2013, January 2014, April 2014. The controversy tribesmen from Dar`a living in al-Ramtha, Jordan, No- 21 Phil Sands and Suha Maayeh, “Al-Qaeda Kidnapping exists because al-Zoubi and al-Hariri tribesmen, gener- vember 2013, January 2014, April 2014. of Syrian Commander Could Open New Front,” The Na- ally more powerful than al-Na`ime in Dar`a Province, 16 Michael Weiss, “The Southern Front, Part 1,” NOW tional, May 6, 2014. question the designation of themselves as belonging to Lebanon, August 15, 2013. 22 Tareq al-Abd, “Tribalism and the Syrian Crisis,” al- the al-Na`ime. 17 Batatu, pp. 25-26; personal interviews, Jordanian Monitor, January 18, 2013; Batatu, pp. 24-25. 12 Batatu, p. 26. tribesmen and Syrian tribesmen from Dar`a living in 23 Carole A. O’Leary and Nicholas A. Heras, “Syrian 13 Personal interviews, Jordanian tribesmen and Syrian al-Ramtha, Jordan, November 2013, January 2014, April Tribal Networks and Their Implications for the Syrian tribesmen from Dar`a living in al-Ramtha, Jordan, No- 2014. Crisis,” Terrorism Monitor 10:11 (2012).

21 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6

Although there is a smaller population Damascus.29 Although the constituent tribesmen, active in several front-lines of sectarian minorities in Dar`a armed opposition factions of the in and around Dar`a city; Liwa’ Falluja Province than in other regions of Syria, Southern Front do not all share areas Hawran (Falluja Hawran Brigade), these communal groups still play an of operation or control territory that which is composed of al-Zou`bi, al- important role in ongoing events in the are territorially contiguous with each Rifa`i, Maslama, and Mahameed province. Dar`a city has traditionally other, they have sought to coordinate, tribesmen and is active in and around had a small population of Christians, where able, to relieve pressure on Dar`a city, especially in the villages of and the villages of al-Bashir and Naamer, other battle fronts in northern, Na`ima, Tafas, and Saida; Liwa’ Fajar which are suburbs of Dar`a city, and central, and eastern Syria. Their goal al-Islam (Dawn of Islam Brigade), the village of Izra` are considered to is to cut the Syrian military off from which is composed of al-Zou`bi, al- be the major population centers of Rifai`i, and al-Hariri tribesmen, and Christians in the province.24 Christians “The Southern Front, in is active in Tafas and `Uthman and from the city of Naamer are reported inside Dar`a city, and in Busra al-Harir to have joined Popular Committees theory, represents the in northeastern Dar`a Province; and organized under the National Defense FSA’s intended strategy to Liwa’ Moataz Bi-Allah, which includes Force (NDF) as auxiliaries to the 2013 al-Zou`bi, al-Rifa`i, Mahameed, and al- Syrian military campaign that seized apply strong pressure on Rifa`i tribesmen and is active in Dar`a Khirbet Ghazalah.25 Busra, a small city the al-Assad government city, Muzayrib, Tafas, and `Uthman. 24 miles southwest of Dar`a city, is the major population center for Shi`a in the in Damascus to reduce the Militant Islamist Factions in Dar`a province. The city’s Shi`a population regime’s ability to respond In addition to FSA-affiliated armed is believed to have migrated from the groups, both of the major militant area of Nabatiyya in southern Lebanon to other important battle Salafist organizations are active in during the Ottoman period.26 Currently, spaces.” Dar`a: Harakat Ahrar al-Sham al- an estimated 15,000 people, or 40% of Islamiyya (Islamic Movement of the the city’s population, are Shi`a, and are Free Ones of the Levant) and the al- concentrated in the eastern section of the Qa`ida affiliate Jabhat al-Nusra (Victory city.27 Busra has a notorious reputation southern Syria by gaining control Front).31 The largest concentration of among the Syrian armed opposition due over the inter-provincial Damascus- militant Salafist groups in Dar`a is to repeated assertions that Hizb Allah Dar`a highway, and to open strategic occurring in and around the cities of operatives are present in the Shi`a lines of supply into Damascus and Nawa and Jasim. Nawa, in particular, section of the city, and that the local opposition-controlled areas in the with a pre-war population estimated to Shi`a population has organized NDF Damascus suburbs that are under be at 50,000, is strategic because it is militias to confront rebel groups.28 siege by the Syrian military, including built near the inter-provincial Highway in the town of Mleha. The Southern 5 that extends from Idlib to Dar`a, and The FSA in Dar`a Front, in theory, represents the FSA’s which routes through Damascus. The The major armed opposition groups intended strategy to apply strong city also lies near the border between in Dar`a are considered to be part pressure on the al-Assad government Dar`a and al-Quneitra provinces, and of the FSA’s Southern Front, which in Damascus to reduce the regime’s is considered by the armed opposition claims to have the allegiance of more ability to respond to other important as a staging point to launch operations than 50 militias with a combined battle spaces, such as north of Homs into al-Quneitra Province and to relieve 30,000 fighters concentrated in and in and around Aleppo.30 pressure applied by the Syrian military Dar`a Province, and represented in on opposition fighters in southern Dar`a’s neighboring provinces of Several of the largest constituent armed Dar`a Province.32 al-Quneitra, al-Suweida, and Reef groups within the Southern Front are composed of tribal fighters that are From the al-Assad government’s 24 “Dar`a: Ma`rakat Hawran,” al-Mayadeen News, June based in Dar`a. These armed groups, perspective, the siege of Nawa is 13, 2013; Brooke Anderson, “Syria’s Daraa: Writing His- especially in the southern regions of one of its most important campaigns tory on the Wall,” Daily Star, March 14, 2012; Starr, p. 9; Dar`a, integrate fighters from multiple in southern Syria, which is echoed Batatu. tribes and include: Farqa al-Yarmouk by media sympathetic to the Syrian 33 25 “Dar`a: Ma`rakat Hawran.” (Yarmouk Division), led by a prominent regime. The importance of Nawa 26 Batatu, p. 24. al-Zou`bi tribesman named Bashar 27 Muhammad Abo Abdo and Ahmed Kwider, “Hezbol- al-Zoubi and composed of al-Zou`bi, 31 Nicholas A. Heras, “The Battle for al-Quneitra, the lah Fighters Seen in Daraa Province,” Syria Direct, June al-Rifa`i, al-Miqdad, and al-Hariri ‘Gateway to Damascus,’” Terrorism Monitor 12:5 (2014). 14, 2013; personal interviews, Jordanian tribesmen and In spite of the active presence of these militant Salafist Syrian tribesmen from Dar`a living in al-Ramtha, Jor- 29 “49 Factions Declare the ‘Southern Front’ in 5 Gover- groups in the Nawa area, the Syrian military continues to dan, November 2013, January 2014 and April 2014. norates,” Zaman al-Wasl, February 13, 2014. maintain an active siege of the city. 28 “Syrian Army Prepares for an Attack from its South- 30 “Reef Damascus: Clashes Between the Free Army 32 Ibid. ern Border,” al-Akhbar, February 19, 2014; “Hezbollah and Regime Forces on the Southern Front in the Town of 33 “Syria: Army Continues Advancing, Cuts Militants’ Flags and Sectarian Logos Flying From the Skies of Bus- Mleha,” Mojez, May 24, 2014; “Conflict in the Southern Supply Route in Daraa,” Fars News, May 19, 2014; “Syr- ra al-Sham, Dara’a,” August 8, 2013, available at www. Front in Syria to Open the Damascus Road,” NOW Leba- ian Army Repels Militants’ Attack on Strategic Daraa youtube.com/watch?v=Dc05Wg808tw. non, March 4, 2014. Region,” February 1, 2014, available at www.liveleak.

22 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6 to the Syrian military’s efforts in cooperated as an auxiliary force to is widely credited within the armed southern Syrian has led to allegations the FSA-affiliated armed groups in opposition for being notably fierce in that it has sought the active the province.38 The leadership of its commitment to combating the al- involvement of seasoned Hizb Allah Jabhat al-Nusra in Dar`a Province is Assad government—could be a draw operatives to coordinate its campaign. reportedly composed of a core of foreign that brings young tribal fighters away Fawzi Muhammad Ayoub, a veteran fighters from Jordan and other areas of from the FSA-affiliated militias. Hizb Allah commander, was reportedly the Middle East, most of whom have killed in Nawa in late May 2014.34 fought in northern Syria, and some of The FSA’s apparent position of strength whom have recent experience fighting in Dar`a Province can also be further Ahrar al-Sham has made the battle U.S.-led forces in Iraq, who command weakened by the rising social tensions to control Nawa and its surrounding rank-and-file militants composed between tribesmen belonging to the areas a priority for it in southern Syria, of local tribesmen from Dar`a.39 The armed opposition organizations and naming its current campaign Ma`rakat threat of violence, and protracted tribal the militant Salafist groups. This Fajr al-Rabi` (Dawn of Spring Battle).35 vendettas, directed against Jabhat al- growing tension between tribally- Militant Islamist groups close to Ahrar Nusra by tribesmen in FSA-affiliated organized revolutionaries—primarily al-Sham and the powerful, multi- groups is a developing factor in the between FSA-affiliated militias and the provincial armed opposition coalition conflict in Dar`a Province. A threat al-Qa`ida affiliate Jabhat al-Nusra— that it belongs to, al-Jabhat al-Islamiyya from the al-Rifa`i and Maslama threaten to overcome rebel cohesion in (Islamic Front), have also cooperated tribes against Jabhat al-Nusra for the Dar`a. FSA-affiliated armed groups and with Ahrar al-Sham in Dar`a. Most capture of two FSA-affiliated officers Jabhat al-Nusra will seek to maintain prominent among these armed factions from these tribes, who were captured the ideological asabiyya (social cohesion) is Alwiya al-Furqan (The Criterion with Colonel Abdo Na`ime, is reported of their fighters, while simultaneously Brigades), which is based in the southern to have led to the release of the officers preventing serious fitna (social discord Damascus exurbs centered on the town and an apology from Jabhat al-Nusra to and conflict) between local tribesmen of Kanakir. Alwiya al-Furqan, which their tribes.40 that could force them to withdraw from has reportedly close links to the Islamic Dar`a in the face of the ongoing Syrian Front in Damascus’ suburbs, Dar`a, Conclusion military campaign in the province. and al-Quneitra, is the primary faction Dar`a Province is the strongest area Conflict between the FSA-affiliated behind the armed opposition campaign of operations for the FSA in Syria, a tribes and Jabhat al-Nusra in Dar`a Ma`rakat Fajr al-Taw`hid 2 (Dawn of Holy position which has been challenged by would assist the Syrian military and Unity Battle 2) that operates in the ongoing Syrian military operations and weaken one of the FSA’s few viable same battle space as Ahrar al-Sham’s the increase in the operational presence battle spaces where it could appeal to Ma`rakat Fajr al-Rabi`.36 of Jabhat al-Nusra and Ahrar al-Sham direct foreign assistance for its war in the province. FSA-affiliated armed effort and to possibly help it establish Jabhat al-Nusra is the most active groups with a predominately tribal, a “free Syrian” civil and military militant Salafist armed opposition local composition have, however, administration on the actual territory organization in Dar`a. Jabhat al-Nusra successfully resisted the Syrian of Syria. fighters are reportedly engaged in military and either co-opted or diffused combat throughout the province, in the strength of the militant Salafist Nicholas A. Heras is an analyst at the battle spaces ranging from Nawa in opposition organizations for more than Jamestown Foundation, a senior analyst the northwest, to Busra al-Harir in three years. Jabhat al-Nusra has begun with Michael Moran & Associates, LLP, the northeast, and in and around the to challenge the leadership role in the and an associate editor at the international city of Dar`a.37 They have generally Dar`a armed opposition that has been affairs journal Fair Observer. A former held by the FSA. Jabhat al-Nusra’s David L. Boren Fellow and Soref Fellow, he com/view?i=c93_1391269563. expanded and increasingly independent has significant field experience throughout 34 “Canadian Hezbollah Commander Killed Fighting operations in and around the city of Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan researching Rebels in Syria,” al-Arabiya, May 27, 2014. Dar`a—the “prize” of the fighting in the politics of identity, cultural conflict, 35 “Harakat Ahrar al-Sham-Issuing the Dawn of Spring the province—threatens FSA control and socio-economic tension. Battle-Liberate al-Quneitra Countryside,” Islam Sham over the conflict in Dar`a. The YouTube page, February 19, 2014. The “Dawn of Spring potential appeal of a reinvigorated Battle” is the successor to Harakat Ahrar al-Sham’s ear- Jabhat al-Nusra organization in lier campaign, which was launched in November 2013, Dar`a—as the militant Salafist group called Ma`rakat Fajr al-Tawhid (Dawn of Holy Unity Battle). Among Rebels, Tribes in South Syria,” al-Monitor, May 36 Nicholas A. Heras, “Muhammad Majid al-Khatib: A 8, 2014; Sands and Maayeh; “Syrian Army Prepares for Rising Leader in the Free Syrian Army,” Militant Leader- an Attack from its Southern Border,” al-Akhbar, Febru- ship Monitor 5:2 (2014). ary 19, 2014. 37 See the YouTube page of “Kaesar Zezoon” for an 38 Ibid. updated list of videos of purported Jabhat al-Nusra op- 39 Carole A. O’Leary and Nicholas A. Heras, “Those ‘Son erations in the area of Nawa: www.youtube.com/chan- of a Bitch Bonds’ That Can Never Be Broken,” Counter nel/UCdoaMYmugmat5GyAOQbQAVQ/videos. Also Violent Extremism (CVE) Journal 4 (2014). see Tareq Al-Abed, “Jabhat al-Nusra Losing Support 40 Sands and Maayeh.

23 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6

May 2, 2014 (EGYPT): A suicide Maan to begin jihad against the Recent Highlights in bomber in the South Sinai killed an Jordanian government. In the video, Political Violence Egyptian soldier. – Reuters, May 2 an ISIL fighter said that the Jordanian government is a “regime that has ruled May 1, 2014 (AFGHANISTAN): May 2, 2014 (EGYPT): A car bomb over the Muslims for dozens of years A suicide bomber detonated an killed a policeman at a traffic security according to [laws] differing from explosives-laden vehicle in Panjshir post in Cairo. – Reuters, May 2 those of the Qur’an and the Sunna Province, killing six policemen and six of the Prophet. It rules them instead road construction workers. Panjshir May 2, 2014 (YEMEN): Al-Qa`ida in according to infidel man-made laws. Province, which is usually peaceful, is the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) It is a regime that kills Muslims and fiercely anti-Taliban. – Reuters, May 1 threatened to attack any party involved aggresses their sacred places…it is in U.S. drone operations in Yemen. a regime that battles jihad and the May 1, 2014 (YEMEN): Yemeni “For us, all such establishments are mujahidin in all the jihad arenas…” security forces killed seven fighters legitimate targets,” warned AQAP’s The speaker also called on Jordanian from al-Qa`ida in the Arabian Qasim al-Raymi. “We won’t wait for tribes in Maan to turn against the Peninsula (AQAP) in Abyan Province. them to come to us—we will go to them.” Jordanian government. – Jerusalem Post, One of those killed was an Uzbek AQAP Al-Raymi accused Yemeni security May 6 commander known as Abu Muslim al- forces of helping the United States Uzbeki. – Voice of America, May 1 track AQAP’s vehicles. – AFP, May 3 May 4, 2014 (SYRIA): Jabhat al-Nusra, al-Qa`ida’s affiliate in Syria, set its May 1, 2014 (NIGERIA): A car bomb May 2, 2014 (YEMEN): Yemeni forces conditions for a cessation of fighting exploded on a busy street in the killed five al-Qa`ida in the Arabian with its rival group, the Islamic Nigerian capital of Abuja, killing Peninsula (AQAP) militants in State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). approximately 19 people. – AP, May 1 Shabwa Province. The attack came on The ISIL, which was formerly al- the fourth day of a Yemeni military Qa`ida’s affiliate in Iraq until Ayman May 2, 2014 (SYRIA): Al-Qa`ida chief offensive against the group and its al-Zawahiri disowned the group, Ayman al-Zawahiri released a new allies. – Reuters, May 2 has engaged in bloody infighting video message, in which he said that with Jabhat al-Nusra. According to Iraqi al-Qa`ida’s entry into Syria’s May 3, 2014 (IRAQ): Gunmen killed Jabhat al-Nusra, “as soon as the ISIL civil war has caused “a political four Sunni anti-al-Qa`ida militiamen announces an end to its attacks on disaster.” Al-Zawahiri said in the in Tarmiyya, 30 miles north of Muslims, we will spontaneously stop video message that if the Islamic State Baghdad. – AP, May 3 firing.” – AFP, May 4 in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) had accepted his decision to stay out of May 3, 2014 (YEMEN): Al-Qa`ida in May 5, 2014 (IRAQ): A car bomb Syria and had instead worked to “busy the Arabian Peninsula announced exploded outside a restaurant in itself with Iraq, which needs double that Ali bin Likra al-Kazimy died Kirkuk, killing three people. – Boston. its efforts,” then it could have avoided after succumbing to injuries days com, May 5 the “waterfall of blood” caused by after an attack by the Yemeni military militant infighting. As explained by and U.S. drone aircraft in the town of May 5, 2014 (UNITED ARAB Reuters, Iraqi al-Qa`ida “militants Mahfad. – Guardian, May 3 EMIRATES): A court hearing began joined the conflict in Syria last year for nine suspected al-Qa`ida members and unilaterally declared they were May 3, 2014 (SYRIA): Jabhat al- accused of plotting attacks in the taking over the Nusra Front, which Nusra, al-Qa`ida’s affiliate in United Arab Emirates. The nine had won the admiration of many rebels Syria, kidnapped Ahmed Nehmeh, a suspects are charged with “planning fighting Syria’s President Bashar al- Western-backed military leader in attacks damaging to the country’s Assad for its battlefield prowess…Al- the Dar`a Military Council, after he security and (foreign) residents.” The Zawahiri, who has run al-Qa`ida since criticized extremist groups. According nine are Arab nationals, mostly from Usama bin Ladin was killed in May to the National, “his abduction is a North Africa. One is being tried in 2011, accused ISIL’s leader, Abu Bakr setback for the rebels’ efforts to unify absentia. – AFP, May 6 al-Baghdadi, of ‘sedition’ and said their ranks and push a new offensive rebel disunity had been handed ‘on a against the forces of President Bashar May 5, 2014 (YEMEN): Gunmen killed plate of gold’ to Assad, the ultimate al-Assad on the southern front. It a Frenchman who was working as target of all Sunni Islamist groups in also shows that although the south is a security agent for the European Syria.” – Reuters, May 3 widely considered the most coherent Union’s mission in Sana`a. On May opposition bloc in the country, it 7, Yemeni security forces said that May 2, 2014 (SYRIA): Two car bombs is also affected by lingering rebel they killed the man responsible for exploded in two villages in Hama schisms.” – The National, May 6 the attack, who was identified as Province, killing 18 people. – Voice of Wael Abdallah Masoud al-Waeli, America, May 2 May 3, 2014 (JORDAN): The Islamic along with one of his accomplices. State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) Authorities captured a third member released a video calling on residents of the group alive. According to of the southern Jordanian city of Yemen’s supreme security committee,

24 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6 al-Waeli had organized other attacks responsible for the attack, as both May 8, 2014 (IRAQ): A bomb exploded on Westerners. – Reuters, May 7 Yemeni tribesmen and al-Qa`ida in on a commercial street in Baghdad’s the Arabian Peninsula have targeted Dora district, killing two people. – AP, May 5, 2014 (NIGERIA): Suspected pipelines and other infrastructure in May 8 Boko Haram gunmen kidnapped the past. – Reuters, May 7 eight girls from the village of Warabe May 9, 2014 (IRAQ): Iraqi security in northeastern Nigeria. The girls May 6, 2014 (YEMEN): Yemeni troops forces launched an operation to retake were between the ages of 12 and 15. secured control of the al-Mahfad area areas of Falluja, which has been held According to local residents, the of Abyan Province, which has served by the Islamic State in Iraq and the gunmen arrived in two vehicles and as a stronghold for al-Qa`ida in the Levant (ISIL). The purpose of the took the girls away on trucks, along Arabian Peninsula. – Reuters, May 7 operation was to lay the groundwork with food and livestock that they stole for a future military assault on the from the village. – Chicago Tribune, May 6 May 7, 2014 (SYRIA): Hundreds city. – Dawn, May 10 of Syrian rebels left their last May 5, 2014 (NIGERIA): Boko Haram stronghold in Homs as part of a deal May 9, 2014 (YEMEN): Suspected leader Abubakar Shekau released brokered by Iran and facilitated by al-Qa`ida in the Arabian Peninsula a new video message, in which he the United Nations. As explained by militants attempted to assassinate threatened to sell the more than 200 the BBC, “Much of Homs fell to the Yemeni Defense Minister Muhammad teenage schoolgirls the group abducted opposition in 2011, but over the past Nasr Ahmad in Shabwa Province. in April. “By Allah, I will sell them in two years [Syrian] government forces – Voice of America, May 9 the marketplace,” he threatened in the have gradually regained control by hour-long video. – USA Today, May 5 subjecting areas once home to tens May 9, 2014 (YEMEN): Militants from of thousands to continuous siege al-Qa`ida in the Arabian Peninsula May 6, 2014 (SAUDI ARABIA): Saudi and bombardment…It marks the end killed three Yemeni soldiers at a authorities announced that they broke of three years of resistance in the checkpoint near the presidential palace up a “major terrorist network” linked central city [of Homs], once dubbed in Sana`a. – Voice of America, May 9 to al-Qa`ida groups in Iraq, Yemen and the ‘capital of the revolution’ against Syria that was plotting attacks against President Bashar al-Assad.” – BBC, May 10, 2014 (IRAQ): The Islamic foreign interests and government May 7 State in Iraq and the Levant attacked installations in Saudi Arabia. The a small Iraqi military base in Ninawa Saudi Interior Ministry said that they May 8, 2014 (AFGHANISTAN): The Province, capturing 20 soldiers who had arrested 62 suspected members Afghan Taliban announced the start were subsequently executed. – AFP, of the group, including 35 Saudi of its annual spring offensive. In its May 10 nationals and three foreigners. An statement, the group warned that it additional 44 suspects remain on the would target “military gatherings May 10, 2014 (EGYPT): Egyptian loose. Saudi authorities said that the of foreign invading forces, their authorities charged 200 suspected network had made direct contact with diplomatic centers and convoys as militants with carrying out more the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant well as the military bases of their than 50 terrorist attacks, killing (ISIL), and that the network was internal mercenary stooges, their 40 policemen and 15 civilians, and plotting “large-scale assassinations” convoys and the facilities of foreign, collaborating with the Palestinian in addition to other attacks on Saudi interior, intelligence and Arbaki militant group Hamas. All of the government installations and foreign militia [government-supported defendants allegedly belong to Ansar interests. As stated by the Guardian, local armed groups].” According to Bayt al-Maqdis. Ninety-eight of the “The announcement comes against a the Afghan government, more than defendants were tried in absentia. background of growing anxiety in the 13,000 Afghan soldiers and police – AP, May 10 conservative kingdom about the risk of officers have been killed in the ‘blowback’ from jihadi groups fighting country since 2001, while, according May 11, 2014 (GLOBAL): A spokesman in Syria, despite enthusiastic Saudi to an Associated Press count, at least for the Islamic State in Iraq and the government and private financial and 2,179 U.S. military members have died Levant (ISIL) sharply criticized logistical support for the overthrow of in that same time period. – NBC News, Ayman al-Zawahiri, rejecting the President Bashar al-Assad.” – Guardian, May 8 al-Qa`ida chief’s call to leave Syria. May 6 “Shaykh Usama [bin Ladin] gathered May 8, 2014 (PAKISTAN): A bomb all the mujahidin with one word, but May 6, 2014 (YEMEN): Gunmen targeted a Pakistani military vehicle you [al-Zawahiri] divided them and bombed Yemen’s main oil export in the tribal areas near the border with tore them apart,” said the spokesman. pipeline, halting the flow of crude. Afghanistan, killing nine Pakistani “We call on you to undo your fatal According to Reuters, “The pipeline soldiers. – RFE/RL, May 8 mistake…because you are the one who was bombed twice in less than 12 kindled sedition, you are the one who hours late on Tuesday [May 6] in May 8, 2014 (IRAQ): A bomb exploded will extinguish it.” He also accused an area between the central Marib inside a small café in a Baghdad suburb, Ayman al-Zawahiri and al-Qa`ida of Province and the capital, Sana`a…” It killing four people. – AP, May 8 protecting Iran from militant attacks was not immediately clear who was during the past several years. The

25 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6

ISIL’s spokesman said that al-Qa`ida May 13, 2014 (NIGERIA): According have blamed the attacks on militants had issued orders to Islamist militants to Reuters, “Nigeria’s government connected to Somalia’s al-Qa`ida- not to attack Iran or its interests. signaled willingness on Tuesday [May linked al-Shabab rebels.” - AFP, May 17 – AFP, May 12; AP, May 12; al-Arabiya, May 12 13] to negotiate with Islamist militants holding more than 200 schoolgirls, May 18, 2014 (SOMALIA): Kenyan May 11, 2014 (SYRIA): The Islamic a month after the kidnap that has fighter jets attacked al-Shabab State in Iraq and the Levant reportedly provoked global outrage.” Boko Haram facilities in Somalia. – Bloomberg, May 18 took control of key parts of Dayr al- leader Abubakar Shekau recently said Zur Province from other rebel groups. that the group would release the girls May 18, 2014 (NIGERIA): A suicide – Reuters, May 11 in exchange for a number of Boko bomber in a vehicle killed five people Haram militants currently imprisoned on a street known for popular bars and May 11, 2014 (YEMEN): A suicide by the Nigerian government. – Reuters, restaurants in Kano. – Reuters, May 18 bomber in a vehicle killed 10 Yemeni May 13 soldiers and one civilian in an attack May 19, 2014 (UNITED STATES): on a military police building in the May 13, 2014 (NIGERIA): Boko Haram A U.S. court found radical Islamic southern coastal city of Mukalla. militants ambushed and killed four preacher Abu Hamza guilty of – Reuters, May 11 Nigerian soldiers outside Maiduguri terrorism charges. As stated by the in northeastern Nigeria. – Reuters, May Telegraph, “Hamza was accused of May 11, 2014 (AFGHANISTAN): A 14 providing material support to terrorist suicide bomber in a vehicle killed at organizations by enabling hostage- least five people in Kandahar Province. May 15, 2014 (SYRIA): A car bomb takers in the Yemen kidnapping to – RFE/RL, May 11 killed at least 29 people near the speak on a satellite phone, by sending Bab al-Salama border crossing with men to establish an al-Qa`ida training May 11, 2014 (PAKISTAN): A suicide Turkey. – CNN, May 15 camp in the U.S. state of Oregon, and bomber killed at least four people at a by sending at least one man to training soccer stadium in northwest Pakistan. May 16, 2014 (IRAQ): Gunmen opened camps in Afghanistan.” Hamza was The bomber apparently targeted fire from a speeding vehicle on a extradited from the United Kingdom refugees from Khyber Agency as they security checkpoint manned by anti- to the United States in 2012. – Telegraph, registered with the government in the al-Qa`ida Sunni fighters near Balad, May 19 stadium. – Voice of America, May 11 killing three of them. – AP, May 16 May 19, 2014 (UNITED ARAB May 12, 2014 (AFGHANISTAN): To May 16, 2014 (CAMEROON): EMIRATES): The United Arab mark the start of its spring offensive, Suspected Boko Haram militants Emirates referred nine expatriate Taliban fighters killed two police attacked a Chinese plant near Waza in Arabs to a state security court, guards and then stormed a government northern Cameroon. Waza lies just 12 accusing them of joining al-Qa`ida, building in Jalalabad. Separately, miles from the Nigerian border close collecting donations and recruiting Taliban fighters launched rockets to the Sambisa Forest, an area known fighters for Jabhat al-Nusra in Syria. at Kabul International Airport, for being a Boko Haram hideout. – Reuters, May 19 but caused no damage. They also According to Reuters, “Chinese state launched rockets at Bagram airbase, news agency Xinhua quoted Chinese May 19, 2014 (PAKISTAN): Tehrik- although that attack did not cause any officials as saying unidentified i-Taliban Pakistan kidnapped a casualties. – CBS News, May 12 assailants had attacked the camp of Chinese tourist who was on a cycling a Chinese enterprise operating in tour of the country. The cyclist was May 12, 2014 (YEMEN): A suspected Cameroon on Friday night, injuring kidnapped near Dera Ismail Khan in U.S. drone strike killed six al-Qa`ida one person and leaving 10 unaccounted western Pakistan. – Reuters, May 20 in the Arabian Peninsula militants in for.” – Reuters, May 17 Marib Province. – AP, May 12 May 20, 2014 (AFGHANISTAN): May 16, 2014 (KENYA): Two bombs Taliban fighters killed eight Afghan May 12, 2014 (SOMALIA): A suicide ripped through a market near central policemen and kidnapped 27 other bomber in a vehicle apparently tried Nairobi, killing 10 people. – Guardian, policemen in Badakhshan Province. to assassinate Abdi Fatah Gesey, a May 16 In a rare move, the Taliban freed 23 former governor, but instead killed of the police officers as a gesture of at least 12 people, including Somali May 17, 2014 (KENYA): The United “mercy” one week later. – Washington government soldiers and civilians, States said that it was preparing to Post, May 23; Washington Post, May 27 in Baidoa. Gesey was unharmed. – al- reduce staff levels at its embassy in Jazira, May 12 Nairobi due to the growing threat of May 20, 2014 (NIGERIA): Two car attacks in Kenya by Islamist militants. bombs exploded at a busy bus terminal May 13, 2014 (IRAQ): A series of As stated by Agence France-Presse, and market in Jos, killing at least 118 car bombs struck Shi`a districts in “The move comes after a wave of people. According to the Associated Baghdad, killing at least 25 people. shootings, bombings and grenade Press, “the second blast came half an – BBC, May 13 attacks in Kenya’s capital, Nairobi, and hour after the first, killing some of the port city of Mombasa. Authorities the rescue workers who had rushed

26 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6 to the scene, which was obscured by in Marseille after he arrived on a the bombing in the northern province billows of black smoke.” There was coach from Amsterdam via Brussels. of Idlib, where he had traveled after no immediate claim of responsibility, Nemmouche allegedly spent more spending two months in a training although authorities suspect that the than a year training in Syria with the camp of the militant group the Nusra Boko Haram group is to blame. – AP, Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant. Front in Aleppo. The officials said May 20 Nemmouche reportedly admitted to they thought it was the first time the museum attack in a video. – France an American had been involved in May 22, 2014 (UNITED STATES): The 24, June 1; BBC, June 1 a suicide attack in Syria.” – New York U.S. Justice Department has assigned Times, May 30 a veteran prosecutor to monitor the May 24, 2014 (DJIBOUTI): A suicide flow of foreign fighters, including bombing at a restaurant filled with May 25, 2014 (AFGHANISTAN): Americans, to Syria. The FBI has also Western military personnel killed A suicide bomber wearing a burqa created a special team to identify U.S. three people. Al-Shabab claimed killed Abdul Wadood Sarhadi Jajo, citizens traveling to Syria to fight. responsibility. – al-Jazira, May 25; AFP, a prominent police commander, in – Reuters, May 22 May 27 Kandahar. – Wall Street Journal, May 25

May 22, 2014 (SYRIA): The United May 24, 2014 (IRAQ): A car bomb May 25, 2014 (LEBANON): Lebanese Kingdom said that Syria has made exploded outside a liquor store in security forces arrested Omar Bakri no progress in giving up its last Kirkuk, killing at least seven people. Muhammad, a radical Islamic cleric batch of chemical weapons, with the – Sky News, May 25 who spent years in the United Bashar al-Assad regime claiming that Kingdom. He had been on the run in the weapons are inaccessible due to May 24, 2014 (NIGERIA): The United Lebanon since April, when Lebanese fighting. – Reuters, May 22 Nations added Boko Haram to its security forces raided his home in list of al-Qa`ida associates subject Tripoli. According to the New York May 22, 2014 (IRAQ): A suicide to financial sanctions and an arms Times, “Lebanese authorities viewed bomber detonated explosives among embargo. – AFP, May 24 him with increasing concern after he Shi`a pilgrims in Baghdad’s Mansur expressed support for an extremist district, killing 11 people. – CNN, May May 24, 2014 (PAKISTAN): Two group that has taken over parts of 22 small bombs exploded in the heart of northern Syria, the Islamic State in Islamabad, killing a security guard. Iraq and Syria, and called for it to May 22, 2014 (IRAQ): A suicide – Reuters, May 24 activate cells in Lebanon. He has bomber in a vehicle killed eight people denied links to al-Qa`ida, but has in a commercial district in Baghdad. May 24, 2014 (YEMEN): Heavily- called for the group’s flag to be flown – CNN, May 22 armed al-Qa`ida in the Arabian over Lebanon’s presidential palace.” Peninsula (AQAP) militants attacked – New York Times, May 25 May 22, 2014 (CHINA): Two vehicles the southern city of Seyoun in ploughed into a market in Urumqi, Hadramawt Province. The militants May 25, 2014 (YEMEN): Yemeni the capital of China’s restive Xinjiang targeted an army base, the Central security forces killed a senior leader Province. One of the vehicles Bank building, the city’s central from al-Qa`ida in the Arabian exploded, killing more than 30 people. security headquarters, the traffic Peninsula during a raid near Sana`a. According to Australian media, “It police department, the post office The leader was identified as Salih al- was not immediately clear who was and the agricultural bank. At least Tais. – Reuters, May 25 responsible for the attack, but recent 10 Yemeni soldiers and 15 AQAP violence in the region has been blamed militants were killed. – al-Jazira, May 24 May 26, 2014 (AFGHANISTAN): on extremists from Xinjiang’s native A suicide bomber on a motorcycle Turkic Uighur Muslim ethnic group May 24, 2014 (SOMALIA): Al-Shabab rammed into a bus carrying soldiers seeking to overthrow Chinese rule in militants undertook a complex attack and civilian employees in Kabul, the region.” – news.com.au, May 22 on Somalia’s parliament building, killing two Afghan Defense Ministry killing at least one soldier. The attack staffers. – AP, May 26 May 23, 2014 (YEMEN): A suicide involved a car bomb, a suicide bomber bomber in an explosives-laden vehicle and gunmen on foot. – Times, May 24 May 27, 2014 (NORWAY): Norwegian targeted a checkpoint manned by police announced that they arrested Shi`a Muslim Huthi fighters in al- May 25, 2014 (UNITED STATES/ three people suspected of aiding the Jawf Province in northern Yemen, SYRIA): Moner Mohammad Abu- Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant killing at least three people. – Reuters, Salha, a U.S. citizen from Florida, (ISIL). At least two of the three May 23 blew himself up in an attack on suspects are accused of having joined Syrian government troops in Syria. the ISIL as foreign fighters. Two May 24, 2014 (BELGIUM): A gunman According to the New York Times, “The of the men were born in the former shot and killed four people in an attack [U.S.] officials said they believed that Yugoslavia, while the third is from on the Jewish Museum in Brussels. Mr. Abusalha, who adopted the nom de Somalia. – Reuters, May 27 French authorities later arrested guerre Abu Huraira al-Amriki, used Mehdi Nemmouche at a bus station a large truck in helping to carry out

27 june 2014 . Vol 7. Issue 6

May 27, 2014 (IRAQ): A suicide CTC Sentinel Staff bomber attacked a Shi`a mosque in Baghdad, killing at least 19 people. Editor-in-Chief – AFP, May 27 Erich Marquardt Senior Editor, CTC May 28, 2014 (PAKISTAN): Tehrik- i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) announced Editorial Board a separation between the Mehsud COL Cindy R. Jebb, Ph.D. faction, which is led by Khan Said (also Department Head known as Sajna), and another faction Department of Social Sciences (West Point) led by TTP chief Maulana Fazlullah. The Mehsud faction said that they COL Suzanne Nielsen, Ph.D. were cutting ties with Fazlullah Deputy Department Head since his faction is too violent and Department of Social Sciences (West Point) unpredictable. – UPI, May 29

MAJ Bryan Price, Ph.D. May 29, 2014 (YEMEN): A gunman Director, CTC riding on the back of a motorcycle assassinated a Yemeni intelligence officer and his son in broad daylight in Mukalla, Hadramawt Province. – AFP, May 30

May 30, 2014 (SPAIN): Spanish police broke up a jihadist cell operating in Contact the country, arresting six individuals Combating Terrorism Center in Spain’s North African territory of U.S. Military Academy Melilla. According to Spain’s Interior 607 Cullum Road, Lincoln Hall Ministry, the cell was recruiting West Point, NY 10996 and sending jihadists to “terrorist Phone: (845) 667-6383 organizations” based in Mali and Email: [email protected] Libya. – AFP, May 30 Web: www.ctc.usma.edu/sentinel/ May 30, 2014 (NIGERIA): Suspected * For Press Inquiries: (845) 667-6383 Boko Haram gunmen killed a traditional Muslim amir in Borno State. – Reuters, May 30

May 31, 2014 (UNITED STATES/ AFGHANISTAN): Sgt. Bowe Bergdahl, support the only American prisoner of war held The Combating Terrorism Center would by the Taliban, was released to U.S. like to express its gratitude to its financial forces in exchange for five Taliban supporters, for without their support and prisoners held at Guantanamo Bay, shared vision of the Center products like the Cuba. Bergdahl was captured by the CTC Sentinel could not be produced. If you Taliban nearly five years ago. – New are interested in learning more about how York Times, May 31 to support the Combating Terrorism Center, please visit http://www.ctc.usma.edu or call Kristin Sorenson at West Point’s Association of Graduates at 845-446-1561.

The views expressed in this report are those of the authors and not of the U.S. Military Academy, the Department of the Army, or any other agency of the U.S. Government.

28