RESEARCH REPORT 57 IDS_Master Logo Vulnerable Livelihoods in Somali Region, Ethiopia Stephen Devereux April 2006 I About IDS The Institute of Development Studies is one of the world's leading organisations for research, teaching and communications on international development. Founded in 1966, the Institute enjoys an international reputation based on the quality of its work and the rigour with which it applies academic skills to real world challenges. Its purpose is to understand and explain the world, and to try to change it – to influence as well as to inform. IDS hosts five dynamic research programmes, five popular postgraduate courses, and a family of world- class web-based knowledge services. These three spheres are integrated in a unique combination – as a development knowledge hub, IDS is connected into and is a convenor of networks throughout the world. 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IDS RESEARCH REPORT 57 IDS RESEARCH REPORT 57 Vulnerable Livelihoods in Somali Region, Ethiopia Stephen Devereux April 2006 Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex Brighton BN1 9RE UK 1 IDS RESEARCH REPORT 57 Vulnerable Livelihoods in Somali Region, Ethiopia Stephen Devereux IDS Research Report 57 Photo: Andrew Heaven First published by the Institute of Development Studies in April 2006 © Institute of Development Studies 2006 ISBN 1 85864 612 X A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. All rights reserved. Reproduction, copy, transmission, or translation of any part of this publication may be made only under the following conditions: • with the prior permission of the publisher; or • with a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE, UK, or from another national licensing agency; or • under the terms set out below. 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Available from: Communications Unit Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex Brighton BN1 9RE, UK Tel: +44 (0) 1273 678269 Fax: +44 (0) 1273 621202 E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.ids.ac.uk/ids/bookshop Printed by Imagedata Group, Brighton UK Typeset by Barbara Cheney IDS is a charitable company limited by guarantee and registered in England (No. 877338). 2 IDS RESEARCH REPORT 57 Contents List of figures 5 List of tables 6 List of boxes 7 Acknowledgements 8 Acronyms 9 Executive summary 11 Section 1 Context 1 Introduction 19 1.1 Research issues 19 1.2 Structure of this report 20 1.3 Methodology 20 2 Somali Region: the place and the people 26 2.1 Population and demography in Somali Region 26 2.2 The paradox of wealth plus vulnerability 30 Section 2 Livelihoods 3 District livelihood profiles 33 3.1 Pastoralist districts 34 3.2 Agro-pastoralist districts 37 3.3 Farming districts 39 3.4 Urban centres 42 4 Livestock rearing and marketing 44 4.1 Livestock ownership in Somali Region 44 4.2 Livestock marketing in Somali Region 48 4.3 The marketing system in Somali Region 50 4.4 Livestock prices 55 4.5 Marketing constraints in Somali Region 56 5 Farming and agro-pastoralism 62 5.1 Farming systems in Somali Region 63 5.2 Land ownership and access 63 5.3 Harvests 65 5.4 Trends in crop production 66 6 Internally displaced persons 68 6.1 Livelihoods in Hartisheik camp 69 6.2 Conditions in Hartisheik camp 70 6.3 Food aid in Hartisheik camp 71 6.4 Government policy towards the IDP camps 71 6.5 The way forward? 72 7 Incomes and inequality 74 7.1 Household incomes 74 7.2 Income inequality 76 7.3 Returns to livelihood activities 76 7.4 Food consumption 81 7.5 Household purchases 83 7.6 Livelihood problems and changes 84 Section 3 Vulnerability 8 Livelihood vulnerability and mortality outcomes 86 8.1 Trends in self-assessed vulnerability 86 8.2 Mortality 90 3 IDS RESEARCH REPORT 57 9 Drought and hunger 93 9.1 Drought in Somali Region 93 9.2 Rainfall trends 99 9.3 Access to water 101 10 Conflict 105 10.1 The complex nature of conflict in Somali Region 105 10.2 Impacts ofconflict 108 10.3 Conflict resolution 111 10.4 Compensation payments 111 10.5 Vulnerability to conflict 113 11 Governance and political representation 114 11.1 Political structures and policy processes 114 11.2 Perceptions ofpolitical representation 116 12 Gendered vulnerability 119 12.1 Gender bias in Somali Region 119 12.2. Intra-household discrimination 122 12.3 Khat consumption 123 12.4 Gendered division of incomes 124 12.5 Women and the future 127 Section 4 Responding to vulnerability 13 Coping strategies 128 13.1 Coping strategies in the literature 128 13.2 Coping strategies adopted in Somali Region 128 13.3 Gendered coping strategies in Somali Region 131 14 Informal transfers 133 14.1 Informal transfer mechanisms in Somali Region 133 14.2 Access to informal transfers 135 14.3 Availability ofinformal transfers 136 14.4 Gender and informal assistance 138 14.5 Zakaat 138 14.6 The limits ofredistribution? 140 15 Safety nets 141 15.1 Trends in food aid deliveries 141 15.2 Food aid targeting and distribution 143 15.3 Receipts ofsafety net transfers 145 15.4 Uses offood aid 146 15.5 Beneficiary tastes and preferences 147 15.6 Alternatives to food aid 148 16 Health services 149 16.1 Causes of death in Somali Region 149 16.2 Access to health services 150 16.3 Quality ofhealth services 153 17 Education 154 17.1 Literacy 155 17.2 Access to education 156 17.3 Costs ofeducation 158 17.4 Attitudes to education 159 17.5 Quality ofeducation services 162 4 IDS RESEARCH REPORT 57 Section 5 Conclusions and implications for policy 18 Somali attitudes to the future of pastoralism 163 19 Implications for policy 168 19.1 Is Pastoralism unviable in Somali Region? 168 19.2 How to plan for unpredictability? 169 19.3 Is sedentarisation the solution? 172 19.4 What kinds of safety nets are needed? 173 Annex: Household questionnaire 175 Glossary 192 Bibliography 194 Figures Figure 2.1 Map of Ethiopia, showing Somali Region 27 Figure 3.1 Somali Region, with survey sites highlighted 33 Figure 4.1 Annual livestock exports from Berbera and Bosaso ports, 1994–2004 59 Figure 5.1 Perceived trends in harvests, 1994–2004 67 Figure 7.1 Lorenz curves of household incomes, Somali Region 76 Figure 8.1 Trends in self-assessed vulnerability, by district 87 Figure 8.2 Trends in self-assessment index and destitution, Somali Region 89 Figure 8.3 Deaths per year, 1990–2004 92 Figure 8.4 Deaths per household and by season, 1992–2004 92 Figure 9.1 Total annual rainfall, Gode, 1957–2002 (mm) 99 Figure 9.2. Long-run rainfall trends, Gode (mm) 99 Figure 9.3 Total annual rainfall, Jigjiga, 1952–2002 (mm) 100 Figure 9.4 Long-run rainfall trends, Jigjiga (mm) 100 Figure 9.5 Sources of water in birka-dependent areas of Somali Region 101 Figure 9.6 Sources of water in well-dependent areas of Somali Region 103 Figure 9.7 Sources of water in river-dependent areas of Somali Region 103 Figure 9.8 Sources of water in urban areas of Somali Region 104 Figure 12.1 Sex ratios in Somali Region 120 Figure 12.2 “Missing females” in Somali Region (1997 Census data) 121 Figure 12.3 Crude life expectancy estimates (household survey data) 121 Figure 13.1 A categorisation of household coping strategies 129 Figure 14.1 Most recent payment of zakaat, by district 139 Figure 15.1 Food aid on sale in Jigjiga town, February 2004 142 Figure 16.1 Deaths from natural and unnatural causes, 1992–2004 150 Figure 16.2 Perceived quality of health services, Somali Region 153 Figure 17.1 Perceived quality of education services, Somali Region 162 5 IDS RESEARCH REPORT 57 Tables Table 1.1 Summary of household questionnaire 21 Table 1.2 Sampling frame for the household survey in Somali Region 24 Table 2.1 Population of Somali Region, 1997 (ranked by zone population size) 27 Table 2.2 Household size and composition, by district 28 Table 2.3 Males per 100 females in Somali Region, by age cohort 28 Table 2.4 Absentee household members, by district 29 Table 2.5 Demographic structures in developing countries and in Somali Region 30 Table 2.6 Poverty headcounts and calorie consumption in Ethiopia, by region 31 Table 2.7 Anthropometric indicators in Ethiopia, by region 32 Table 4.1 Households owning livestock, by district 44 Table 4.2 Livestock ownership, by district (all households) 45 Table 4.3 Reasons for decreasing livestock ownership, 1995–2005 47 Table 4.4 Gross daily revenue from livestock sales in four Somali markets, 2005 48 Table 4.5 Time-line for livestock traders in Somali Region,