SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND LAW DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
MA THESIS
POTABLE WATER SUPPLY AND CONSUMPTION IN WARDER TOWN, EASTERN ETHIOPIA
BY
BRHANEMESKEL AMARE
AUGUST, 2016
ADAMA, ETHIOPIA ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND LAW DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
MA THESIS
POTABLE WATER SUPPLY AND CONSUMPTION IN WARDER TOWN,
EASTERN ETHIOPIA
BY
BRHANEMESKEL AMARE
ADVISOR: TEFERI MOKENEN (PHD)
MA THESIS SUMITTED TO ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENTOF THE REQUIERMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES.
AUGUST, 2016
ADAMA, ETHIOPIA DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and that all source of materials used for this thesis have been dually acknowledged.
This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for MA degree at Adama Science and Technology University and is deposited at the University Library to be made available to borrowers under the rules of the library.
Declared by
Name: BRHANEMESKEL AMARE
Signature: ______
Date: ______
Confirmed by
Name: ______
Signature:______
Date: ______
Place and Date of Submission: ASTU, August, 2016
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Acknowledgment is due for almighty God with His assistance every things is impossible. With great pleasure and deep sense of thankfulness, I express my gratitude to my research advisor Doctor Teferi Mekonen for his tireless encouragement, masterly guidance, scholarly criticisms and critical comments. I thank him for his concern and kindness. I must also express my deep gratitude to my ex- advisor Dr. Tsetadrgachew Legesse for his tireless encouragement, masterly guidance, scholarly criticisms and critical comments in my proposal. I must also express my deep gratitude to my ex- advisor Mister Hurgesa Hundra for his tireless encouragement, masterly guidance, scholarly criticisms and critical comments in my thesis.
I would like to express my thanks to Warder Water Supply and Sewerage Service, Warder Municipality and Warder town dwellers for their collaboration and providing necessary data and information for my study.
I would also like to thank all my friends for their moral support and encouragement for the success of this paper specially Destalem Gebremariam, Fikadu Kebede, Bewketu Tadele, Asfaw kebede and Haftamu kiross and my soon Zemichael Brhanemeskel.
Last but not least I shall remain grateful to my dear wife Tirngo Million who stood by me and extended all possible support to complete this work without her assistance and encouragement; all what I always do would have been incomplete.
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Table of Contents Contents Pages DECLARATION ...... i ACKNOWLEDGMENT...... ii Table of Contents ...... iii List of Tables ...... v List of figures ...... vii List of Acronyms/Abbreviations...... viii Abstract ...... ix CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1. Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2. Statement of the Problem ...... 3 1.3. Objectives of the Study ...... 4 1.3.1. General objective ...... 4 1.3.2. Specific objectives ...... 4 1.4. The Research Questions ...... 4 1.5. Significance of the Study ...... 4 1.6. Scope and Limitation of the Study ...... 5 1.7. Ethical Consideration of the Research Process ...... 5 1.8. Data Validity and Reliability ...... 5 1.9. Organization of the Thesis ...... 6 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE ...... 7 2.1. Theoretical Literature ...... 7 2.1.1. Concept and definition of potable water supply ...... 7 2.1.2. Distribution of water resource ...... 8 2.1.3. Access to drinking water and its prospect...... 9 2.1.4. The state of urban potable water supply in Ethiopia ...... 11 2.2. Empirical Literature ...... 14 2.2.1. Potable water consumption ...... 14 2.2.2. Source of potable water supply ...... 16 2.2.3. Challenges of potable water supply ...... 17
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2.3. Conceptual Framework ...... 19 CHAPTER THREE: DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA AND RESARCH METHODS 20 3.1. Description of the Study Area ...... 20 3.1.1. Location of the Study Area ...... 20 3.1.2. Climatic characteristics ...... 21 3.1.3. Topography ...... 22 3.1.4. Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics ...... 22 3.2. Research Methods and Materials ...... 23 3.2.1. Research design ...... 23 3.2.2. Data types and sources ...... 23 3.2.3. Sample size determination ...... 23 3.2.4. Sampling techniques ...... 25 3.2.5. Methods of data collection ...... 26 3.3. Methods of Data Analysis ...... 28 3.3.1. Descriptive analysis ...... 28 3.3.2. Regression analysis ...... 28 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION ...... 30 4.1. Socio- economic and Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents ...... 30 4.1.1. Household size, sex ratio and age structure ...... 30 4.1.2. Age of the sample household head ...... 31 4.1.3. Marital status of the sample households ...... 31 4.1.4. Family size ...... 32 4.1.5. Occupational status ...... 33 4.1.6. Household income ...... 34 4.1.7. Religion of sample household heads...... 35 4.1.8. Educational status of the sample households ...... 35 4.2. Price for 20Liter “Jerican” ...... 36 4.3. Distance from the Source of Water ...... 37 4.3.1. Time spent to fetch water ...... 38 4.4. Duration of Interruption of Water Supply ...... 39 4.5. Having Garden/Flowering ...... 39
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4.6. Source and Spatial Coverage of Household Water Supply in Warder Town ...... 40 4.6.1. Sources of water for households and amounts consumed ...... 40 4.6.2. Daily water consumption per sample households ...... 41 4.6.3. Major sources of water of the respondents ...... 42 4.6.4. Access to potable water ...... 43 4.7. Causes of Shortage of Water Supply and consumption ...... 44 4.7.1. Means of transport from the source of water ...... 46 4.7.2. Having “Barkads” per household...... 47 4.8. Regression Analysis of the Factors Affecting Daily per Capital Households Water Consumption ...... 47 4.8.1. The Variables and their definitions ...... 47 4.9. The result of Regression Analysis ...... 49 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMERY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS ...... 53 5.1. SUMMERY ...... 53 5.2. Conclusion ...... 55 5.3. Recommendations ...... 56 Reference ...... 58 Annexes...... 65
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List of Tables Table page
Table 3.1: Procedure for selection of sample households………………..………….. …….…...25 Table 3.2 Details of purposive sampling (key informants) …………………………………...... 27 Table 4.1: Sex of the respondents ……………………………………………………………....30 Table 4.2: Age of the sample household heads ……………………………………………….....31 Table 4.3: Marital status of the sample household heads …………………………………...... 32 Table 4.4: Occupation of the sample households……………….……………………………….33 Table 4.5: Monthly income of the sample respondents……….…………………………………34 Table 4.6: Religion of sample household heads………………………………………….……...35 Table 4.7: Average cost for 20 litters “jerican “of the sample households……….…………..…37 Table 4.8: Distance of the source of water from sample households home……………………..38 Table 4.9: Time spend to fetch water of the sample households ……………...………………...38 Table 4.10: Duration of interruption of water supply of the sample households…………...... …39 Table 4.11: Having garden per household of the sample households….………..…………… …40 Table 4.12: Daily per water consumption (in liter) of the sample household level……...... 41 Table 4.13: Average water consumption for domestic activities at households………….……...42 Table 4.14: Water supply sources used by sampled households...….……………….……..……42 Table 4.15: Global Standards in relation to time, distance and quantity of water …………..…44 Table 4.16: Cause of shortage of water for the sample households …………………………... 46 Table 4.17: Means of transport of sample households……...………..………………………….46 Table 4.18: Having “Barkad” per sample households ……………...…………………………...47 Table 4.19: Test of normality………………….…………………………………………………49 Table 4.20: Regression analysis results……...…….………………………………………….…51 Table.4.21: Summary of the result of multiple regression analysis...... 52
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List of figures Figure page
Figure 2.1: Directions of causation between explanatory variables and consumption…………..19 Figure 3.1: Map f the Study Area……...………………………...….….……………….…….…21 Figure 3.2 Maximum and minimum temperature of Warder Town for the years (2007-2015)....22 Figure 4.1: Family size of the selected sample households…………………………………...... 33 Figure 4.2: Education statuses of household heads……………………..………...……...... ……36 Figure 4.3: Means of water transportation and distribution in the study area….……….……….45 Figure 4.4: Q-Q plot of the dependent variable for the normality test ….……...………… ……50 Figure 4.5: Scatter plot of the dependent variable for homoscedasticity test…………….….…..50
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List of Acronyms/Abbreviations ADF: African Development Fund AWDR: African Water Development Report CBO: Community-Based Organizations CSA: Central Statistics Authority FGD: Focus Group Discussion FAO: Food and Agricultural Organization GEO: Global Environment Outlook HDR: Human Development Report KII: Key Informants Interview MDG: Million Development Goals MoWR: Ministry of Water Resources MSF: Medicines sans Frontiers NGO: Non-Government Organization NMAJB: National Metrology Agency Jijiga Branch SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Science UN: United Nations UNDP: United Nations Development Program UN-HABITATS: United Nation Human settlements Program UNICEF: United Nations Children‟s Emergency Fund WHO: World Health Organization WMO: Warder Municipality Office WWSS: Warder Water supply Service WUP: Water Utilization Perspectives
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Abstract Ethiopia is endowed with enormous water resources both groundwater and surface water potential but access to water is limited due to physical and socio-economic constraints. Uneven spatial and temporal occurrences and distributions of water resource because of climate variability and demand for water, which is tied to level of urbanization and development, population distribution and socio-economic factors is big challenge. The objective of this study was to investigate the state of potable water supply in Warder town using survey design. Primary data were collected using questionnaire, KII, FGD and Observation to participants in the study area were selected using mixed method of sampling techniques. On the other hand, the secondary data which were collected by using available sources of information such as books, CSA, government and non-government documents. The collected and organized data was analyzed both descriptive and inferential statistics. Stepwise Multiple Regressions analyses were carried to find out to what extent the selected independent variables affect the daily per capital household’s water consumption. According to these analyses, socio-economic factors such as income of households, family size, educational level of household head, having “Barkads” per household, distance from the source of water and having garden per household were the significance variables that affected daily per capital household’s water consumption. The other factors that influence for the potable water supply in the study area were source of water, distance of the source of water from their home, means of distribution and transportation, cost of water, population growth, urbanization, income, lack of technical skilled man power and financial problems.
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background of the Study
Water is the very basis for sustenance of life. It is the most essential necessity of life after oxygen. The importance of water is not only attached to the drinking but also to cooking, bathing, washing and other activities. Anything that disturbs the provision and supply of water, therefore, tends to disturb the very survival of humanity. Where provisions for water and sanitation are inadequate, the diseases that arise from contaminated water, food and hands are among the world‟s leading causes of premature death and serious illness (Yewondossen, 2012).
There are serious constraints to meeting the challenge to provide adequate water for all urban dwellers. Water supply shortage is one of the problems which require greater attention and action. Various strategies are always being developed to make water accessible to all inhabitants. However, due to insufficient infrastructures coupled with rapid population growth and urbanization, the gap between demand and supply of water continues to widen. Provision of urban water supply system has been a major concern in many of developed and developing countries. Hence, the understanding of this integration and interrelation provides a better consideration on the importance of universal provision of providing water supply (Salendu, 2010). Sufficient potable water supply is one of the basic urban services, which highly affects the economic progress of towns and the health of people. However, many urban centers around the world are facing serious problem of water supply (Assefa, 2006). Ethiopia is one of the member countries that adopted the millennium development declaration with its main objective of water supply (UNDP, 2008). This resulted in prioritizing accessibility to improved water supply.
Potable water supply and demand vary from place to place Available and accessible source of water supply include rivers, lakes, springs and small streams. At present, world‟s people are withdrawing 30% of the runoff that is accessible but about 20% of the total runoff is remote and not readily available to meet water consumption (Mushir, 2012).
Water demand is the outcome of rapid population growth, urbanization, and industrialization (Birhane, 2010).Where there is high population concentration and rapid growth, water demand tends to increase dramatically. More people increasing consumption of consumer goods and
1 water for domestic use have created demands for clean fresh water that in many areas exceed natural capacities to deliver through the hydrological cycle, ultimately led to water scarcity. Problem of water scarcity can be caused by ground water depletion through tapping of groundwater to increase supply without replenishment. The shortage of water supply in turn threatens food production, economic development and environmental protection. Today the challenges facing many countries in the world in their struggle for economic and social development is increasingly related to water (UN-Habtat, 2013). Improving access to water supply has been an issue on the development agenda for decades and still these services fail to reach a substantial proportion of the world‟s population (WHO, 2010).Every year, this becomes more of a challenge due to factors such as climate, rapid population growth and increasing urbanization(Birhane, 2010). According to UNDP (2006), cited in Wonduante (2013 nearly one sixth of the world population (1.1 billion people) lacks access to safe potable water. Similarly, according to the recent report of Food and Agricultural Organization (2013), surface water stress affecting 1/3 of the world‟s population is expected to double to 2/3 by 2025.
Looking at international statistics, it becomes obvious that most people without access to water supply services live in developing countries, particularly, in Sub- Saharan Africa where more than 30% of the residents in urban areas lack access to adequate water services and facilities (WHO, 2010).
Water supply shortages and quality deteriorations are among the problems which require greater attention and action in Ethiopia in general and Somali Region in particular. Various strategies are always being developed to make water accessible to all inhabitants. However, due to insufficient infrastructure coupled with rapid population growth, income level and urbanization, the gap between the demand and supply of water continuous to widen (Mesert, 2012). This situation in the study area is not different from such realities.
Earlier studies like Chala, (2011) conducted on water supply at national levels focused mainly on large urban settlements. But in small and medium towns like Warder town, not adequate researches have been yet carried out. Furthermore, Wader is one of the towns in the Somali Regional State of Ethiopia with rapid urbanization, high population growth in Dollo zone. It is also serving as an administrative center Dollo Zone.
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The effect of poor water supply in urban areas of Ethiopia has high impact on the living condition of the towns‟ communities and economic development of the country (OWRMB, 2010). Sufficient potable water supply is one of the basic urban services, which highly affects the economic progress of towns and the health of their people. This study is therefore aiming at assessing the magnitude of potable water supply and the major challenges that the community of Warder Town is facing.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
The availability of water sources throughout the world is becoming depleted by the rate at which populations are increasing, especially in developing countries. This has brought into focus the urgent need for planned action to manage water resources effectively for sustainable development (Khatri and Vairavamoorthy, 2007).
According to Brocklehurst (2004), in the last 50 years, the world‟s urban population has increased fourfold, and now around 50% of the world‟s population lives in urban centers. While, urban populations grew rapidly, expansion of water supply services did not. As a result, it is estimated that between 30% and 60% of the urban population in most nations is not being adequately served. By 2025, urbanization in Africa is projected to progress from about 32 to 50 % with the urban population increasing from 300 million to 700 million (WUP, 2003).
If current trend prevails, majority of urban dwellers would be living in unplanned or informal settlements without access to basic services such as water affecting public health adversely (Nyarko et al., 2006). According to Getachew, (2002).water supply situation in Ethiopia is very poor, as most of the population does not have access to safe and adequate water supply facilities. As a result, three-fourth of the health problems in Ethiopia is due to communicable diseases attributable to unsafe or inadequate water supply and improper waste management particularly excreta. The major household water supply problems that call for critical analysis include shortage of water provision, cost of water per liter, coordination and participation of stakeholders, distribution of water, conditions of water consumption, in a situation of rapid population growth.
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Warder town is one of the Ethiopian towns suffering by water shortage. Such of the problems are shortage of potable water, limitation of sources of water supply, lack of tap water, means of water distribution and transportation, cost of water per liter, rapid population growth and coordination and participation of stakeholders.
1.3. Objectives of the Study
1.3.1.General objective
The general objective of this study is to investigate the state of potable water supply and consumption in Warder Town.
1.3.2. Specific objectives
Specifically this study is intended to:
1. assess the sources of water supply in Warder Town. 2. find out the means of water transportation and distribution in Warder town. 3. examine the consequences of inadequate urban water supply services on households of Warder Town. 1.4. The Research Questions
1. What does the areal coverage of existing water supply and the sources of water in Warder Town look like? 2. What are the means of water transportation and distribution in Warder town? 3. What are the effects of inadequate urban water supply services on households of Warder Town?
1.5. Significance of the Study
The information will be useful to policy makers especially the town councils to create awareness in the town. It will help the governmental and non-governmental organization working in the study area to get a clear picture of their program by provide basic information. The study about the state of potable water supply in Warder Town will be important to the researches that can
4 used it as an input for other researches or studies. The thesis will also add to the literature on urban potable water supply issues, which is currently a global challenge.
1.6. Scope and Limitation of the Study Water supply issues can occur at different part of the country, but this research was conducted to investigate the state of potable water in the two of the four kebelles of Warder Town. Furthermore, the study also emphasized on the administrative issues likes accessibility, affordability, distribution problems, time, cost, budget, the cause and the consequence of inadequate water supply on the urban communities and their perceptions.
1.7. Ethical Consideration of the Research Process
During the research process the researcher was expected to recognize and obey the ethical principle of scientific research such as anonymity (Neuman,2007) and respect for person and built mutual relationships with the interviewees by being sensitive and giving respect to the cultures of the people in the communities throughout the research process (Vanderstoep & Johnston,2009). Such ethical principles would be strictly followed, in conducting this research as they protect the rights of individuals and public demands for accountability and institutional protection (Abdulkadir, 2011)
Based on the above principles, the researcher would clearly indicate the objectives and output of the study on the front page of the sheet and the respondents would be informed that their information would be kept confidentially and their personal information would never be publicized or given to any third party. In general, the concern of integrity, anonymity, consents and other human elements for the participants, discussants, and interviewees were well protected.
1.8. Data Validity and Reliability
Data Validity: To keep the methodological validity of the research the researcher select appropriate tools and techniques that best fit the research objectives. Furthermore, to check the accuracy of data obtained using questionnaires, different procedures were employed before, during and after data collection process. The validity of data collection instrument was checked before data collection process. The questionnaires were rated by 5 academicians to ensure the
5 validity of the questionnaire before pre- testing. Then, the questionnaires were pre- tested on selected respondents for consistence, clarity and to checking of the vagueness of terms used. And on the basis of the results of the pre- test necessary modification were made to make it clear and meaningful before the execution of the survey.
Data Reliability: Reliability is the ability of the questionnaire to consistently measure the topic under the study at different time and across different population ( KayRooz et al., 2006).
1.9. Organization of the Thesis
The first subsection of the thesis centered on the background, statement of the problem, objectives, research questions, significance, scope and limitations, data validity and reliability, ethical consideration and organization of the study. The second chapter focuses on the related literary review. This part makes a brief assessment of written document and various approaches in relation to the targeted research topic and other reviews of related literature. In this section, state of potable water supply is illustrated in detail.
The third chapter is the description and interpretation of the study area, the method in which the researcher used to gather information from the targeted Town, the type of model employed to analyze the data and the procedures of their presentation. The fourth chapter focuses on the discussion and result of the study. The last Chapter deals with conclusion and recommendations.
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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE 2.1. Theoretical Literature
2.1.1. Concept and definition of potable water supply
Water supply is highest allowable concentration of certain contaminants in water, delivered to a user of public drinking water supply (WHO, 2004).Water supply is one of the ingredients of a healthy and productive life. For the poor people residing in urban slums and rural areas, to achieve a better economic growth rate and higher productivity, priority has to be given to the health of these people, for which provision of public utilities like water supply is necessary. Expanding access to basic water supply integrated with hygiene education can reduce the burden of water-related diseases significantly by improving the lives of a large part of the world‟s population. Since provision of sanitation breaks the vicious cycle of poverty and initiates a virtuous cycle of economic well-being, it should be a vital ingredient in the poverty alleviation programs Pathak et al., (2002).
Furthermore, Provision of safe and sufficient drinking water with adequate service in urban areas is an important investment which safeguards health and safety of the people living in urban areas, and protection, conservation and promotion of the environment, especially in developing countries. It is belied that the benefits of environmental protection, such as clean water, air and suitable sanitation facilities should be available to all, but in reality a disproportionate burden of protecting the environment is borne by the poor, especially the urban poor. Unfortunately, progress over the decade could not keep up with the population growth. Subsequently, significant investments have been made in that sector, yet progress in sanitation has been limited, resulting in consistently lowers coverage for sanitation in comparison to water supply.
In addition to (Palamuleni, 2002) cited in Mengistu, (2008) in developing countries, one third population does not have access to safe drinking water. In these nations, more than 80% of diseases and one third of deaths are caused by the consumption of contaminated water. Inaccessibility of safe water facility strengthens the cycle of disease, poverty and weakness; therefore water and sanitation programs are instrumental in efforts to rescue people from poverty. In other word, provision of water should be indispensable parts of the Poverty Reduction Strategies applied by developing countries. Safe drinking water is the birthright of all
7 humankind as much a birthright as clean air while access to clean water can be considered as one of the basic needs and rights of a human being. Health of people and dignified life is based on access to clean water (Rao, 2002) and Korkeakoski, 2006).
2.1.2.Distribution of water resource
One of the more frequently cited statistics in discussion of water availability is the fact that only around 2.5% of the Earth„s water is fresh water. The overwhelming amount of water is saline or salt water, mostly found in the oceans. Of the 2.5% of freshwater available for the support of human life, agriculture, and most form of non-ocean life, 30.1% is groundwater. Groundwater is the water stored deep beneath the Earth‟s surface in underground aquifers. Another 68.6% of all freshwater is in glaciers and polar caps. That leaves only 1.3% of the total freshwater on Earth is in surface water sources such as lakes, rivers, and steams (FAO, 2013).
Groundwater aquifers at rates than replenishment or recharge; secondly even if there is enough water, it is not water that is good enough to meet human need; much of the world‟s fresh water is being degraded; thirdly, the fact that distinct from physical water scarcity, there is economic scarcity for the global poor. The demand- side problem arises first from the fact of an increasing number of people on the plant; secondly high-demand uses sometimes are geographically concentrated in regions that cannot sustain demand levels; thirdly from technologies that waste more water than alternative technologies. The latter problem associated with the existing rapid population growth, unequal distribution of water resource and so on .The former problem revolves round issues of water accessibility, sustainability, reliability and affordability.
However many empirical data revealed that the world has sufficient at an aggregate level to meet everyone‟s minimum needs. Against estimated annual renewable freshwater supplies of between 9 and 14 trillion m3, global usage stored at around 4 trillion m3 in years 2005 (webb, 2010). Although global withdrawals have tripled since 1950 and are expected to increase by a further 50 percent by 2025, there should still be adequate supplies of water to meet growth in demand for the foreseeable future, if supplies were evenly distrusted in space and time (Rosegrant et al,. 2004) and managed sustainably (WHO/UNICEF-JMP, 2013). However, like food, water availability is not matched by equal access for all region or all people. Freshwater is unevenly distributed geographically and temporally, resulting in surplus for some people and a threat of
8 severe water insecurity for others. Too great quantity or too little, it can bring distribution, misery, or death (Mushir, 2012). However, irrespective of how it occur, if properly managed, it can be crucial for human survival and economic development (Mushir, 2012). The survival and well being of a nation depends upon sustainable development and for this, access to improved water supply and sanitation which are a prerequisite for health and livelihood are essential requirements (WHO, 2010)
2.1.3.Access to drinking water and its prospect
According to the report of WHO/UNICEF, (2013) access is defined as the availability of at least 30 liters of water per person per day from an improved water source within a distance of 100 meters. This minimum quantity however vary depending on whether it‟s an urban location or rural and whether warm or hot climate. Perhaps that is why the African water Development Report, (2008) formerly described basic human water need to be 20 to 50 liters of uncontaminated water daily.
Accessibility therefore implies not only the physical availability of service or facility but also it must be seen within the context of the ease with people can obtain the services of facility and function (UN-Habitat, 2003). Recent evidence form empirical research (for example, Degnet et al,. (2010) indicates that improve water supply schemes in many developing countries are not functioning properly. In Sub-Saharan Africa, for instance, it is estimated that 35 percent of all rural water systems are not functioning (Eastwood, 2007). Similarly, foute, (2012) also cited drinking water safety and reliability as key problems even when the basic water delivery systems are in place. Thus, in addition to increasing access through implementation of improved water supplies, it is also necessary to ensure that both new and existing water system are sustainable, so that access to safe water is sustained for all. Time and distance traveled to fetch water are also key indicators of water accessibility. To most communities of Africa, long distance travel to fetch water is common so they spend much time and money (Chala, 2011). Hence, accessibility establishes the extent to which factors like distance, time and cost have decayed in one side and ensuring sustainable supply of improve water on the other side.
Water quantities used by households are primarily department on access as determined by distance and/or time for collection. According to WHO (2004) there are four basic water
9 accessibility indicators. These are: optimal access, intermediate access, basic access and no access. These are indicative of the level of water availability, which is a measure of the quantity available for consumption.
These levels of access can also be interpreted in terms of household water security which revolves rounds issues of water availability, accessibility, usage and quality (Osei, 2011). The no access group effectively have on household water is excessive and quality cannot be assured. The group with basic access could be said to also have basic household water security, provided that water is (reasonably) continuous and quality can be assured at source and protected during subsequent handling. The group with intermediate access can be said to have effective household water security as sufficient water is available to meet domestic needs and quality can be assured. This may be influenced by degree of discontinuity within the supply.
Unfortunately, progress over the decade could not keep up with the population growth. According to the WHO-UNICEF, (2006), 87% of the world‟s population uses drinking water from improved sources. In 2004, only 44% of people in the developing world had access to drinking water though a household connection (reference). There are huge disparities between regions: only 16% of the people in sub-Saharan Africa, 20% in southern Asia, 21% in Oceania and 28% in south-eastern Asia had access to drinking water though a household connection, but it is much higher in Eastern Asia (70%), Northern Africa (76%), Latin America and the Caribbean (80%) and Western Asia (81%) (WHO, 2004).
According to WHO, (2010). Estimate that about 884 million people did not have access to a piped water supply or to a safe water source. The most recent WHO/UNIEF-JMP biennial report on the report on the progress towards the drinking-water and sanitation target under millennium development Goal 7(halving the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation between 1990 and 20015) was met in 2010, five years ahead of schedule. While there is much good news in this 2013 report, the fact remains that severe water stress affecting 1/3 of the world‟s population is expected to double to 2/3 by 20025 (FAO,2013).
By 2020, water use is expected to increase by 40 percent and is already excessive in some cities. For example Addis Ababa consumes double the WHO daily recommendation, Lagos triples the
10 amount and (Thailand) consume four times more, Johannesburg, Nanjing(china), port Alegre (Brazil) all consumes four times the recommendation, (UN-Habitat, 2013). In connection to this, the latest statistical evidences collected by FAO (2013) from various resource on the global status and usage patterns of water indicates: water withdrawals are predicted to increase (Global Environment Outlook: environment for development (GEO-4); Over 1.4 billion people currently live in rivers basins where the use of water exceeds minimum recharge levels, leading to the desiccation of rives and depletion of ground water (HDR, 2006).
2.1.4. The state of urban potable water supply in Ethiopia
The water supply and sanitation sector in Ethiopia is one of the developing countries and is mostly characterized by service deficiency of physical infrastructure as well as by inadequate management capacity to handle policy and regulatory issue and to plan, operate, and maintain the service.
Ethiopia has one of the highest urbanization growth rates in the developing countries. According to data obtained from the Central Statistical Agency, the country‟s urban population was growing at 4.8 per cent per annum between the 1995 and 2000. The urban population in Ethiopia in 1984, the first census period, was 4.3 million forming 11 per cent of the total population. In 1994, the second census period, the urban population was 7.4 million. Total urban population had increased by 12per cent from that of 1984. In terms of urban centers, in 1984, Ethiopia had 312 urban centers with population of over 2000. In 1994, the second census period, the urban centers in the country grew to 534 registering an increase of 71 per cent over that of 1984 though the definitions of the two censuses are not the same (Tegegne, 2000:2). In 2005 about 20.1% of urban populations live in cities and towns of different sizes and categories. The rapid growth of urban population has placed tremendous pressure on the management capacity of municipalities for service delivery and local economic development. This phenomenal growth has also burdened many municipalities with the problems of inadequate housing, poverty and unemployment, inadequate water and electricity supply, and poor sanitation systems. Available data also indicate that in the next 25 years (1994-2020), nearly 30 % of Ethiopia‟s population will live in cities. Regarding this, rapid urban population growth will inevitably call for huge investments in housing, urban infrastructure, water and electricity supply, sanitation systems and environmental protection programs and programs to alleviate
11 poverty and unemployment in the cities. This implies that the challenge will require well trained municipal management and resource capacity, responsive urban governance and well trained and motivated personnel and sustaining services such as water, electricity supply, local revenue collection and administration to meet the ever growing demand for better and more quality services and infrastructures of Urban Population Projection for Ethiopia1995-2020 (Tegegne, 2000). According to Tegegne (2000), the amount demanded is much higher than the supply. That is, in 1998 the amount supplied by Addis Ababa Authority was only 62 % of the amount demanded. With regard to the distribution of water, the Welfare Monitoring Survey of 1996 estimated that 36 % of the households use own tap while 61 % use public tap Water”.
In addition to this, the World Bank Group (2005) mentioned that the demand for differentiated technologies-piped water supply the core, alternative technologies in the fringe areas- and the often rapid unpredictable water demand and spatial growth require planning, design, and management skills that exceed community based management approaches. But unlike larger towns or cities, these smaller towns often lack the financial and human resources to independently plan, finance, manage and operate their WSS systems. This implies that a key challenge for town WSS is to allocate limited government resources amongst a large number of dispersed towns. There are also variations across urban areas.
Based on the CSA (2015), conditions with access to safe water in urban areas is higher in terms of coverage, with about 84 per cent having access to safe water sources, though there are some variations across different town size classes. The aforementioned information indicates that as a result of low level of development a significant proportion of the total urban population of Ethiopia in particular and total population of Ethiopia in general have no access to safe and adequate potable water supply. They still restrict themselves to use what nature has provided them with in the form of springs, rivers, lakes, ponds, traditional hand dug wells and rain water which are often unsafe, cause health hazards and are at considerable distance from households. Among the main reasons given for the slow pace of progress in water supply services in Ethiopia, the following are net worthy: lack of comprehensive legislation; inadequate investment
12 resources; lack of a national water tariff policy and the absence of beneficiary participation and community management (Dessalegn, 1999). In relation to this, MoWR (2002) stated that issues of poor sector capacity and low level of expenditures for WSS are interlinked and lead to a vicious circle – as low level of investments create low demand for technical and manpower inputs in WSS sector, the capacity remains underdeveloped. The resulting low sector capacity, means low allocations and expenditures are curtailed. The sustainability of water supply facilities mainly depends on a timely and regular maintenance and operation of the system. However, in most developing countries, including Ethiopia, it has been found out that operation and maintenance of water supply facilities is in a poor state of condition and the sustainability of the scheme is at stake. Regarding this, MoWR (2002:13) identified the following underlying problems: Inappropriate tariff setting without emphasis on full cost recovery; Lack of clear guidelines for urban tariff setting including issues related to fairness, and financial sustainability;
Inappropriate or lack of institutional incentives for urban WSS to achieve financial viability and improved operational performance;
Poor technical and financial capacity among the urban service providers that leads to high levels of Unaccounted for Water; and
Poor or non- existent consumer services and grievance handling system that leads to a lack of willing to pay user charges.
Population growth and urbanization in particular, is a direct determinant of increase in water demand for domestic uses. In other words, the population grew rapidly, while expansion of basic service did not have a parallel increase or improvement in the quantity and quality. In connection to this, after looking into the existing wider gaps between supply and demand for resources and the rate at which it has been produced some researchers dared to say Ethiopia has been trapped by Malthusian problems of resources shortfalls (Messay, 2011).
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2.2. Empirical Literature
2.2.1. Potable water consumption
A review of water consumption literature shows that the level of water consumption varies widely between industrialized and developed countries. Developed countries are more likely to use large quantity of water than less developed countries like Ethiopia. Desalegn (2012) observes that in third world countries where piped connection is scarce, people only use about 4 to 38 liters of water per person per day while in cities in developed countries; people consume about 83 to 227/c/d(liter per consumption per day).
Among industrialized countries, average per capita daily water consumption for USA and Japan is 668 l/c/d (liter per consumption per day) and 342 1/c/d(liter per consumption per day) respectively (Oesi, 2011). In Madagascar, a survey of 180 households in 8 villages reveals that on the average households consume 31 liters of water daily in the dry season (Minten et al., 2002) in major urban areas to justify the introduction of private sector participation (PSP) in urban water sector report an average of 52 1/c/d for urban sector. Domestic water supply and consumption differs seasonally and spatially even within a small geographical region because of differing water demand and supply patterns and different in internal socio-economic and environmental condition (Agbehi, 2007). Generally, the determinant of total water supply and consumption at the household level are multidimensional of and some of the findings from previous studies are summarized below.
A study in Nicaragua showed that a decrease in distance to the water source from 1000 to 10 meter resulted in an increase in per capita water consumption of 20% (Arouna, 2009) The study conducted by hosen (2011) revealed that the quantity of water used depends on the household size, how water is used, level of maintenance of water supply system and some other factors such as level of education and age of the head of the household.
There is also a difference in the quantity of water used by piped and un-piped household. Piped households use on an average almost three times more water than that of un-piped households (Hofmann et al., 2007). A study in Ghana showed that an average of 33.l/c/d for households with tap connections, 68.5 l/c/d for those with yard tap and 33.2 l/c/d for those using other means
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(Oesi, 2011). Arouna et al., (2009) showed that when water was carried, only 20 l/c/d was consumed while those with taps consumed an average of 78 l/c/d. a more recent study fotue (2012) obtained consistent results where per capita use for deliver water is about 18 liters while those with single tap water consume 28 to 94 liters and multiple taps tends to consumed between 57 to 281 liters per capita daily.
The finding of the study from Jinja, Uganda, also shown that average consumption of water when it is piped into the home is relatively high (155 l/c/d), but decreases to 50 l/c/d when water is supplied to a yard level. When water is outside the home, average consumption drops still further to roughly one-third the average consumption at a yard tap and one-tenth that of households with water piped into the home.
Similarly, Studies in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda suggest that for house using water source outside the home, an average of 6.6 liters per capita are used for washing dishes and clothes and 7.3 liters per capita for bathing. By contrast for house with a household connection to piped water supply use on average 12.3 liters per capita for washing dishes and clothes and 14.4 liters per for bathing (Mushir, 2012).
Other studies noted similar observation as above Nketiah et al., (2009) observed that actual water consumption per capital varies with the mode of water connection. Households with water connections are reported to consume more, ranging from 100 to 150 l/c/d (liter per consumption per day). for households who are getting water from hands pumped wells and carry the water over about 100 meters, water consumption is much less at about 10 to 15 percent of those with piped connections.
Domestic per capita consumption is also reported differ by household income, which is a proxy for ability-to-pay is a significant predictor for piped water in residence. A study in Nekemtie showed that those households with income more than 3000 birr per month consumed at least three times more water than that of below 500 birr monthly income (Mushir, 2012). In Niger, Bardasi and Wondo (2008) found that the rich are more likely to be connected to piped water in residence consumed 250 l/c/d. while the poor consumed 25 l/c/d. Their finding also revealed that those households connected to piped water pay less relative to the poor who utilize alternative sources. Hofmann (2007)shows that people with lower income categories with at least one tap,
15 the per capital consumption is ranging from 55 to 70 l/c/d. but household with higher income class were shown to consume a significant statistical relationship between income and access to safe/portable water. The finding is also consistent with Nketiah et al., (2009) who reported that household income is a significant predictor of per capita water demand.
2.2.2. Source of potable water supply
According to UN-HABITAT (2003) and Water Aid (2000) Water sources fall in the rain water, surface water, hand-dug well, groundwater, household connection and public tap or standpipe. They are briefly reviews as follows. a) Rainwater:-Rainwater refers to rain that is collected or harvested from surfaces (by roof or ground catchment) and stored in a container, tank or cistern until used. Rain water is the purest water in nature but it tends to become impure as it passes through the atmosphere. It picks up suspended impurities from the atmosphere such as dust, soot and microorganisms and gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen and ammonia (UN-HABITAT, 2003). b) Surface water:-It originates from rain water. It is the main source of water supply in many areas. It includes rivers, tanks, lakes, manmade reservoirs and sea water. Surface water is prone to contamination from human and animal sources. As such it is never safe for human consumption unless subjected to sanitary protection and purification before use. c) Hand-dug wells:-It is one of the traditional methods for water supply system in rural areas of the developing countries, and still most common. These dug wells are made by hands; therefore, there is some restriction in the some circumstances, for examples, certain types of ground, such as clays, sands, gravels and mixed soils where only small boulders come across. Nowadays, skilled manpower is used by the communities, where some members of communities are trained as artesian. But still in some rural areas, excavation is done under the supervision by villages themselves. The volume of the water in the well below the standing water table acts as a reservoir, which can meet its demands during the daytime. Additionally, water is itself replenished during periods where there is no abstraction. Periodic chlorination has to be done to avoid the contamination from microbes (Water Aid, 2000).
16 d) Groundwater:-Groundwater is water used by humans comes mainly from underground such as wells, springs, etc. It tends to be of higher microbiological quality (having undergone natural soil filtration). However, it is relatively difficult to extract. More technology and energy is needed (compared with other water sources) to bring water from within the earth up to the surface (UN-HABITAT (2006). e) Household Connection:-Household connection, is a water service pipe connected within house plumbing to one or more taps (e.g. in the kitchen and bathroom) or tap placed in the yard or plot outside the house. f) Public Tap or Standpipe:-Public tap or standpipe is a public water point from which people can collect water. Many low-income households that are unable to afford a household connection are relying on public water points. In addition to this, UNICEF (2006) stated that, population using improved sources of drinking water are those with any of the following types of water supply: piped water (into dwelling yard or plot), public tap or standpipe, tube well or borehole, protected well, protected spring and rain water collection while unimproved sources are unprotected dug well ,unprotected spring ,surface water (river, dam, lake, pond, stream, canal, irrigation channel), vendor-provided water (cart with small tank or drum, tanker truck),bottled water, tanker truck provided water.
2.2.3.Challenges of potable water supply
In the provision of adequate clean water facilities to urban dwellers, the world faced many challenges, which are related to capacity of the nations, (i.e. technological knowhow and institutional), inadequate finance, rapid urbanization, Inadequate water supply, unfair distribution of water and declining of global water resource.
I. Lack of capacity According to Wallace et al., (2008), Capacity is a flexible concept and encompasses the public sector, academia; CBOs and the private sectors, and it ranges from the individual to institutions to society as a whole. Moreover, capacity can be described in terms of the human, technological, infrastructural, institutional and managerial resources required at all levels from the individual
17 through to national governance. Not only does capacity have to be built within each of these levels, but it has to be institutionalized and local communities need to be empowered to use it effectively. Among the main challenges of water supply capacity in town includes technological capacity, limits to water consumption and institutional capacity.
II. Inadequate financing
Water and sanitation has suffered from severe under financing. This results from inadequate internal financial capacity in the poor countries to achieve water and sanitation goals; poor political decisions for allocation of development aid; an overall reduction over time in development aid; and the limited cost recovery potential in poverty stricken regions (Wallace et al., 2008). Moreover, to ensure that resources for safe water and sanitation are used effectively at the local level, the local capacities to design, finance and manage improved service delivery must be greatly enhanced. To this end, the Camdessus Panel and others have urged that corruption, managerial capacity, sustainable cost recovery and legal and contractual aspects of safe water and sanitation management within developing countries be addressed (Wallace et al., 2008).
IV. Population growth and urbanization
Population growth and rapid urbanization will create a severe scarcity of water as well as tremendous impact on the natural environment. Besides having less or not invested in urban water supply, Africa is urbanizing faster than any other region. Between 1990 and 2025, the total urban population is expected to grow from 300 to 700 million; and by 2020, it is expected that over 50% of the population in African countries will reside in urban areas. According to the 1994 Ethiopia population census report showed, the total urban population was 13.7%, after ten years (i.e. 2004) the total urban population increased to 32.89% and by the year 2015 urban population is going to increase by 32.26% Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency (1994, 2004 and 2015 projection). In order to meet the future water demand, cities will need to tap their water supply either from a deep ground or surface sources situating a far distance away from the urban area (Khatri and Vairavamoorthy, 2007).
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2.3. Conceptual Framework DIRECTIONS OF CAUSATION BETWEEN EXPLANATORY VARIABLES AND WATER CONSUMPTION
Demographic factors Socio-economic factors Physical factors
-Household income
-Household size per month -distance from the
-Household head - Educational level of source.*
gender Household head -topography
-household age - Price of water per liter
Water wise
Households Structural factors / water saving -Have gardens per household behavior per -Have “Barkad” per household household
Alternative water resources Etc…
Daily PER CAPITA HOUSEHOLD WATER CONSUMPTION
Figure 2.1: Directions of causation between explanatory variables and consumption (Source: Own formation, 2016) .*The distance from the source to house and adequacy can be interpreted in reference to UNDP (2006) standards of water supplied through multiple tapes continuously, water supplied through multiple tapes continuously and 100 l/d/p respectively.
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CHAPTER THREE: DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA AND RESARCH METHODS
3.1. Description of the Study Area
In this section of the thesis, the study area is described in terms of geographical and vicinity location to show where it is found, population and demography to understand the pressure the area is encountering with, climate type, and land use pattern and economic activity to comprehend the carrying capacity of the locality under the circumstance potable water supply.
3.1.1.Location of the Study Area
According to the current political division of Ethiopia, the country is divided in to 9 regional states, and 2 city administrations. The Somali Region, one of the 9 regional states of the country, located in the south eastern part of Ethiopia.
Warder Town lie in southeastern Ethiopia lowlands in Somali Region in general, in particular in Dollo Zone, Warder Town, is found about 520 kilometers far from Jijiga town towards south direction.
The relative location of Warder Town is found northeast of Kebridahar Town, south of Danot Town, north of Shilabo and west of Gelladen. Astronomically, Warder is located in 60 58‟N latitude and 45021‟E longitude.
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Figure 3.1 map of Study Area (Source: Produced based on unprocessed data from MoWE, (2010))
3.1.2.Climatic characteristics
According to the Ethiopian traditional classification climate zones, the Somali Region is mainly categorized into tow agro ecologicalzones.10% of the land area of the region is estimated to be sub tropical (woina dega), approximately found above 1000 meters above sea level, while the remaining 90% is tropical (Qola) below 1000 meter above sea level (MSF, 2014).
The average annual rainfall of Warder Town is 350mm. The low annual rainfall and its uneven distribution together with the frequent recurrence of drought have made water the single most important element that determines the living style of the population. The rainfall receives twice per year i.e. the seasons are spring and autumn. Whereas dry winter and summer. It has hot temperature, its annual temperature is 270c (Metrology station jijiga, 2015).
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45
40
35
C
0 30
25 Max T0 (C0 )
20 Min. T0(C0 )
15 Ave. Temp rature in 10
5
0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Agu Sep Oct Nov Des
Figure 3.2: Maximum and minimum temperature of Werder Town for the years (2007-2015)/ Source: Computed based on the raw data obtained from Metrology Station Jijiga/
3.1.3.Topography
Topographically, warder town is located on the southeastern lowlands of Ethiopia. The elevation or the altitude of Warder Town is 541 meter above sea level. The general elevation is ranging from 400 to 700 meter above sea level. Warder Town is located on the lowland landscape of the south eastern lowlands Ethiopia (Gibb, 1996).
Regosols is one of the type‟s soils of Ethiopia that found in Ogaden Plains as well as Warder Ttown. This is shallow and young; but they are coarse-textured and they have low agricultural value. The parent materials of the soils in the tow are the Cenozoic era tertiary rocks such as sedimentary rocks and deposited of sand soil quaternary period. These soils are used for construction materials.
3.1.4.Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics
According to the CSA (2015), Warder Town had total population of 18,357, of whom 9,737 are men and 8,620 are women. The constantly mobile nature of the population, which is mainly due to lack of dependable year-round water sources, is the major constraint to the development of basic infrastructure.
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3.2. Research Methods and Materials
3.2.1. Research design
A typically cross-sectional survey research was designed to gain an insight into the issue related to the potable water supply and consumption in the study area. This means that data are collected on a cross section of people at a single point in time in order to discover the ways and degrees to which variables are related to each other. A survey design is the preferred type of data collection procedure for the study because of economy of the design, the rapid turnaround in data collection and to generalize from a sample to a population so that inferences can be made about some characteristics, attitude, or behavior this population.
Combinations of both quantitative and qualitative approaches were employed for this research concurrently. The purpose of this concurrent mixed method is to better understand a research problem by covering both quantitative and qualitative approaches (Powel et al., 2008). In this study both numerical information and text information were gathered simultaneously so that the final database represents both quantitative and qualitative information. Hence mixed method approaches advantages to expand understanding from one method and converge or confirm findings from different data sources.
3.2.2.Data types and sources
Both primary and secondary sources of data were used to generate appropriate information for this investigation. Primary data were collected from the study area using questionnaire, organizing key informant interview (KII), focus group discussion (FGD) and conducting field observations. The secondary data was collected from published and unpublished sources such as; publications, proceedings, reports, academic dissertations etc. Secondary data were collected from different sources e.g. government organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
3.2.3. Sample size determination
The basic issue in social and behavioral research is how to determine optimum samples for both quantitative surveys and qualitative participants of research process that needs great care to avoid
23 inappropriate samples. Bartlett et al., (2010) notify us inappropriate, inadequate, or excessive sample sizes continue to influence the quality and accuracy of research.
Yamane (1967) formula is used to determine the sample size and avoid inappropriate samples.
n =
Where n= sample size
N=Total number of household
e = margin of error at 95% level of confidence = 0.05
Hence,
n = n = n = = 278.78
After determining optimal size of sample households, the sampling from the two kebelles was obtained by proportionally calculating the number of households existing in each kebelle on the basis of the following formula.
= , n1 =
Where:
N= is the total households in sample kebelles
N1= is the total households in kebelle N
n= is the total sample size
n1= the sample size for kebelle N1
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As shows in Table 3.1 the selection of sample households from kebelles i.e. kebelle 02 out of 500 households selected 84 females and 68 males in total 152 households. From kebelle 03 selected 71 females and 56 males in total 127 households were selected. Therefore, the researcher had taken 279 respondents from the selected kebelles of the study area.
Table 3.1 Procedure for selection of sample households
Sex Absolute Sampling
Sample Total Sample samples technique
Kebeles of HHs Calculation proportion
Female Male 02 500 151.51 84 68 152 Computer
program 03 420 127.27 71 56 127 Computer
program Total 920 278.78 155 124 279
Source: Warder Municipality (2015).
3.2.4.Sampling techniques
It was beyond the scope of the study to gather data from the entire populations. Hence, sampling techniques was used whereby both simple random sampling and purposive sampling have been employed. In Warder Town, there are four kebelles. Out of these two kebelles were selected. The two kebelles i.e. kebelle 02 and 03 were purposively selected for this study. Because these kebelles were near to the researcher home and more familiar, these kebells were selected from the old settlers to be obtaining good information, they adapted for long times and these kebelles were secured settlements to the researcher.
The lists of household heads obtained from the Warder Municipality are used for the selection of ultimate sampling units (households). The total households in the study area are 920.The sample household heads were selected from each sample kebelle by using simple random sampling method. Such sampling techniques is considered as relatively unbiased as every subject or each
25 item of the universe has an equal chance of being selected from the sampling frame and ensures the law of statistical regularity (Kothari, 2004p 60).
3.2.5. Methods of data collection
In order to have general understanding of the specific locality, the investigator first organized a general reconnaissance of the study area. Thereafter, the actual data collection was done.
In order to facilitate the survey work, two field assistants were employed, both of them selected from the study area. They were selected based on their level of education and experience. All field assistants were trained for three days by the researcher for the administration of the questionnaire to the respondents. In order to maintain the quality of data, monitoring and evaluation of problems encountered. The investigator also employed the random checking of the households surveyed by the field assistants. Additional visits were made particularly on weekends and other convenient times for eliciting response from household heads who were absent at the regular time of data collection. In order to obtain adequate information from the selected sources, the investigator had employed different data collection tools like focus grouped discussion (FGD), key informant interviews (KII), questioner survey and observation.
Questionnaire Survey
Questionnaire was used as the major tool for collection of data from the randomly selected sample of respondents. In order to gather pertinent information, the questionnaire consisted both close-ended and open-ended items. Further, the questionnaire was divided into different domains so as to get relevant information for the research questions of this study. The questionnaires were rated by 5 academicians to ensure the validity of the questionnaire before pre- testing. The questionnaire was first prepared in English and then translated into Sumaligna. Then, the questionnaires were pre- tested on 15 selected respondents for consistence, clarity and to checking of the vagueness of terms used. And on the basis of the results of the pre- test necessary modification were made to make it clear and meaningful before the execution of the survey.
Focus Group Discussion (FGU)
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According to Kleiber (2004) had stated that focus group discussion is a helpful device to have insights on perceptions, opinions and attitudes on research topic; and it could be utilized at both applied and theoretical research problems. Therefore, two focus group discussions were being held in sample kebelles consisting of 5 household heads in each kebeles. Participants were selected purposively based on their age, expertise and community leadership role would be undertaken to gather relevant information about the state of potable water supply and consumption in warder town.
Key Informant Interview
The purpose of interview was to collect supplementary information, so as to stabilize the questionnaire response. Semi-structured interview was conducted, to a purposively selected group of informants. The interview was conducted face to face. The interview was used to dig out information on issues like water supply, reliability, and adequacy to assess water supply condition in the town. The reason behind using a semi-structured interview was its advantages of flexibility in which new questions can be forwarded during the interview based on the responses of the interviews. The recorded data was categorized based on similarities of response and then translated into English language during the transcription. This helped the researcher to collect relevant and more reliable information to this study.
Table 3.2 Details of purposive sampling (key informants)
Offices from where the key informants Sample selected Sampling No are selected for interview techniques 1 Warder town water supply and sewerage Purposive sampling services 3 2 Warder town municipal offices 3 Total 6 Source: The Investigator
Observation
By nature observations have numerous advantages over other qualitative data collection tools in providing supplementary and confirmative information on the issue under investigation (Foster,
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2006).In order to observe very well about the potable water supply and consumption in the town. To the same way, to observe some tangible adaptive and coping mechanisms undertaken by the resident urban community the researcher had planned to undertake a investigation inspection at the study site in the form of observatory transect walk (Machi, 2011) on environs of selected residents.
The researcher conducted field trips to gather first-hand information of household‟s accessibility of water in the study area. Further, this participatory observation had the benefit of becoming part of the selected group and observes how they get; fetch water and asking clarification on their actions. The field observation was used by the researcher to get additional information to validate the information received from other sources. 3.3. Methods of Data Analysis
3.3.1.Descriptive analysis
After the completion of data collection process, the data was coded (tallied), tabulated, analyzed, described, interpreted, and descriptive statistical technique (mean, Medan, standard deviation, percentages, ratio, average, using table, frequency distribution charts etc.) were employed as methods of data presentation. The data was analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), version 20 software. Moreover, qualitative data collected through questionnaires, interview, and observation was interpreted and analyzed to strengthen and support the quantitative data.
3.3.2.Regression analysis
The researcher applied multiple regressions or one dependent variable to many independent variables. Linear Multiple Regression Models would be employed in order to look into the association between the selected independent variables and per capital household water consumption in the study area. Multiple regression model was used to find out the predictors that predict a continuous dependent variable. The model was selected for the analysis because it has the capacity to retain more significant independent variables which have a critical effect in describing the variance of the dependent variables (Messay, 2011).
The general model is Yi = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 ……………..+ βnXn
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Where β1& β2 …….. βn are the coefficients β0….………....is the Y intercept (constant) Yi………... is the dependent variable (Daily per capital HHs water consumption) X1, X2……...xn are independent variables in the model. These include:
Dependent variable(Yi) Independent variables(X) Yi: Daily per capital HHs water consumption (in liters) X1: Household income/month(in birr) X2: Household family size X3: Distance from the source of water(in meter) X4: Educational level of household head (in grade level) X5: The season(dry or rainy) X6: Duration interruption of water supply (in days) X7: Having private “barkad” per household(“0”,yes ”1” no) X8: Marital status of household head(“0”, married, “2”, single X9: Having garden per household (“0”,yes ”1” no) X10: Time spend to fetch water( in minutes)
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CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
4.1. Socio- economic and Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents
4.1.1. Household size, sex ratio and age structure
A gender perspective which seeks to include an understanding of gender roles and relations and how these affect and are affected by water and sanitation interventions can ensure greater sustainability and resource efficiency and can therefore increase the number of beneficiaries. Experience has shown that interventions which include the views and input of both men and women generally work better. Water resource management is incomplete without a gender perspective because women and men have different and changing gender roles which are bound up with relations of unequal power. Women are often the primary users of water in domestic consumption, subsistence agriculture, health and sanitation. Women in many cases also take the primary role in educating children, in child and family health including sanitation and in caring for the sick.
Understanding gender roles will help to plan water interventions and policies which are based on the knowledge of how and why people make the choices they do in water use in order to meet their needs. As shown in Table 4.1 of the total sampled respondents about 155 (55.6%) and 124 (44.4%) are females and males respectively. The greater numbers of respondents were females. It is, however, beneficial for the study as most of the household chores are performed by females. They are in a better position to provide household water supply and water consumption related information. Like for frequent usage of water for washing clothes, bathing and personal hygiene. Table 4.1: Sex of the sample households
Sex of the respondents Number of respondents Percent
Male 124 44.4
Female 155 55.6 Total 279 100.0
Source: Computed based on the field survey, February, 2016
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4.1.2. Age of the sample household head
As shown in Table 4.2 the age structure of the respondents shows that 31(11.1%) belong to 15 - 30 years old, 81(40.9%) belongs to 31-45, 125(84.9) belongs to 46-65 and 42(15.1) belongs to 65+ years old. The majority of the respondent‟s age is between 46 and 65 years old. This indicates that they are mature to provide well contemplated response concerning the current provision of water supply.
Table 4.2: Age of the sample household head
age Number of respondents Percent 15-30 31 11.1 31-45 81 40.1
46-65 125 84.9 65+ 42 15.1 Total 279 100.0 Source: Computed based on the field survey February 2016
4.1.3. Marital status of the sample households
As Table4.3 shows the marital status of the sample households, about 175 (62.7%) of all respondents were married, while about 12(4.3%) were single. The survey result for this research also revealed that divorced and widow household heads are commonly found in the study area. The divorced household heads make up 18.6 percent and the widowed ones are 5.7 percent of the investigated households and 8.6% of the respondents were polygamy. Therefore, the majority of respondents are married and family responsibility takers.
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Table4.3: Marital status of the sample household head
Marital status Number of respondents Percent Single 12 4.3 Married 175 62.7 Divorced 52 18.6 Widow 16 5.7 Polygamy 24 8.6 Total 279 100.0 Source: Computed based on the field survey, February, 2016.
4.1.4. Family size
Household size is often the major demographic influence on total water use. Domestic water consumption will likely increase with household size (Shearer, 2011).This is because an additional person means more showering or bathing, more toilet flushing and additional clothes washing. Similarly according to Mushir (2012) both household size and composition affect water use, and moreover, household size has been found to be the most important factor affecting water consumption. Figure 4.1 shows the family size of the sample households vary from one household to other households; the variations were between 1 and 10. The sample households have one family size were 13 respondents or 4.7 percent, 2 family size, 5 respondents or 1.8%, 3 family size, 14 respondents or 5%, 4 family size, 33 respondents or 11.8%, 5 family size, 54 respondents or 19.4%, 6 family size, 65 respondents or 23.3%, 7 family size, 64 respondents or 22.9%, 8 family size, 27 respondents or 9.7%, 9 family size, 3 respondents or 1.1%, 10 family size, 1 respondents or 0.4%. Generally, the average family size of the sample of household‟s was 5.5842.
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Figure 4.1: Family size of the selected sample households (Source: Computed based on the field survey February 2016)
4.1.5. Occupational status
As Table 4.4 indicates the sampled households have diverse employment backgrounds. These include government employees, merchant, daily laborers, farmers and others (seniors and households that depend on other people for their survival). Accordingly, diversity of occupation was observed in the study area 29% were engage on government employees, 8.2% on daily laborers, 35.8% on private business, 17.9% agriculture and others were forming about 9.0%.
Table 4.4: Occupation of sample households
Occupation of households Number of respondents Percent Government employee 81 29.0 Daily labor 23 8.2 Merchant 100 35.8 Agriculture 50 17.9 Others 25 9.1 Total 279 100.0
Source: Computed based on the field survey February 2016
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4.1.6. Household income
Income is a major and prominent influencing factor, which determines household water consumption level. Income level has a significant impact on water consumption has a direct relationship with water use and water supply. These factors account for some of the consumption that is associated with indoor shower and income.
As Table 4.5 shows average monthly income of the sample households shows that 31 (11.1%), 87(31.2%) , 95 (34.1%), 34(12.2%), and 32 (11.5%) have received less than 1000 birr, between 1000 to 1999 birr, 2000 to 2999 birr, 3000 to 3999 birr and greater than 4000 Ethiopian birr per month respectively. The majority or 57.8% of respondents the average monthly income is 2000 birr and above and the highest income level consumes high amount of water and the remain 42.2% of the respondents their average income is below 2000 birr. Therefore the respondents that have high income they consume high amount of water and the respondents that have low income they consume low amount of water consumption. Therefore monthly income and water consumption have direct relationship.
Table 4.5: Monthly income of the sample respondents
Monthly income in birr Number of respondents Percent
<1000birr 31 11.0
1000-1999birr 87 31.2
2000-2999birr 95 34.1
3000-3999 34 12.2
>4000birr 32 11.5
Total 279 100.0
Source: Computed based on the field survey February 2016
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4.1.7. Religion of sample household heads
As Table 4.6 portrayed over 94 percent of the respondents were Muslim, 4.7 percent orthodox, 0.7 percent protestant and 0.4 percent was others. The majority of the respondents in the study area are Muslim.
Table 4.6: Religion of sample household heads
Religion Number of respondents Percent
Muslim 263 94.3 Orthodox 13 4.7
Protestant 2 0.7 Others 1 0.4 Total 279 100.0 Source: Computed based on the field survey February 2016
4.1.8. Educational status of the sample households
Education is one of determinants that is directly correlated with consumption and demand of water. High Education level tends to demand for more water, due to awareness about the health and hygiene.
As Figure 4.2 shows the educational level of the household head, data reveals the majority of the household heads were 93(33.3%) grade 5-8, 70(25.1%) grade 1-4,64(22.9%) Cannot write and read, 40(14.3%) grade 9-12 and only 12(4.3%) tertiary education level or diploma and above. This indicates the majority of the respondents were educated. Generally it is possible to conclude 67.1% of the households in the study area were found educated with sufficient knowledge of concerning and using of water.
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Figure 4.2: Education status of household heads (Source: Computed based on the field survey, February, 2016.)
4.2. Price for 20Liter “Jerican”
As Table 4.7 shows the average cost of for 20 liters of the sample households shows that 11(3.9%) were said 2birr, 245(87.8%) were blaming 3birr, 2(0.7%) were saying 4birr and 21(7.5%) were blaming 5birr. The majority of the respondents or 245(87.8%) were saying 3birr is the cost per 20 liters jerican.
According to the field observation result, the situation the average cost for a jerican contains 20 liters was 3birr direct from the truck water vehicles and 5 birr from the private „Brkads‟ (Artificial tanker).
According the data obtained from the focus group discussion (FGD) the cost of a 20 liter “jerican” was 3birr direct from the truck water vehicles whereas, from the private “Barkads” were 5birr.
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Table 4.7: Average cost for 20 litters” jerican” of the sample households
Price of water per 20 liter” jerican” Number of respondents Percent 2birr 11 3.9 3birr 245 87.8
4birr 2 0.7 5birr 21 7.5 Total 279 100.0 Source: Computed based on the field survey February 2016
4.3. Distance from the Source of Water
Distance is influence on water consumption and distribution. When the distance increases the amount of water consumption became decrease and when the distance becomes decrease the water consumption will be vice versa.
As Table 4.8, shows that 148 (53.0%) belongs to 1-100meters, 70 (25.1%) 100-1000 meters and 61 (21.9%) >1000meters far from the source of water. Distance has an impact in consuming labor and time human being. In many developing countries people have to travel log distance to fetch water for their daily life. This is also true in the study area.
According to the UNDP, (2006). More than 1000 meters have no access, 100-1000 meters have intermediate access and 1- 100 meters had basic access. Therefore, the sample household heads 61(21.9%) have no access, 70 (25.1) have intermediate access and 148 (53.0%) have basic access .o water.
According the data obtained from the focus group discussion (FGD) the distance of the source of water from their home were varied. Some of FGD far from the source of water, some of them medium distance and some of them small distance. This variance were came from the lack of pipe line connections and poor road service in the town, because the truck water vehicles always they gone to main roads but not to the other areas or not suitable to track water vehicles.
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Table 4.8: Distance from the source of water to the sample of households home
Distance Number of respondents Percent
1-99meter 148 53.0 100-1000meter 70 25.1
>1000meter 61 21.9 Total 279 100.0 Source: Computed based on the field survey February 2016
4.3.1.Time spent to fetch water
Time is similar like distance, the larger time consumes the small amount of water consumption, and the larger time consumes for large distance and when distance decreases time consumption become decrease and amount of water consumption increase.
As indicated in Table 4.9, the only 14(5.0%) of the respondents time consume 5 minutes, while 150 (53.8%) were consumed 5-30 minutes and 115 (41.2%) also greater than 30 minutes were consumed. The majority of the respondents or 150 (53.8) were consumed 5-30 minutes.
From the observation some of the town dwellers extremely to spend more than one hour by carrying containers filled with 20liters or “jerican” on their back and some of them also used pack animals such as, donkey and camel.
Table 4.9: Time spend to fetch water of the sample households
Time Number of respondents Percent 5-minutes 14 5.0 5-30minutes 150 53.8 >30minutes 115 41.2 Total 279 100.0 Source: Computed based on the field survey February 2016
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4.4. Duration of Interruption of Water Supply
As Table 4.10 shows that the duration of interruption of water in the sample households were 12(4.3%) saying 2-3 days, 30(10.8%) saying 4-5days, 149(53.4%) also 5-6 days and 88(31.5%) saying more than a week. The majority of the respondents or 149(53.4%) were blaming 5-6 days and the minimum respondents or 12(4.3%) were saying 2-3 days. Therefore, there is 5-6 days interrupt and the peoples suffering by shortage of water because of lack of alternative sources of water.
Table 4.10: Duration of interruption of water supply of the sample households
Days Number of respondents Percent 2-3days 12 4.3 4-5days 30 10.8
6-7days 149 53.4 >a week 88 31.5 Total 279 100.0 Source: Computed based on the field survey February 2016
4.5. Having Garden/Flowering
As indicated Table 4.11, 106(38%) only have garden, while 173(62.7%) of the respondents have no garden.
From the observation result, the study area is found in southeastern lowlands with having low rainfall. There is shortage of water supply in the town and garden/flowering is limited due to shortage of water. While, the military and other non-governmental organizations they have their own water track vehicles and they have a good participation in garden/ flowering plants and motivates to the dwellers of the town and starting now.
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Table 4.11: Having garden per household of the sample households
Having garden per household Number of respondents Percent Yes 106 38.0
No 173 62.0 Total 279 100.0 Source: Computed based on the field survey, February, 2016. 4.6. Source and Spatial Coverage of Household Water Supply in Warder Town
In line with, the interview made with the key informants of WWSS shown that, the source of water supply has its own problems to overcome high amount of inhabitants. As a result, the households demand for private connection is very high. Still, the water supply to handle with inhabitants demand as a result its shortage at water production, technical problem, lack of awareness of people as vendor of property, high population growth, old water supply system and no pipeline in all of the town makes challenging the provision of water supply. As the results of the study shown African Development Fund (ADF, 2005), access to water is a condition for health and livelihood, which is why the MDG target was expressed in terms of sustainable access to water supply.
The demand for water in the urban center of developing countries has been increasing over time, as a result of the rising standard of living and population increase resulting from natural growth, as well as from rural-urban migration. In such situations, planning for resourceful and rightful water provision systems in both the short run and long run was critical to confirm that the population gets sufficient water supplies (Alebel, 2002).
4.6.1. Sources of water for households and amounts consumed
Based on secondary data from the water supply service office of Warder Town the current condition related to the water distribution, water sources, reservoirs in the study area are below. The existing water supply system of Warder Town is disconnected by pipeline from the sources of water to the town.
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According to WWSS, the present major water supply sources of the town is ground water from three boreholes in Welwe, located about 12 kilometer from Warder Town, in Dashine, located 3 kilometer and in Gaffo located 3 kilometer from the town, and one large public „Brkad‟ or an artificial tanker used to accumulation of rainfall that was constructed by Warder woreda administration in 2009. The total water produced from these sources is 1,201,234M3 per year. The water transported from the sources of water to the town is by water tracks, pack animals and sometimes people theme selves carried and transported.
4.6.2. Daily water consumption per sample households
As shown in Table 4.12 shows that the mean daily water consumption in liter per households was 109.55, median 120, the standard deviation 42.19, variance 1779.75 and range of the daily water consumption was 170 liters.
Table 4.12: Daily per water consumption (in liter) of the sample households
Measurements Daily per water consumption (in liter) Mean 109.5484 Median 120.0000 Standard Deviation 42.18702 Variance 1779.745 Range 170.00 Source: Computed based on the field survey February 2016
As Table 4.13 indicates consumption of water per household per liter per day was 109.55 and the water consumption per person per liter per day was 19.6. This shows below the UN recommended 50 liters per person per day as the absolute daily minimum amount of water a person needs, and below standard set by water and energy minister of Ethiopia 20 liter per person per day with in a distance of 0.5 kilometer for urban and 1.5 kilometer for rural areas. Therefore Warder Town is suffering by water scarcity because they consumes 19.6 liters per person per day below the UN recommended 50 liter per person per day and below standard set
41 by water and energy of Ethiopia 20 liter per person per day with in a distance of 0.5 kilometer for urban. Table 4.13: Average water consumption for domestic activities at household level
Consumption of water per Consumption of water per Uses of water Households in litter per day Person in litter per day Drinking 14.13 2.5 Cooking 18.0 3.2 Bathing 20.62 3.7 Toilet 15.70 2.7 Washing cloth 36.0 6.5 Others 5.55 1 Total 109.55 19.6 Source: Computed based on the field survey, February, 2016
4.6.3. Major sources of water of the respondents
As Table 4.14 portrayed the source of water for the study area was water vendor from water tracks 159 (57%), private “Barkads, 112(40%) , ground water 6 (2.1%) and private well, packed water was only 2( 0.7%). As indicated Table 4.16 0.7% of the respondents were able to live on bottled quality water while 72.7% depend on water vendors.
Table4.14: Water supply sources used by sampled households
Sources of water supply Number of respondents Percent Water vendor 159 57 Private “Barkads” 112 40.2
Ground water 6 2.1 Others( packed water) 2 0.7
Total 279 100.0 Source: Computed based on the field survey, February, 2016.
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4.6.4. Access to potable water
The universal access to potable water is one of the primary concerns of welfare states. It is a basic necessity for healthy living. According to the universal statement of human rights, the access to potable water is an integral part of right to health. It has quantified that 25 litters clean water per day per person is required for healthy living. However, for many households of urban settlements of developing countries including Ethiopia, it is a distant dream. In many such towns and cities, children and women devote significant amount of time every day in fetching clean water for human consumption and domestic chores. Moreover, women and children devote hours every day collecting water with high operational cost of time that may be otherwise consumed in employment (Mengesha et al., 2003; UNDP, 2006). This has led to water supply uncertainty especially for those households with higher demand due to large family size (Collick, 2008).
Described as the water post of East Africa, Ethiopia has abundant water resources, including 12 river basins and 22 natural and artificial lakes. It is expected that per capita renewable fresh water resources total 1,924 m3 per year. The exact groundwater potential of the country is unknown, but it has been expected to be nearly 2.6 billion m3 (ADF, 2005). Even though, many Ethiopian have been suffering from lack of access to safe water supply in the centuries. The Warder Town is too facing similar problem of poor and uncertain water supply condition.
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Table 4.15: Global Standards in relation to time, distance and quantity of water
Time spent to Distance travel Quantity of water Water supply fetch water to fetch water Consumed Accessibility More than 30 minutes More than1000m Below 5 l /c /d No access Between 1000m 5 to 30 minutes and 100m 20 l /c /d Basic access 50 l/ c/d through Intermediate Within 5 minutes Within 100m one tap on plot Access Water supplied Water supplied through multiple through multiple taps continuously taps continuously 100 l/ c /d and Optimal access above Source: UNDP, 2006
4.7. Causes of Shortage of Water Supply and consumption
As Table 4.16 shows 41(14.7%) saying cause of shortage of water supply was rapid population growth, 97(34.8%) blaming poor distribution and insufficient water supply, 55(19.7%) saying budget problem, 68(24%) blaming scarcity of water sources and the remain19 (6.8%) saying cause of shortage of water supply was rapid urban growth. The majority of the respondents were blaming cause of shortage of water supply was poor distribution and insufficient water supply in the study area
Similarly, according to the field observation result, the situation of water supply for the household consumption activities is poor to satisfy their demands in the town. The sources of water were out of the town, but not connect by pipeline to the town, they transported and distributed by using private truck water vehicles. Due to this case the truck water vehicles also distributes around the main roads and suitable to transport, but the majority of town have no good roads it is sandy area. Because of this dwellers of the town who live out of the main road suffering by shortage of water. Some of the dwellers they were construct „Barkads” (artificial
44 tanker) to contain large amount of water from the water truck and to accumulate rain water during rainy season.
From the interview of water supply and service (WWSS) officers have given detailed information that the water supply problems in the town is due to different reasons. These are lack of financial capacity of WWSS office, inefficient support of other concerned bodies like municipality, water and the other administration body. Municipality of Wader Town was not participating in water supply and distribution to the dwellers of the town. Due to this reason and other problems there is no pipe connection in the town. The means of transportation and distribution is water trucks directly distribute to the dwellers of the town, but it is not enough to satisfy the demand of the dwellers of the town and unequal distribution due to road problems. Furthermore, the awareness of problems by the people living in and around the town, rapid urban growth as a result of rural to urban migration, lack of prediction or forecast demand of water to reduce the water supply problems in the office.
Figure 4.3 Means of water transportation and distribution in the study area.(Source : Photo by the researcher, February 2016
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Table 4:16: Cause of shortage of water for the sample households
Cause of shortage water supply Number of respondents Percent Rapid population growth 50 17.9 Poor distribution and insufficient 97 34.8 Budget problem 65 23.3
24 Scarcity of water sources 68 100.0 Total 279 Source: Computed based on the field survey, February, 2016
4.7.1.Means of transport from the source of water
As Table 4.17 clearly shown the majority of the respondents179 (64.1%) blaming the means of transport from the source of the water to the town was water track vehicles, 55 (19.8%) saying the means of transport from the source of the water to the town was pack animals and the other 55 (16.1%) blaming the means of transport from the source of the water to the town was people theme selves carried and transported.
Table 4.17:Means of transport of sample households
Type of transport Number of respondents Percent
Pack animals 55 19.8 Water tracks 179 64.1
pipe line 0 0 Others 45 16.1
Total 279 100.0 Source: Computed based on the field survey, February, 2016
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4.7.2. Having “Barkads” per household
“Barkad” is an artificial water container used to accumulate rainfall and from water track vehicles. The sample households who have “Barkad” they consumed high amount of water than who have not.
As shown in Table 4.18, 167(59.9%) of the respondents saying “NO” and 112(40.1%) of the respondents saying “Yes”. The majority of the sample households had no “Barkad” only 122 respondents they had.
Table.18: Having “Barkad” per sample households
having "Barkads" Frequency Percent Yes 112 40.1
No 167 59.9 Total 279 100.0 Source: Computed based on the field survey, February, 2016
4.8. Regression Analysis of the Factors Affecting Daily per Capital Households Water Consumption
4.8.1.The Variables and their definitions
As previously discussed in detail, there are many factors affecting daily per capital households water consumption. The variables selected for thus analysis, however, are more of socio- economic factors taking the other things to be similar for all the households.
a) Dependent Variable b) Independent Variables
The Independent Variables that are expected to have association with daily per capita water consumption were selected based on available literature and scientific research done somewhere else. These include:
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Total income per household (X1): This refers to the monthly total household income before tax, including all source of income. Income is a continuous variable and assumed to have positive influence on amount of water consumption.
Family Size (X2): This variable is continuous variable and it refers to the total number of family that households have. The assumption here is that as the family size become large, the higher would be the amount of water to be consume and vice versa.
Distance from the source of water in meter(X3): This refers to the distance the member of the household traveled to fetch water. It refers to the distance in meter from homestead of household‟s source of water. It is assumed that, the higher the distance the member of the household traveled to fetch water; there would be the lower tendencies to consume water.
Education level of households(X4): This is a discrete variable taking to identify the educational level household heads. Hence, it is treated as discrete variable where, “1” represent cannot write and read , “2” represent 1- 4 grade level “3” represent 5-8 grade level “4” represent 9-12 grade level “5” represent diploma & above.
The season (dry or rain) (X5): This is dummy variable taken identify the maximum water supply and consumption seasons of the households. Hence this variable is taken a value of “0” represents “dry” and “1” represents rainy season.
Duration interruption of water consumption(X6): This is refers to the days of interruption of water supply. It is assumed that the longer interruption days the member of households used lower consumption and the vice versa
Having “Barkad” per household (X7): This is dummy variable taken to identify whether the household had “Barkad" or not. Hence this variable is taken a value of zero if the households have a “Barkad” and one otherwise.
Marital status of household head(X8): This is a dummy variable taken to identify whether the household head was married or not by the time survey is conducted. Hence, this variable takes a value of one if the household is married and two otherwise.
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Having garden per household(X9): This is dummy variable taken to identify whether the household had gardening and flowering or not. Hence this variable is taken a value of “0” represents “yes” if the households have a garden and “1” represents if the households have no garden.
Time to fetch to water source (X10): This refers to the minutes the member of household taken to fetch water. It is continuous variable. It is assumed that, the higher the minutes the member of household taken to fetch water; there would be lower tendencies to consume water.
4.9. The result of Regression Analysis First and foremost, the overall significance of this specific model of daily per capital household‟s water consumption was tested with normality as follows.
Table 4.19: Test of normality
Dependent variable Kolmogorov-Smirnov test Shapiro-Wilk test Statistic Degree of Sig. Statistic Degree of Sig. freedom freedom Daily per capital HHs water consumption 0.125 279 0.000 0.953 279 0.000
Moreover, the data have been tested for linearity, normality, homoscedasticity, and multicollinearity problems. Linearity analysis determines whether or not the relationships between the predictors and the outcome variable are linear. As one can see from the diagram below, the predicted values are linearly related to the response value i.e daily per capital household‟s water consumption. Similarly, the assumption of normality was assessed by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests as well asQ Q plot . The basic logic behind normality test is that the errors are identically and independently distributed. The results in Table 4.19 (P- value > 0.01) and Q Q plot shows that the assumption of normality is satisfied.
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Figure 4.4: Q-Q plot of the dependent variable for the normality test
Figure 4.5: Scatter plot of the dependent variable for homoscedasticity test
Another important statistical test performed for the data was homoscedasticity (homogeneity of variance). The assumptions of homoscedasticity are that error variance should be constant and
50 the variance of the residuals is homogeneous across the levels of the predicted values. Hence, as it can be seen from the scatter plot in Figure 4.5 there is no observable structure for the distribution of residuals, and this indicates that there is no problem of heteroscedasticity. Likewise, since VIF for all variables in the equation are less than 10, there is no problem of multi collinearity. As indicated Table 4.20, all the explanatory variables (predictors) selected for the model explained about 84.1 percent (r = 0.917 and r2 = 0.84108) of the variations in the variables in the per capital household water consumption. Among the explanatory variables, family size(X2), monthly income of household(X1), educational level of households(X4), distance source of water from the household home(X3), Having “Barkad” per household(X7) and having garden per household(X9) were found to be the major determinant of per capital household water consumption in the study area.
Table 4.20: Regression analysis results Family size R R2 % Explained X2 0.833 0.694 69.4 X2+X1 0.881 0.776 77.6 X2+1+X4 0.900 0.810 81.0
X2+X1+X4+X3 0.910 0.829 82.9 X2+X1+X4+X3+X7 0.915 0.837 83.7 X2+X1+X4+X3+X7+X9 0.917 0.841 84.1 X1-X10 0.918 0.842 84.2 Source: Computed from the survey data, February, 2016.
The summary in Table 4.20 indicates that out of the most significant predictors, family size of household was most strongly associated with (r = +0.709) followed by monthly income households had moderate association (r = +0.601). Similarly, the association between educational level of households and daily per capital of household water consumption was found moderately positive (r=+0.581).
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Table: 4.21. Summary of the result of multiple regression analysis
Un standardize Standardize coefficient coefficient Collineality statistics variables β Std.error Beta t Sig Tolerance VIF X1 4.066 1.104 0.110 3.683 0.0000 0.668 1.498 X2 8.213 0.821 0.347 10.010 0.000 0.676 1.479 X3 -43.455 1.733 - 0.833 -25.073 0.000 1.000 1.000 X4 2.852 1.154 0.076 2.471 0.014 0.608 1.644 X5 0.001 1.000 -0.051 0.001 0.974 0.995 1.005 X6 - 0.002 1.001 0.146 -0.002 0.955 1.000 1.000 X7 -18.543 2.622 - 0.216 -7.072 0.000 0.741 1.350 X8 0.047 1.006 0.013 1.401 0.162 0.991 1.009 X9 -14.080 2.591 -0.162 -5.433 0.000 0.701 1.426 X10 0.037 1.158 -0.015 1.101 0.272 0.995 1.005 constant 182.909 3.243 ------56.396 0.000 1.000 1.000 R 0.917 R2 0.841 Source: Computed from the survey data, February, 2016.
Generally, the discussions in this chapter indicate that several factors affect the water consumption households in Warder Town. Some of these factors are family size, monthly income, distance of water source, having “Barkad” per household, education level and having garden.
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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMERY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS 5.1. SUMMERY
This being the last and concluding chapter of the thesis, it is relevant to review the research objective. Accordingly, the general objective this study was to investigate the potable water supply and consumption in warder town. The specific objectives were to: assess the source and spatial coverage of potable water supply, find out the challenges of water supply, and investigate the potable water consumption in Warder town.
Based on the above specific objectives, first, the study area was identified purposefully to be studied. Next its background information, location, origin, historical development climate, relief, demographic and socioeconomic characteristics were described. The study has referred to primary and secondary information sources. Mixed method or quantitative approach and qualitative approach were used. A survey questionnaire was developed, enriched with an exploratory study jugged by a panel academicians and pre tested so that its validity and reliability were established. Finally the questionnaire items enable the researcher to get pertinent and relevant information and the required information on demographic and basic research questions. Finally, this study attempted to provide answers to each of the basic research questions related to major sources of water supply and consumption and socio-economic and structure factors contributed to this variance. This enabled the researcher to provide a summary of results as follows. The finding of this paper was the majority of the respondent‟s age found in the age group15-64. The female respondents were constitutes nearly 55.6 percent of the respondents. With regarding the marital status 62.7% were marred at the time of survey. The majority of the family size of the respondents had more than 4 children were 54% of the respondents and the mean of family size of the respondents were 5.56. The occupation status of the sample households were 81 (29%) government employees and the majority of the sample households 100(35.5%) were merchants. The income of the majority of the sample households had from 2000-2999 birr and the minimum of the respondents were < 1000 birr. The religion of the majority of respondents or 94.3% is Muslim. The majority of the respondents or 87.8 % saying average cost of a 20 liter “jercan” were 3 birr. The educational levels of the household heads were 77.1% they can write and read
53 but not the remains. The majority of sample households 149(53.4%) were saying the duration of interruption of water supply from 6-7 days. The 277 (99.3%) of the respondents saying the maximum water supply seasons are rainy season. From the observation the rain season in the study area is in autumn and spring. Therefore during the rainy season the dwellers of the town they accumulate water from rain and the water distributer tanker truck vehicles distribute only in the town, while in the dry seasons or winter and summer the tanker truck vehicles they forced to distributes to militaries and rural peoples. So spring and autumn were the maximum or enough water supplies and winter and summer seasons are the vice versa in Warder Town. The majority (53%) of the respondents were travel to fetch water a distance from 1- 100 meters. The majority of the respondents173 (62%) had no garden.
In general the existing water supply system of Warder Town is not connected by pipeline from the sources of water to the town. According to WWSS (2016) the present major water supply sources of the town is ground water from three boreholes in Welwe, located about 12 kilometer from Warder Town to north, in Dashine, located 3 kilometer north of Warder Town and in Gaffo located 3 kilometers southeast from the town, and one large public „Barkad‟ or an artificial tanker used to accumulation of rainfall that was constructed by government in 2009. The total water produced from these sources is 1,201,234M3 per year. The water transported from the sources of water to the town is by water track vehicles, pack animals and sometimes people theme selves carried and transported. The source of water for the study area is from water tracks 159 (57%), private “Barkads” or “Barkads” is used to collect water from different sources and rain water 112(40.2%) , ground water 6 (2.1%) and private well, packed water was only 2( 0.7%). As indicated table 4.16 0.7% of the respondents were able to live on bottled quality water while 72.7% depend on water vendors.
The regression analysis was ten explanatory variables (predictors) depicting various characteristics of the daily per capital household‟s water consumption of the 279 the households were used in this analysis. Moreover, the data have been tested for linearity, normality, homoscedasticity and multicollinearity problems. Linearity analysis determines whether or not the relationships between the predictors and the outcome variable are linear. Similarly, the assumption of normality was assessed by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests as well as Q - Q plot. The basic logic behind normality test is that the errors are identically and
54 independently distributed. The results in Table 4.5 (P- value > 0.01) and Q - Q plot show that the assumption of normality is satisfied. Another important statistical test performed for the data was homoscedasticity (homogeneity of variance). The assumptions of homoscedasticity are that error variance should be constant and the variance of the residuals is homogeneous across the levels of the predicted values. Hence, as it can be seen from the scatter plot in Figure 4.8 there is no observable structure for the distribution of residuals, and this indicates that there is no problem of heteroscedasticity. Likewise, since VIF for all variables in the equation are less than 10, there is no problem of multi collinearity.
5.2. Conclusion
This study is aimed to investigate the potable water supply and consumption in Warder Town. It proposed to assess the source and spatial coverage of water supply services of the town, the challenges to water supply service of the town, and investigate the main factors affect the potable water supply and consumption in Warder town.
According to WWSS (2016) the present major water supply sources of the town is ground water from three boreholes in Welwe, located about 12 kilometer from Warder Town to north, in Dashine, located 3 kilometer north of Warder Town and in Gaffo located 3 kilometers southeast from the town, and one large public „Barkad‟ or an artificial tanker used to accumulation of rainfall that was constructed by government in 2009. The total water produced from these sources is 1,201,234M3 per year. The water transported from the sources of water to the town is by water track vehicles, pack animals and sometimes people theme selves carried and transported. The source of water for the study area is from water tracks 159 (57%), private “Barkads” or “Barkads” is used to collect water from different sources and rain water 112(40.2%) , ground water 6 (2.1%) and private well, packed water was only 2( 0.7%). As indicated table 4.16 0.7% of the respondents were able to live on bottled quality water while 72.7% depend on water vendors.
There was no public water points are not located with equal distance to their houses. Additionally they did not get water with in a distance of 0.5 and 1.5 kilometers for urban and rural areas respectively as recommended by water and energy minister of Ethiopia.
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Warder Town is facing problem of safe and adequate water. This problem is manifested in that there are residents that are not connected to the pipeline, majority of the dwellers they get water from track water vehicles and during interruption many residents buy water from private “barkad” sellers paying expensive water fee. Regarding the volume of water supplied to the community of Wader Town per person per day, it was found out that about 19.6 liters per person per day was supplied for washing, cooking, drinking and cleaning in 2016. Although the figures fall below the UN recommended 50 liters per person per day as the absolute daily minimum amount of water a person needs, and below standard set by water and energy minister of Ethiopia 20 liter per person per day with in a distance of 0.5 kilometer for urban and 1.5 kilometer for rural areas. Therefore Warder Town is suffering by water scarcity because they consumes 19.6 liters per person per day below the UN recommended 50 liter per person per day and below standard set by water and energy of Ethiopia 20 liter per person per day with in a distance of 0.5 kilometer for urban. The finding of this study also revealed that scarcity of water in the area is caused by insufficient and poor distribution, rapid population growth, budget problems and urban growth.
Similarly, according to the field observation result, the situation of water supply for the household consumption activities is poor to satisfy their demands in the town. The sources of water were out of the town and not connect by pipe line to the town, they transported and distributed by using private truck water vehicles. Due to this case the truck water vehicles also distributes around the main roads and suitable to transport, but the majority of town have no good roads it is sandy area. Because of this dwellers of the town who live out of the main road suffering by shortage of water. Some of the dwellers they were construct „Barkads” (artificial tanker) to contain large amount of water from the water truck and to accumulate rain water during rainy season.
5.3.Recommendations 1. The result of the study indicates that the current water supply provision, demand and accessibility are low standards in the town. Therefore, WWSS should connect by pipeline from the sources of water to the town and distribute to the residents in order to facilitate the people to get pipeline at close to their surroundings.
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2. Warder Municipality Office should support the establishment and expansion of water services by accessing the capacity of the WWSS and the Warder Town administration should provide the necessary supports (financial, materials and technical) to the activity to serve the people and alleviate the present and long term water shortages in the town. So, the municipality has to design strategies for a coordinated and organized intervention between different stakeholders such as the government, NGOs, community based organizations, charity and religious organizations problems and their consequences. 3. The WWSS should be work with community. The community should get awareness regarding protect the sources of water and closely follows up and encouraging them to make active participant on the issues and protecting environment. Additionally, preparing proposals to search NGOs and mobilized community to solve the issues rather than supposing everything from the government. 4. The WWSS has to design strategies to bring together and involve different stakeholders such as the government, NGOs, community based organizations and community at large to reduce of the poor water provision. The helps of mechanism for water supply facilitate some budget/fund getting means and inviting different concerned bodies, businessman, community at large, NGOs and other stakeholders and in the town to improve the services. 5. Improving the capacity of Warder Water Supply Service; should be capacitated by well educated and skilled manpower and also materials. In order to cope with modern technology and successfully do their responsibility, the whole staff in general and technicians in particular should get trainings at different levels. The stake holders of the town and the Woreda water supply service should integrate and carry out their respective duties to strength the WWSS with adequate and skilled human power.
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Annexes Appendix I:
The English translation of the questionnaire for households Dear all my respondents first of all I want to express my thanks at the bottom of my heart. This questionnaire is prepared as an instrument to conduct an academic research for the fulfillment of Masters of Art Degree (MA) in Adama Science and Technology University School of Humanities and Law, Department of Geography and Environmental Management. The main objective of the research is to investigate the state of potable water supply in warder town, Eastern Ethiopia.
Hence, the questionnaire attempts to assess the provision and problem that constrain effective performance. Therefore, your honest response will be vital for the effectiveness of the study. All information you provide for this academic issue will be treated confidential. Therefore, you are requested to fill in the questionnaire according to the instruction given for each item. Please note that: There is no need to write your name.
Each question has its own instruction to follow
Return the questionnaire to the field assistant, as soon as you complete filling it.
Thanks for your willingness!! Section I. Respondent’s Background Information
Note- You are required to circle on the appropriate option 1. Gender: 0) Male 1) Female: 2. Age: 1, 0-14 2, 15-64 3, 65+ 3. Marital status of household head: 1) Single 2) Married 3) Divorced 4) Widowed 5, polygamy 4. Education level of household head: 1) Cannot write and read 2) Grade 1- 4 3) Grade 5-8 4) Grade 9-12 4) Diploma & above 5. Family size (in number): ______6. Occupation of household head:
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1) Government employee 2) Daily laborer 3) Merchants 4) Agriculture 5) Others 7. How much is your monthly income (in birr)? 1) <1000 2)1000-1999 3)2000-2999 3) 3000-3999 4) >4000 8. Religion: 1) Muslim 2) Orthodox 3) Protestant 4) Catholic 5) others Section II: 1. What is the major source of water for domestic chores? 1) Governmental water supply 2) From water vendor 3) Private yard connection 4) Ground water 5) others 2. Are you satisfied by major sources of water supply in the town? 1) Yes 2) No 3. If your answer for question number 2 is “No”. What is the reason for dissatisfaction? 1) Limit availability source of potable water 2) Distance from the source of water 3) Un equal distribution of water in the town 4) The per unit cost of water supply is high 5) Other reasons 4. Do you have access to potable water? 1) Yes 2) No 5. If your answer is “Yes‟ for question number 4. Where from you collect drinking water? 1) Tap inside house 2) ”Barkad” or rainfall 3) Tap outside compound 4) water vendor 5) Others 6. What is the average cost of you buying for 20 liters of “jerrycan” from water vendor? 1) 1birr 2) 2birr 3) 3 birr 4) 4birr 5) 5birr 7. How much do you pay for water per month on average in birr? 1) 150-250 2) 251-350 3)351- 450 4) 451-550 5) > 551 8. Are there problems with water supply and delivery services in Warder town? 1) Yes 2) No 9. If your answer is ” Yes” for question number 8, what are the problems? 1) Technical 2) Financial 3) Facilitation 4) Other 10. What are the means of transportation from the sources of water to the town? 1) Pack animals 2) Water tracks 3) pipe line 4) others 11. Do you have garden/flowers? 0) Yes 1) No 12. What are the causes of water shortages in your town? 1) High population growth 2) Insufficient and poor distribution 3) Budget problems 4) Scarcity of water sources
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5) Urban growth 13. How is the duration of interruption in water supply? 1) 2 to 3 days 2) 4 to 5 days 3) 6 to 7 days 4) > a week 14. Who is responsible for water supply in the town? 1) Government 2) Community based organization 3) NGOs 4) All 15. Is the provision of drinking water sufficient and equally distribution for all dwellers in the town? 1) Yes 2) No 16. If your answer for Question 17 is “No”, what is the reason for the unequal distribution? 1) Low participation of stakeholders 3) Financial problem 2) Lack of pipe line connection 4) lack of infrastructures e) others 17. Do you have private “Barkad”? 0, Yes 1, No 18. How much your water consumption on average per day (In liter)? 1) 10-50 liters 2) 51-90 liters 3)91- 150 4) >151 liters 19. Is supply of water proportional with your daily demand? 1) Yes 2) No 20. If your answer is” No” for question 20, how do you satisfy your demand? 1) From private “barkads” 2) ground water 3) by using accumulation rain water4) other 21. How far is the water source from your house? 1) 1-100 meters 2) 100-1000meters 3) >1000meters 22. In which season shows the shortage of water supply in the town? 1) Summer 2) Winter 3) Autumn 4) Spring 5) 1 and 2 23. How much time spends to fetch water from the source of water? 1) 5minutes 2) 5-30minutes 3) >30 minuets 24. In which season there is maximum supply of water? 1) Summer 2) Winter 3) Autumn 4) Spring 5) 3 and 4
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25. What are the major uses of water in your household? Please rank the following alternatives with 1st to the highest and estimate the amount of consumption /litter/day.
Rank Consumption Consumption water/HHs/litter/day water/Person/litter/day Uses of water (estimation) (estimation) Drinking Cooking Bathing Toilet Washing cloth Garden Others
Appendix ΙΙ: Semi-Structured for Interview of key informants
A. Guided Questions for Interview to Wader Water Supply and Services
1. What is/are the main source/s of water to the urban dwellers in the warder town? Is/are it/they enough to meet the current and future water demand of the town?
2. Are there any challenges in potable water supply in your surrounding?
3. If there is what are the main challenges of potable water supply in this town?
4. What measure/strategies should be taken to overcome the problem?
5. Is there shortage/interruption in your town? if there is how often and how long? What do you think the cause of interruption and what solution do you have on the time?
6. Why you are connect by pipe line from the source of water to the town?
7. Is there any other institution (NGOs, CBOs and others) which works on warder water, provision?
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B. Interview Guided Questions for Municipality Office 1. Who takes the responsibility of water supply in Warder Town?
2. What is the means of transportation from the source of water to the town?
3. Are there demand and supply of water matched in the town?
4. Are you working in integration with the water supply service to improve the services delivery?
5.If you work, please elaborate how?
6.If you do not work ,please specify why?
7. If you are working with them what challenges do you face?
8. If you face challenges, what possible solutions you recommend?
Appendix ΙII: Guided questions for focus group discussion (FGD)
1. What are the main problems in the means of water transportation and distribution in your town?
2. What are the major source of water supply to you town?
3. What do you think the best solution for this problem?
4. Do you know the main causes of the unequal distribution of water to the people?
5. Are there demand and supply of water matched in the town? 6. What are the effects of inadequate urban water supply services on households of Warder Town? Appendix V: Checklists prepared for filed observation
1. What are the sources of water for you?
2. For what purposes you need water?
3. Where do you collect water used in your households?
4. What do you think are the possible causes of the water supply problem in your area?
5. How much water does your family use?
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6. What do you think can do to improve water supply and delivery services in your area?
7. Is there a seasonal water supply variation in the other source you use?
Appendix V. The average maximum and minimum temperature in 0c of
Werder Town from 2007-2015.
February March April May June
Month January July August September October November December
Max.T0 (C0 ) 32.7 37.4 38.6 38.8 39.5 37.2 30.4 30.4 32.5 30.5 33.5 29.7
Min. T0(C0 ) 20.5 21.0 20.5 20.3 20.5 20..5 21.6 20.6 21.3 20.6 20 19.5
Average 26.6 29.2 29.5 29.5 30 28.8 26 25.5 26.9 25.5 27.5 24.6 Source: Metrology station jijig, 2015
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