Eric L Ball

1t19 ttîiî lrilhin lts sonss Athens i""',;ï::"' stor^J lron Human Roodenburg Paniva¡ P4402óÌ' îå1"' J;î*"' ì compacL disc t.,no1ï.' thymno. åî",'fiï, ø î,¿¿. Re N Y: Merissa (hete New Rochelle' Making an Island in Time: Dutch tä¿l^{*m:: Distiths ol sete¿ted Louo Folklore Studies, Painting, Tourism, N{edia Associates tîäXt"ïï Atherìs: Dorikos and Craniometry around 1900 ï';: t-' dseartiher: Mûntina¿¿s

a n : ;: t d o ra r i r ":,i,^ u:l;:":: :' ""åi;'Ievó ï::1:* uw'+ :::' :l] lJ;'^[l, J'1"fl -i "'Bour- ß,. qp, u \ n n:.o:t; ;:í"-chos 2u5-22 l:,P;:"åli:ï"ii; IN THE LAST decades of the nineteenth century a colorful group of '.i:î:¿:iil''ilii'3 ; :::' painters, travelers, and scholars became fascinated with the island of rheorl (1 I I 8' on rhøir Litoarr Marken, a small fishing community some ten miles north of 'tu'' ?ix*;'" - :Y." !:::î;'Jï:.î:!:a'¿t Amsterdam. Marken was "different," they agreed. For most of them, ot0) Amstcrdam:t ,{oo I ns the island evoked images of Holland's Golden Age, of its robust and ed ] Athe ns: BiblioPoleion tltf,,it'ijÍ*'"' to sel¿ris lGreek : Îront Llomer glorious seventeenth century. Others perceived a "Teutonic" past, Estras imagined themselves as having landed among a "primitive tribe," or Fro tokrito s Mønlinarlo¡rrozz tl";t" t oJ th¿ cxelan even construed the islanders as direct descendants of Neanderthal "¡j"f*;; drhe Ae5th¿tir sÍrúctltre man. Written and illustrated sources from the period offer a surpris- rnlil lot'lal Athens ing palette of national glorifrcation, primitivism, and race. Mass tour- tl"rîî^t¿;tT;ffi \rakrero' üntut es and' R|rynes ism soon entered the scene, fostered by convenient transportation. As of 1885, one could take the steam tram to the smalì town of - ":ü;,"iä.:-" "'\ t::, :r. )îÌ,);i',,-:Ï:'::*',1 i:'il]li:;;:"''å:i;ii Monnickendam, where the boat to Marken was moored. Around 1900 i^ì'*" .''" ; ÍíÍi:ii"å:Ïf i;:'Jl"j"il " a direct ferry service (the "Marken Express") was even established Havet' co''n : Amsterdam ttre island. By 1905, a travel guide could u"¿ y::lî:i:,ä, ¿rzd Pl¿¿¿ Nerv between and vi,"r., wiirìu-' L:l on coñmunxt) 1ooñ Rool\¿ i th¿ Lana: already lament, '\Arhat is wrong with Marken is that for the most part Pr ess' Yalt UniversirY it consists ofsightseers" (Lucas 1905:196).

n ¿ noil:lJ joined -lxl,ll'JJiÌI",' rorr, o," u fr:î"' 1! The image of open-air painters being by a first wave of åìilïîl;î,'ùi:1 I e-Ss r ¿r li rr 6:8 travel writers, paving the way for ever greater waves of tourists, is a )''' iì a'¡ "' "' '" "''' #ill;ii.nlÏÎ'Ë ., familiar one in late-nineteenth-centurv Europe. Artists were often itiîÌ'iï;'l wiesbaden: (I

of Folhùru Rzsearch,I/oL 39, Nos. 2/3, 2002 lbpyright @ 2002 FoÌklore Institute, Indiana University

173 Herman Roodenburg Møki.ng øn Island, i.n Time

Marken ventionist accounts. Nor did they construe their field work tradi- or (in the Netherlands) the fishing village of Volendam too severe' tion as a mark of disciplinary distinction, preferring in fact other ,rrah a colony; the conditions were probably ,r..ra, tlr"* ethnographic methods over "open-air" ethnography and priding ButitnevefthelessattractednumerousPaintels,includingthe..colo- historians have empha- themselves on a tradition of philological scholarship. As a conse- .rirtr" *tto settled in nearby Volendam Art instance' how the urban quence, travel writers became much less of a disciplinary "other" to sizecl the many ironies of the colonies: for of the twentieth-century folklorists than they did to socio-cultural anttrro- their quest for simplicity and the ir-rejection .".ìÇa.-i" pologists. Nevertheless, the discipline of folklore studies was cer- .on,"åpo.u.y processes of urbanizadon and industrialization- of lransport' tainly informed by eighteenth- and nineteenth-century travel writing. co.rld alo proåt i--.,-tt"ly from improved means 1985) Re- A well-known exarnple isWilhelm Heinrich Riehl's Wønd.erbuch,borh .ro..t^ttn the rapidly expanding railway tracks (facobs Europe's folklore study and travelogue, published in 1869. At a more general *. n.ri 1",. uuåot tnt ãrst scholars setting offfor -lroìoir1, Marken-even level, we may point to the search for authenticity shared by paint- ¡u.t *uá enclaves: folklorists, linguists or-as on wandered ers, travel writers, and folklorists alike (Bendix I997; Buzard 1993). ifru.i.uf urraf,.opologists \À4rile the painters and tourists with rulers No less important (and quite different from what contemporâry ;;;;.;th. t,o.'r... ,"ttt anthropologists came equipped are there many sources ethnographers studying cultures far outside the western world were meãsure the skulls of the islanders Nor to confronted with), travel writing had an impact on the newly discov- abouthowartistic,tlavel,andscholarlydiscoursesactuallyimpli ered farming and fishing communities that folklorists, if they did cated one anothel. --'-Ir't have not simply look the other way, had a hard time dealing with. The ..."n, y.urs, social anthropologists and literary historians wdtjng ând ethnogra- Netherlands around 1900, with its growing tourist and heritage in- noted the many correspondences between travel revolution" in frelrlwork dustry, is a case in point. piy. i*y perceive the 'Malinowskian "" such as travelogues or tle accounts L á ¿ir,irr., ¡t"ut"itger with older genres' themselves from the welÌ-known oi r"ttl"r. un¿ -l.sionaries' Distancing in almost a1l i*"11 "-"r. travelers" or "casual observers" found 'üulirro*rtiun (o.Boasian) ethnographies' they inst€ad explore the com- Clifford argues'- since the mon ground betwe.n tt'e genrti' As James "a professionaì body has early of the Mentieth century, disciplined iart andjournalistic b.en articulat.d ulong a changing borderwith Iiterary that is constantþ renego- ouu"f fru.,i...." ft is in unstable border' one 1986)' tiated (Clitrord 1997:186;Porter 1991' ch l0;Pratt all the folklorism Folklorists now also study tourism' including realize how Folklore and heritage industry it may entail They also "disciplined pro- ü"ut.r, t"",n" p.ocess ofdefining itselfas another all purPortedly amateur fessional bod¡" has strategically discarded a shortage of studies accoutts of iis object Howeve¡ there is still histori- ,f-t".. produled by social anthropologists and literary if*. and ,ttu,.*t-i"e the úorder between the emerging discipline 1930s "nri,h.'ota., g..tr", of travel triting Folklorists of the 1920s an<1 "science" that (in the Tourism and hsher folk united: the beach at Scheveningen. Wood engraving never con'ceived of freld observation as the all amateur and inter- after a drawing by F¡itz Hollenberg (Eigen Haard,7883) heroic phrasing of Malinowski) would "kill" Møhing an Island in Time r77 Herman Roodenburg 771) described, and, wh e¡her 01 t"Lot ¿n si¿u, presented for public viewing. They became part of regional or national patrimony and were awarded a sec- T at ond life (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 1998:161-62). This process clearly oc- start When it frnally surfaced Folklore Studies had a late curred on Marken, even though contemporaries used a different Dutch . "long ethnographic leth- turn of the ninereenth ..rl,iry 1.r,.t terminology. Alarmed by the impact of tourism on the fishing villages of the on th€ equally late develop- arss," to quote Christian uto"tUJtg"t Scheveningen, Volendam, and Marken, in 1912 several Dutch intellec- it would discover mãnt of folklore ...tai"' it-' ¡'*t)] i :tÌ:-Ttttu" tuals expressed their concern that the entire country might fall prey to *ì,. .,p.. i u' v' ü:î:,']ìi" iil 'Volendammerij": to toudsts looking everywhere for the quaint an.l tra- ^' l'tounsls ï:::ï attKC:,ïl;H:;r: t:'"'"ï.:-; ä"1'l;'i¿ -c"^- vored by artists and ,t'" 1880s on ditional. In the intellecnrals' view, the archaizing mechanism was already ä.tJi .i-ir'" .1-'111'-,11'.ïi,3:::J. shifting fiom the local to the national level, and they cautioned that numo"* Jj:Lit".i'liiil'"''. should be shown more thaljust "fossilized fame, Volendam- ever growing "j.^'.):l;i;*'ri-- ,n. unired srates. foreigners but also, and lr'ìcreasurts'/' -"1 (te 1992:255). Folklorist Schrljnen and France ';;; ;--,- hocn .escribed mers, and Marken fishermen" Velde 'î;;;;oi";"'"n:l:u'::lî;Lîï:,ä,Aiï:i".:ii:'n-.. was no less concerned, but chose to ignore the phenomenon. Reverting in the history.or ulti':'"1:î;;;,nl'.d as a key moment and-aczacademic to tlìe botanical arrd geoÌogical imagery so cherished by the Brothers protiteration of insritutions was characterized by the tt?1^11'1 Grimm ald other adherents of romantìc nationalism, he styled folk ìife V'ã"i'"d¿was established tl endeavors: the FI"-i'n¡ot"ltui as "the delicate flowe¡ that at the slightest touch folds up" (Schrijnen ;ïä;;;;;'*uÑ:l-::",î$,"1;JJ;"""*'$JTi:i:: l9l5-17:v-vi). Together with most ofhis fellow folklorists, he preferred to steer away from all interventionist accounts, leaving the border be- study of farmhou*:..pp"*";;;;ã and the rirst introduc- < ,í rrrz, seum, modeled on Skansen' * tween their discipline and other archaizing perceptions of peasant's ancl n d s ch e s N e d ert a "" ;o' sttt'il'""' ^vo'u:'! iyo''tirst aca- frsher folk largely unexamined. In fact, as the Marken sources testify, the ì."';;';;Jìi.;, followecì in 1923 bv the vås rstr-ioL7' dividing lines were far fiom clear. The records about Marken fiom the r"iìtri"îtìn' p.t, .t Schrijnen's teaching commit- ãemic folkiore instrucdon ". decades around 1900 illustr:ate how the popular and the scholarly imagi *'î:åî':;ÏJ:î::ï'.1:,*'#ö*:':,1T^*,-î"ourism nations implicated one another and offer a valuable understanding of the the discourses informing those perceptions. tftup" fnt instìrudons included and heritage industry also toJ f SACI' the A À4{ {an¡:mbrella Dutch Touring Club As- Ro\al '.-¡¡'nnæl Offìces' 1902); the orsanization of tÌte local Totir]trl"fo'-utiott tut"t" tvn:-igt1g "^t'? ..,ãiu,ion for the Pres€rvaul"-oi '-',: :::""0 Natuul.lTlonumenten'1905);and,inlgl0,oneofthe.firstherltageSocr- tir' t""i ttt"^*u¿ (Dekker 20Oo:29-30) ' edes in tlre Netherlands: u""p*'lt::l]1i1"* tt"u- the institutionaì ani ãål*tt Indeed,,"^,î,p",,.,.*'":i:'_.:lï*ü*:::;:,xl::i:t'iË;li

[îffi?:iif:"k*ålåi:i":',;;";;;i;ting.(pàrti''urryortnemerg€d' t.n"t' and its folìowers) virtually ut ttast at the time"was "*".ãommon to dre thttt ¿o"i-¡i" larchaizinB äl-t't"oilcs' Iocations' lifesty.les) thathad mechanism: certai" t*t*tu f""lti""''i"'the modcrnization of ninercenth- lost many of their fot-"t as "archa- suddenly rediscoveted A postcard from 1905: Marken children posing for the PhotograPher. society and ;;e century """" ";i;; *"¡-,n.* foims could be preserved, isms.,, Reconrexturo.o ,,' üt, Mahing øn Island, i.n Time 175 Herman Roodenburg t/ö

II T]:.e Bato,ül.ß Genuinøs (Barge 1912) . \À/hatweretherepresena[onsofMarken?Broadlyspeakingwehave at our disposal For one' we have i"l-.t g.rrt.r, fou, qpe' of sources' was written by foreigners, frequently about tl".lt]l1u:t what we may call early socrographic reports ""' from France, England, and the s' S Coronel (1827-1892) ir-, igo2 tl't" AmsterdaÅ doctor United States. Theyreported on sites ;;;;".;, (Sketches of n* "schetsen uit het Markersche Volksleven" in Amsterdam and other large cities, booo t:lT^!l:'""" ""ùìitn.Uiìîri." tift ), which was quicklvissuedìn though many also traveled to the f.p"". Esquiros observerl that trench travel writer Alphonse towns and villages in the surround- ".ä.i-.-xi.i,rt" theislandwaslittleknownamongtheDutch'Coroneldecided,toset ing countryside. After Frenchman he solicited ,ilLît ttsn,. rePort is thorJugh' not Ìeast because Henry Havard (1838-1921) visited Francis Allan A detailed ver- ifr. å.irä.. "*of thá local headmaster' the island and$rote a 1)ì ical account included in Frédéric Le Play's sion authored by both men was even of ftin his La Holk¿ndc aoy- ";;- of nineteenth-century þittoresque: E"rriáms, o-,'e of the masterpieces age aux ailles r¿ortes d,u Zuid,erzee ";;*t (1874), sociologY. of Marken became famous.s out, Markeners provide one of the finestinsnnces As it turns (Le The French text was translated inlo tttt stem family or mille souche L. Pf. -o.t.o1id family typt' '/a Dutch and English ayear later \4/hile 2 AÌlan identify the islanders as It"t tSZZ, 3:204-72) Coronel and scenes in travel accounts sometimes people of a "proud and of the 'iancient Frisian race"' a tlìat they were iä""¿""" A give the impression character," although race is not a dorìr]T,1Il:me viewed the eyes of the ;;ii.,,a.;,-tu*r'uno.ty-on. rne' through published in a popular geographic maBaz essay painter Jozef Israëls (1824-1911), a leader of the Hague SchooÌ, Droord'rrnho*oolken('fneearthzrtditspeople)'comesmuchcloser Israëls's own perspective on Marken was distinctly informed by on the "national soul" to such essentializing notions ln iß emPhasis Havard's nostalgia for Holland's Golden Age. Much like the English most farsìghted in terms of and similar concepts, it is actually the painter George Clausen, whojustbefore his fìrst Marken trip recorded iaier tolt lori. lt'tteiest in the island (De aq'rd'e1884) ' the title of Havard's volume in one of his sketchbooks, most artists second genre- w-e may distin- Race was a central category in the probably read the book (Reichwein 1986:8; Stott 1998:120-51). including^such pio- gl1.ì,ìu-"t¡ rr,raies Uy pnysicat anthropologists' These paintings and drawings of the island and its inhabitants, in who in 1828 dubbed neers as Göttingen protessorJ' F Blumenbach' fact, constitute the fourth genre of representation. Even though no ("Authentic Batavian") f-- Mu'kttt "-Batatrus gmuinus" painters' colony was ever founded on Marken, quite a number of ^."tf.tg.f."U Rudolf Virchow' Franz iei"-.i¡".rt 1828) His countr)rnan 11e.3f artists found their way to the island. Among the early arrivals, begin- in the Marken skulls (Virchow ilour', t.u.h.,,, *as equally interested ning in the 1830s, we frnd Dutch artists such as C.J. L. Portman, P F. ever actualÌy visited the island' isTii Ñ. *-.4, i"dicate th;t they Greive, the brothers Herman and Mari ten Kate, Christoffel Bisschop, are two Dutch craniometrrsts: *ho did travel to Marken andJ. C. Merø. Many others followed, particu- eloígth*. and Hendrik Vettewinkel, came to measure the skulls in 1901 T. H. E Kohlbrugge, who larly in the last decades of the nineteenth century: Albert Neuhu!js, 'i;;; ot at utrecht' and J' A J Barge' ;";;;; ;.Ji"'o' Jan Toorop, Isaac Israëls, C. A. Lion Cachet, Jan Sluyters, and lesser 'tr'''ologv later and taught anatomy and who did his freld work some ten yeãis known painters such as Paul Rink and Nico van der Waay. Foreign Kohlbrugge 1904) ' l-i.yof"gy u,I-.iden (Barge 1912; artists became fascinated as well, from the German RudolfJordan- - genre is represented bJ traveì ac- ä. ,lri.¿ and most influential a famous representative of the Dùsseldorf School who went to the after 1880 The lion's share counts, which steadiþ gained in popularity Roodenburg Making an Island, in Time 181 180 Herman and Roads . . . Traveled b¡ a Pa¿nter àn Search of the Picturesque (1887), Ed- Americans' including Edward?enfield isiand as ear\ as 1844-to ward Penfreld's I1o lland, Skztches (7907), artd George Wharton Edward's and even the abstract painter wassily ä;ö*;;r,." Edwards' Marken and, Ix Peoþle (7972) are cases in point. They all shared the Kandinsky.MostoftlreselatervisitolswerestrongÌyinfluencedby travel writer's disdain for the "common" tourist, which they were cer- in particular bvIsraèls'who' in hi:,:-::^11-"::""" ,i'. o*"ätJ."l, the tain they themselves were not (Urbain 1991). As Boughton phrased ratwi¡i< rrsner folk' had tralsjo¡m;d ,iîi.iãt""t"g".''u.,d it, 'We did not refer to Murray or Baedecker uselessly bulging "i Millet, andJules Breton [sic], influences of Gustave courbet,JËan-FranÇois out of our pockets; what we were simple enough to enjoy most of all, (dt Ltttl* Sillevis' and Dumas 1983; into a "realist" sryle of hrs o*'l rhose excellent guides took no note ofl' (quoted in Stott 1998:131). Thoben 1998)' Ias 1993; Reichwein 1986; These painters (and their readers) preferred to travel "off the beaten track" (Buzard 1993); or, if they chose to follow that track, they never- theless journeyed "in search of the picturesque." As its frequent occurrence suggests, "the picturesque" was a key notion, both for the travel writers and the painters of the time. The phrase was taken literally: artist-autlìors loved to tell how the land- scape, houses, and traditionally clad people ofHolland all conformerl to the painter's eye. In the course of the nineteenth century, the con- cept gradually broadened in application. It came to refer to the ob- jects ofscrutiny themselves, not merely to an artist's skilled rendition of them. Costumes, houses, landscapes, and even entire cityscapes came to be perceived as works of Pictorial art in their own right- Si- multaneousl¡ as James Buzard has argued, because of the travel writer's preference for distance and difference, the Picturesque (con- ceived of as a composed aesthetic whole) would eventually meld with a "basic alterity," with the contemporary ethnographer's notion of the integrated wholeness of "genuine cultures" (Buzard 1993:17tt-

77 . 793-94\ . Clearly, Marken answered such quests for alterity: the island and its residents could be perceived as distant, different, and picturesque. \4/hat intrigued most artists, travel writers, and scholars aboutMarken culture was not its inclusion in their own rapidly modernizing so- ciety, but rather the extent to \^¡hich Marken still exhibited (or was thought to exhibit) a far removed past. By emphasizing the island- united: a posrcard alter Jan Tourism and painÙng ers' physical isolation, these outside interpreters also portrayed them iä"t.0=iriu- ot-¿'1i¿t (\oung Marken knitrerq)' as isolated on an island in time: geographic distancing produced (Clifford 1988; have temporal distancing. No coevalness for them! Fabian four genres differ greatly' they certainly Though the 1l¡mentsof the 1983). soJe *o'k' Fo"*utple' some common and are linked in one, but vadous pasts. in George Boughton's At the same time, Marken could offer not ;t'ir own ravel books on Holland' ;;;;;;;" Smith's Well-uorn Most of the painters, tourists, and other visitors looked at the com- iî)'är" **,^ in HoLlantl (1885)' Hopkinson Roodenburg Mahing an Island. i.n Tàme 183 182 Herman they set out to see an through the eyes ofHavard ancl Israèls: UI munity equallv in- Golden Age Ye t the island could äil;;ifi;t*d1s It was no new idea that Marken still harbored an age-old culture pre- ,oäîot"". . far more distant past' of Frisians ":u.u^t1ÏÌ'-T.1 "f the Bøtøaus genuxnus cisely because of its isolation. At the end of the eighteenth century, iiuiL", i "pri*iaiue tribes," and even-through Additionally' none Protestant minister W. A. Ockerse had already written in }J.is Ontwørþ i'Iarken skulls-of Neanderthal man ;;;;;;. the others As tot eene olgemeene char¿tkterkunde (Design for a universal characterol- alìochronic representations excluded of these various ogy) that "a few regions and places in our country may be called iso- arthistoriansremindus,thelate-nineteenth-centuryConcePtofthe today lt was more lated; and there are found a kind of people who have lost little of ioräìì'"": n"J , much broader applica tion.t han "archaic" could equaììy their original rational character." Among these regions Ockerse wi¡h lhe "'u"it" o' and J.'i"ì. ,ynonr*ous tt counted the islands of Marken, Urk, and Schokland in the Zuiderzee .arly R.nai,sunte art, peasant tlint' Jtpllti ã.s*r,u,. openljll"' con- (now the as well as the West Frisian islands, the fishing i¡ä 1984:181) "Race" was another lJsselmeer), "t,tr".,t'w-nedoe villages along the North Sea, and the Frisian villages ofHindeloopen ;* * ;;' it and Molkwerum. According to Ockerse, only in places such as these d¡! "numerous it'1ï::::ï:îîi::i:iï:,iä^J:üÎ;T elements include experience' rt could one still frnd the "distinguishing marks" of the original inhab- a determinant of national cultural ,f..tn.., "If it wâs itants; he compared the island to Brittany (which still had a "trace of of previous national,and crrltural was at the same time an ourgrowth century' "race"closely the Britons") or Normandy (whose people retained "something of t" the latter Part;fthe nineteenth ,."ätU""." under the the Norsemen") . For the majority of the Netherlands such traces had in ìater decades came to be subsumed resembled what of an "amalgamation with foreigners" that started (Stocking 1994:6) vanished because .ot]..p, ".tu,iottul charact€r" -. According to Coronel and with the Romans, and because of the population density "in a country What about the Mutkt"e"'thtm'elies? of the Bible' of his- in which the people are gathered as if in a large anthill, where cities presumed "savages" were avid readers Allan, these (Jncle'fom's cabin border on cities, villages on villages, and where it is virtually impossible p;Jy, and even of Harriet Beecher Stowe's ;;;';t in 1853) to lose sight of other people" (Ockerse 1788-97, 3:276-67) . of which had already been published iî i""'n"".í*"ton their re- National character, isolation, and notions of continuity thus con- Because Coronel and Allan taìlored ìi. tl.y 1SZZ,ZSS-60) verged. It was a vision of endangered national enclaves that wouÌd p-,i.''.""''"Tî1iil"ï,ï:#i,î:1îi,i:]îí-"iiå'::"r'.1 certainly not vanish in the nineteenth-century Netherlands, but studres order to pfesent case its about the island Following which-except for the province of Friesland (with its interest in their report is by far the most infolmadve the authors describe a single own ethno-tradiúons)-would provide no romantic nationalist breed- the French sociologist's instructions' food' housing' furni- ing ground. For a large part of the century the dominant discourse uurttet'tiumiry aiscussìng asPects of öil;; tlt".d:"":t"C-::Ït^.tnt**" was determined by investigators such as Coronel andAJlan, who were ture, clothing, health, and occupatiot.r' for Le P]ay-: themselves shaped by proponents of civilizing ideals. A fine example ,t". t"t"tly budget (the ingenious basis ät"t . :ompara'in the is O. G. Heldring, another Protestant minister who in 1841 described ::': ir'.o uîro describe other qPes of institutions "^:":;;, through the Veluwe, a hilly and at the time quite school' the municipalitv' ancl so on' his walking+our i;;;:; JJ*;";j'v-'¡""t" desolate heathland in the middle of the Nettrerlands. Heldring ex- be careful in positing some unm:i'"":1"Îl-i:: ;î;'"gn ;; r;."Id rn presses his wish to go into the huts ofthe poor and record the stories *l reality behìnd the varìous representations-beârrng persPectives were no "that still pass from father to son." He even means to prove that the ""¡"it a.,átor's and local schoolmaster's îiJin.,?t. of town and country Netherlands is as rich in folk tales as the German nation. In the i.r, ü^.J ." *"tions of difference' on a nexus were certainly less end, he forgets about the stories, only to get excited when he finds the rePrese ntations made of Marken of Protestant tracts in a remote hamlet. -some others' t small library of contemporary allochronic and less archaizing than Herman Roodenburg Mahing an Islønd, in Time 185 184 before Havard, tlpified the inhabitants of Scheveningen as "a for- Civilization-orratheltlreDutchnation(understoodatthetimeaS reached^even this eign tribe in their own country" ([1874] 1990:112-13). Protestant moral community)-had a Elsewhere in Europe, underdeveloped enclaves were similarly "sr"itJLy (Roodenburg 1997; van Rooden 1999; cf Rooden- Uur..rl ooild"rr't.rs! described. They too were equated with "primitive" cultures far re- burg 2000b) . --^i-gay views about moved from the continent. These associations may be connected di- i.t ,lr. last decades of the nineteenth century' "peasanß rn¡o rectly or indirectly with the evolutionary ideas of Tylor, Mannhardt, nation's backwarrl enclaves-turning civilìziig the and Frazer and their well-known focus on "survivals." But they also lrri.rl-?n," to paraPhlase Eugen Weber's famous phrase .(1976)- romanticism' Thus are inscribed in a far broader climate, one in which painters such as .^r* ," ."ffi¿. *ith notions adopted from German to Marken may Paul Gauguin (strongly influenced byJapanese prints) could from essay of 1884 we read that a 'lisit ;;;;;";y-."s genuìne na- one day to the next exchange remote Brittany ("I love Brittany; I find to anybody who cherishes the study of ¡. ,..o-_árld.d "'The text there ttìe savage, the primitive") for far-off Tahiti; in which the large expressions untaìnted by foreign influences ,i".iìtf.,t" popula- World Exhibitions displayed all sorts ofapplied artfrom distant lands island, with its highly remarkable' original .ontin,t.", "This art; and in which itwas taken respect of circumstances rn alongside indigenous European applied don, affords us an idea in more than one been forgot- for granted that the "salle d'Asie" bordered direcdy on the "salle rle .-1i., ti-.., *l'tich elsewhere have long vanished and here simply France" in the Musée du Trocadéro. Moreove¡ in the latter case, physi- i.".^ii seems as though historical development place the gen- cal anthropology once again peeked around the corner' The rra.li- "r-.t, point, as though for this forgotten ;;;;á:tut at some "salle worn by dolls whose the people does not apply'" tional costumes in the de France" were eral rule tlìat times change and ivith it of alien influ- heads exactly fit the t)?e ofskulls that craniometrists had assigned to Far more than Ockerse, the author is apprehensive th.l1ate1s of which the various regional inhabitants of France (Cuisenier and Segalen of "thut.t eam of cosmopolinn civilization' that,is remark- 1986:15, 25-26;Jamin 1985:51-74; Orton and Pollock 1980;Varnedoe ;;;;;;"r'r..r, higher, overwhelming and blotting.out a1l e-ver¡vhere' mak- 1984; cf. Roodenburg 2000a). uul, in¿iulãtur u"d personal, ìeveling everything to folklorists' Thus, we arrive at the last discourse: that of the craniometrists. ,fte same"'With rhetorìc all too familiar -gl"..y,fti"g the personal in Here, too, isolation and notions oforigins played a determining role' that "by losing the authentic and national' trJ*..rl. Blumenbach's basic thesis was simple: people who had remained in andìorking' the souì of the folkwit]l:,fÏtt*U rã"g life" (D¿ the same place or never married outside of their own tribe would ""u,n-nt"g a blow stuck at the very root of folk urra--.?"il.tg.tlrn.a"and displayfar more constant cranial characteristics than people who, for 1884:2) . aard'e other dis- instance, had been interbreeding with neighboring tribes. For this to such romantic nationalism we {ind two In addiúon reason, the Zuiderzee islands were important for Blumenbach. The representations of Marken' Following courses in nineteenth-century in his "a modest' most notable feature of the Batatus genuinus, the Marken skull tri" .oy or-, the island, Havard spoke of (HavardilTÎt":ltttt't' 1885:17) To possession, was its shongly receding forehead (Blumenbach 1828; cf iir"" ur't¿.u.t oru "race in its primitive purity" did not exclude the prlmF Barge 1912:2). him, the notion of Holland's Golden Age Paul Eudel' cat- About frfty years later, the Zwiderzee islands were again the sub- ii"".'S"-. twenty years later another Frenchman' that had remained ject of discussion, this time by Virchow. In his Beiträge zur þhysàschen egorized the Mârkeners under "populations- Henri Maho' Anthroþolog¿e d,er Deutschen, mit besond,ner Berüchsi'chtigung d,er Friesen 11906:309), as did the Celgian travel writer -.imitive" ofAmsterdam (1877), Virchow looked for a Teutonic archeq?e, focusing on the ntt reaJers thatwithin "a few kilome tres" í'T"1"ì--J that Frisians, who had mixed the least with other tribes His Friesland nad retained its character of "a Primitive People ,ir"ï"p"*"" Italian generously encompassed East and West Friesland, Marken included. ligî,'h-. lived in solitude" (1911:148)' Likewise' the severaì years He even owned two Marken skulls, which he comparedwith four other nãäorl¿o de Amicis, who had toured the Netherlands Herman Roodenburg Mahing an Island, in Time 787 186 including the Marken skuìls that were mentioned in the literature' but in particular noäoru, grrulnur. Among ttre Zuicferzee islanders' flat skulls u-onf tf," nftuUitants of-Marken, Virchow observed notably a shape-an . In his view, all Frisians had such skull lchuri.ec.phuþ) exhibited irrài.u,iott àt tn" T.tttot-ri. archeq?e-but the Markeners (Virchow 1877) the most Pronounced form ' ln 1856' In the meantime, another discussion raged in Germany its skullcap distin- the famous "Neanderthal man" was discovered' This discovery øuished by a receding forehead and chamaecephaly t}:e Bataaus iapidty t.á to compaiisons with other crania' including D Schaaf- gàuinus. trrdeeð',two distinguished German craniometrists' (and ail other ialrs.n und ¡. W Spengel, would defrne the latter Markeners were Marken skull) as "Neanderthaloid " In this way the bear in mind that Ne- linked to a really distant past, though we must past extending anderthaÌ man at that time was not yet situated in a a back more than fitry thousand years sources, then' is a complex web of allo- Dominating the various "Maison d¿ þôcha.¿îs à Marken" (Ileir's aîil Heins n.d. ) . ofdiscourses' Together chronic represãntations originating in a variety foregrounded Marken's alterity' prefìgurerl what these repråsentations mastery when one is compelled to come into contact with a people, would come looking for and single out Remark- most of its visitors has nothing ìn common." books) offer us con- with whose inclinations and emotions one ably, the sources (ând in particula¡ the travel which Indeed, "the island seemed to be separated from the world in cvery of the narratrve and rhetorical conventions by crete instances sense of the word. Huts were scattered here and there, as if at isolated enclave such as Marken was denied its coevalness' a putative random. . . . Mud ever;'r^rhere, nowhere cleanliness. Nothing indicat- ing anything other than poverty, an almost animaì. ignorance of daiÌy IV customs. This was our fißt impression of Marken" (Wood 1878:129). First was the Wood's impression was not to wavet even after he entered one of Ciearly, Marken represented much that was noteworthy directly the "huts." It was "awfully dirty," he writes. Moreover, any semblance of i.tanaí. physl.al isÁlation, which in almost every accountwas of time' 'With refìnement failed to mark the inhabitants as his coevals. ForWood, the linked to th. purt-to u,tothe¡ virtually frozen period in half an hour"' the isÌanders were captive in their own timeless continuum. "Along the favourabìe winds, a sailboat will carry you there represerìts centurres wall was some Delft pottery," he recorded. "An old Dutch clock ticked Frenchman Esquiros tells us, "but this halfhour mainland" in a corne¡ and struck the slowly passing hours for a population for between the island inhabitants and those on the took trvice as whom time can only be a stationary stream" (Wood 1878:129-30). (1858:136). The Englishman Charles Wood's crossing this lengthier'jour- Let us follow his frrst encounter with one of the natives, a woman lo.rg,Url, itt" ..*ardi more than compensated for he writes' seated at awindowside table mending clothing. She too is "messy and ,r.yl;'af,., ul-ort one hour under sail, we neared Marken,'' No less intriguing are dirty." Worse yet: "Her facial expression was almost that of an idiot, "It looked utterly primitive" (Wood 1878:129) He presents a classic an expression of the lowest level of intelligence to which the human Wood's ¡uminations when he sets foot on shore 1993) feeling of spirit can sink. Contributing to this was her senseless grin when we ethnographic arrival scene (Pratt 1986; Tsing -'A that takes entered, which was certainly intended as some sort of greeting." He lon.tlies, and utter desolation came over me: the feeling Mahing an Island, in Time 189 188 Herman Roodenburg He then evokes again "that black boat, silently gliding forward with continues: "Three children surrounded her, little savages, it appeared no sound other than a sporadic sob, and the short rh;,thmic beat of to us, without any understanding of civilisation" (Wood 1878:130) ' the oars in the rowlocks" (Ortigão 1948:86). It is as if we see The Englishman revises his views somewhat after he visits a more 118831 Böcklin's Isle of the Dearlbefore ts. prosperous dwelling. He writes loftily of the home's quantities of Delft Naturally, the Markeners' struggle with the sea was very real in- oottãrv and its valuable, carved cabinets The old couple he encoun- deed. Life on board the frshing boats was uncertain, while the island ters there ever't .eminds him ofthe domestic interiors byJozeflsraèls' itselfwas repeatedly subjected to major floods. During the storm {lood Nevertheless, when he leaves the island, his judgment is frrm: "l{ere Here of 1877, in the night of 30 to 3l even the cemetery was inun- we saw life in a new aPpearance as if at the ends of the earth' Januar¡ dated and the coffins carried off by the waves. This event, which the lives a small tribe or settlement, sepa-rated from the mother country inhabitants.would recount to visitors for many years to come, also bybut a small sea and yet so differentfrom the rest of the population' contdbuted to the sense of otherness, to the island's mythic dimen- as though the distance between them was a hundred times greater" sions. As on the day of Christ's Resurrection, according to Eudel, the (Wood 1878:134). dead rose from their coffins (1906:313). Charles Wood's visit to the A second aspect of Marken that appealed to ttre imagination ald island may have taken place shortly thereafter. It would certainìy ex- to which mythical images were eagerly ascribed was the struggle with plain what he encountered there: a God's acre where countless skulls the sea: the fact that the small wooden houses, most of them with and bones "had wrested their way to the surface, rather than remain- thatched roofs, were built on piles. (Associations with pile dwellings setde- ing peacefully beìow." One of his travel companions took a skull home far removed from Europe were obvious. ) Additionally, dÌe entire as a souvenir (Wood 1878;130-31). ment was sPread over seven terPs, each constituting its own "hamlet" Finall¡ a third aspect commemo¡ated in all the descriptions was (called buirt or wø/). Until 1932, when the Zuiderzee was closed off in the surprisingly coiorful traditional dress. The clothing ofthe women, by a dam, the ground between the terps could be submerged,-both especiall¡ impressed visitors as exotic. According to Havard, it was winter and in summer. The villagers could then reach each other precisely this colorfulness that had given the Markeners their reputa- only with small rowboats. With these boats they went to church on tion as "savages." The associations this clothing evoked among the Sundays and also transported their dead: the cemetery was located visitors were no less far-flung. One observer detected Norwegian in- on its own terp. These burial ritualswere especially exploited in travel fluences, while others thought of Italy and sPoke of "almost oriental accounts, whether the author had actually seen one or not To Hãvard colorful splendor," or of the Mamelukes (De aarde 1884:6; Esquiros tlere was nothing "more picruresque than lo see lhese mourning 1858:141; Eudel 1906:305; Havard 1884:28) ' Only one foreign visitor, boats, gliding on the surface of the water and proceeding to that Flemish littérateur Charles de Coster, thought ofTeutonic antiq- .nch.nìng lerp, the KerkhoJ where everybody will claim his place" the uity and thusjoined forces with the Frisian nationalist and linguist (Havard 1à75:14-15). The most compelling image was sketched by Winkle¡ as well as the folklorist Joost Hidde Halbertsma. ì ttìe Portuguese writer Ramalho Ortigão: Johan Halbertsma, another Frisian nationalist, had discerned a Teutonic its way Sometimes, a boat looking more sombre than the others makes origin with respect to the no-less-colorful costumes of the women of to the realm of the dead ln the middle is from th€ district of the living Hindeloopen (de Coster [1877] 1964:83; Winkler 1888:266n; see also I the bier, covered with â mourning cloth Two hshermen, friends of the ì deJong 1998:67-69). solemn and silent, man the oars; at the rudder is a grieving L deceased, Nevertheless, with respect to material culture, the all too 'fuild" woman, drying her tears ând sta¡ing out at the horizon throÌrgh the steers the boat' on associations stopped here. Wood almost overPainted the island's exo- ::l double haze of her heart and the sea She he¡self the which for the last time her husband, son or father sails, fìnally relieved úcism; in contrast, the majority of Marken's visitors cherished :: I whose raw, cold hands, fo¡ever still' costumes in their quest for .t ofthe sruggle for daily bread, and homes' interiors and the residents' lav folded on his chest. ( [1883] 1948:86) Holland's Golden Age. By the Ìate 1870s Marken dresses and Marken I

i Mahíng an Island. in Time 19I 190 Herman Roodenburg furniture had become well known. An ethnographic tableau repre- senting a Marken couple in wedding dress had even been shown at tne 1478 World Exhibition in Paris (Wörner 1999:158) Of course' the Markeners attempted to prohtfrom all of this sudden interest ln the 1880s a number of the seventeenth-century Painted and carved cabinets had already left the island, bought up by merchants from Amsterdam. In 1894 another cabinetwas sold for the staggerrng sum of 4.000 gu ilders lDe aarde I884:I0: Faber n d : 16- l7) ' Whatãver the visitors singled out, Marken was not dle poor and isolated fishing community they had been led to expect' Though pov- erty was not absent, people on tlìe terPs were far from starving ln 18ó0 Marken's harborwas already one of the best in the Netherlands' and in the decades to follow the island's fleetmore than doubled' fiom 92 ships in 1850 to 212 in 1890. With urbanization increasing, Markeners starteã leaving for the mainland, but others moved in, raising the popu- lation from approximately 1,000 inhabitants around 1850 to over 1'300 in 1899. According to the 1884 account, some of the families were very wealthy indeed (De aard'e) Attdwlnile timber dwellings still dominated ttre island, brick houses (especially in the Kerkbuurt) quickly increased in number. Norwas Marken reallyisolated' Beginning in the late 1860s the mail was delivered daily, and in 1898 the island got its first tele- phone. Since farming was almost impossible in the boggy soil between ìhe terps, most of the food had to be imported from Monnickendam The "best ¡oom" of Widow Teerhuis (De aarde 7884). The same cor- as the weekly catch (mainly herring, anchorry', flat- and elsewhere,just re¡, with some change in the inte or, is depicted in the books of and Monnickendam' fish. ald eel) was traded in Amsterdam, Volendam, Edwards (1919) and Penfield (1907) Moreover, the Markeners loved to compete in sailing matches in Amsterdam and Rotterdam or to visit fairs on the mainlald-thus adopt- V ing, at least occasionally, the role of daytrippers themselves (Le Play In 1919, in a revised edition of his /{olland' of Toclay George lvharton 1877; Schutte and WeitkamP 1998). Edwards included a letter sent to him by a concerned Dutchman, who In the 1870s we also hear about a hotel and several bars on the asked Edwards to point out to his readers that not all Dutch people though painters and travel writers chose to omit this asPect' island, were Volendammers or Ma¡ken fishermen, that one saw more than Instead they flocked to the house of Widow Teerhuis lt is her inte- windmills on the horizon, that not all flowers were tulips, and that one or rather her "best room" with its richly decorated porcelain rio¡ could travel by means other ttran horse-drawn barge or stagecoach- and cabinets, that we observe again and again in the accoun t-s and "that, in short," as the letter writer continued, "the people of the of the period (Stott 1998:146-47) Hers may have been one drawings Netherlaûds are entirely and fully'uP to date,' and desire to be so of the frrst "show houses" in the Netherlands, an installation not un- considered" (Stott 1998:151) The letter confirms the Period's wide- like the interiors ofJozeflsraêì.s, the historical rooms at world exhibi- spread apprehension of 'Volendammerij," of the archaizâtion threat- tions (like the Hindeloopen room displayed in Paris in 1878), and' of eninq the nation as a whole. Writing about Marken in his 1917 course, the first open air museums (de Jong 1994; StokÌund 1994) ' 792 Herman Roodenburg Mahing an Island in Time 193 description of Dutch traditional costumes, folklorist Th. Molkenboer VI painter by training-lamented the "exploitation of the national -a as an example of the numerous en- traditional costume as a curiosity appealing to foreigners." He even By using the island of Marken that came to fascinate folklor- quoted â lady from Washington, D.C', who was convinced that the claves in nineteenth-century Europe as painters and tourists, I have tried entire island-'\rith houses, inhabitants, and clothing and all"-had ists and other researchers as well the genres produced been designed to part the tourists from their money (Molkentroer to relocate contemporary folklore studieswithin particular focus on the l9t7:12Ç25.727-36). by this popular imagination. I have placed on the painters' and tourists' Marken, an island that even the Dutch hardly knew about, had emergent tourist and heritage industr¡ the authentic and the picturesque, and on the domina¡rt become a popular, international tourist site, anathema to all who pre- search for primitivism and race. I conclude now ferred to travel off the beaten track. Even worse, after the island was discourses of the time: those of these two concepts. discovered as an archaism, then celebrated by painters and travel with a few short remarks on of the primiúve entertained by painters afld writers alike, and finally presented in sla for public viewing as part of Obviously, the notions based 'þrimitive mental- national patrimon¡ it suddenly seemed to involve the entire nation touriss differed greatly fiom the biologically Lucien Lér'y-Bruh1 o¡ in his in its archaization-an unintended result of ttre nationalization of ity" Iater defrned by the French philosopher Nor is it likely that culture (Löfgren 1989) that had begun in the last years of the eigh- footsteps, by the German folklorist Hans Naumann. directÌy informed by earlier teenth century when Ockerse recruited the Zuiderzee islands and these late-nineteenth-century notions were Tylor or by any of his pupils-for instance An- other isolated enclaves for his national design. scholars such as Edward "anthropological theory of folklore " The percep New formulations of national identity in the Netherlands and drew Lang and his folklorisrs centered very the United States probably contributed most to the detested tions of contemPorary painters, tourists, and of an 'Volendammerij." Largely focused on Holland's Golden Age, na- much on the ¡ustic and the archaic as the wished-for antithesis modern society. Howevel these percep tional consciousness had strengthened considerably in the Nether- urban2ing and industrializing or biologically based, nor lands around 1900. It received a vigorous, more ethno-national tions were not yet predominantly organicist evolutionist in their definition of culture '?ri- impulse with the Boer War in South Africa and the inauguration rn were they predominantly mitive" was still avery open concePt. In the Netherlands, the primitive 1898 of Queen Wilhelmina, who, for instance, had herself photo- crafts,JaPanese prinLs and graphed in the regional traditional dress of the provinces she vis- could still encompass tribal artifacts, peasant ited (deJong 1998:67-82; te Velde 1992:121-22, 148-53, 163-81; pottery, as well as its own seventeenti century. role of the Dutch physical anthropologists van Sas 1991:600-04). In the same decades people in the U.S. de- What, finaìly, was the in this story? Historical surveys of Dutch Folklore Studies often omit veloped a strong interest in Holland's Putative enclaves of the past. study on farmhouses included an In picturesque hshing and farming villages, countless Americans the fact that Gallée's well-known professor of physiology Louis Bolk believed they could discern the seventeenth-century roots of their extensive treatise by Amsterdam composition of the Dutch people' It own nation. One could speak of a true "Holland mania," as Annette on the physical-anthropological given that Gallée was deeply inter- Stott has shown, in reaction to the dominant origin myth of the is certainly a striking omission, as build and eye, skin, and hair color in United States that privileged English provenance' It was this pas- ested in aspects such body This interest, too, could be traced sion that drove many American painters and tourists to ttìe Nether- addition to clothing and accessories. ffibal or racial division ofthe Dutch lands, and subsequently to Marken. It is also in American t¡avel to the by-then generally accepted Franks (Gallée 1908; cf. Beyen 2000)' In literature that we first encounter the desire to wear wooden clogs into Frisians, Saxons, and and physical anthropology, insofar and to purchase traditional costumes that could be displayed back fact, folklore studies, geograph¡ that moment, shared similar home (Stott 1998:120-51). as we can distinguish these disciplines at Mahing an Islønd in Time 195 194 Herman Roodenburg Notes views with respect to this ethnic theory. Hendrik Blink, professor of of the adYi- kke thanh n) translators Kilian and' KaÐ Kist, and geography at the University ofl.eiden and first chairman I @oul.d. to lriends, Jennþ 'llso lnta GaLe Cal\enter n'1 English iory board of the Arnhem Open Air Museum, represents this disci- Danì,tl¿ Christmsen Lind'quist and lor Íashioning plinary concord (Heslinga 1996). 1. Othe¡ less informative accounts (while largely overlapping those men- Howeve¡ keeping in mind that "race" still included countless tioned in the texl) are Allan 1854, Eberha¡d 187?, Fabe¡ 1899, ar'd Les þêchc:urs cultural elementsr we must refrain from making a direct connec¡ron 1894. 2. The book was originally published in 1855; only the second, exPanrìed as was practiced in Virchow's time and the between craniometry it edition of 1877 contains the Ma¡ken rePort. such as Aryan glorification of the Nazi era strictly biological views 3. Elsewhere in this arLícle I use the second 1875 edition those of Houston Stewart Chamberlain and Arthur de Gobineau were 4. Virchow's equating of Marken and Frisian skulls was rejected in the Neth- anthropologìsts, inclùding H. C. Folmer, A Sasse, only appreciated in Germany around 1910, after the role ofVirchow erlands by various physical and A. Folme¿ For a clear assessment ofthe various discussions, see Barge 1912, his generation was largely played out. We find a similar situation and chapters one and two; see also lhe entry "Neandertals" in Spencer 1997, vohÌme craniometrists were often in the Netherlands. Though the Dutch 2. especially 69-71. critical ofVirchow's conclusions about Frisian skulls, they generally shared his culturally informed views on race. Virchow himself was a leftist liberal, an opponent of Bismarck and Germany's colonial Poli- References Cited tics, while his scientific ideas hardly differed from those of ethno- Allan, F. H¿t ei,land Marken en zijne beuonøs. AtûsteÍdaÍr' psychologists such as Adolf Bastian (1826-1905): both were advocates 7854 Barge,J. A.J. àf "monogen.ris," convinced of the unity of human species ltwould 1912 Fries¿he m Mørker sched'ek. Bijdrage tot de hennis tan d'e anthroþologi¿ der B¿itrrige zur phys'ischm Anthroþologte also be incorrect to linkVirchow's bnolki.ng ran Netlerln??d. Amsterdam: De Losco. to d,er Deußchento any form of pan-Germanism, as if he used research Bendix, Regina IIni- provide the German nation with a biological basis According to 7997 In Search of AuthenticitJ: The Formation of Fol*bre Studi¿s. Madison: versity of Wisconsin Press Virchow, those were the constructions ofpoliticians and had nothing Ma¡nix who did meddle in this fervent na- Beyen, to do with science. Researchers 2000 'A Tribal Trinity: The Rise and Fall of the Franks, the Frisians anrl the tionalism, he added, were to be sought primarily among the archae- Saxons in Dutch Hislorical Consciousness " Euroþean History Qyaîteî|, ologists and folklorists (Massin 1996). With respect to folklorists, he 30:493-532. most likely had German Folklore Studies in mind, and he may have Blumenbach,J. F. 7828 Not)a collectàonis su|e craniotam tliznrsarum gentiutn to'nquom comþle' been thinking of Riehl-who would have eagerly annexed the Neth- þentas menhnn Prio¡am dec1dum Göttingen erlands (Riehl 118671 1943 [sic]). Boughton, George Henry Incidentally, with respect to Marken, the union offoìklore studies and 1885 Sketching Rambl¿s in Holland New York Harper and Brothers. ph¡sical anthropologyproved to be ofshort dur¿tion ln 1912, J'AJ Barge Bromberget Christian 1996 "Ethnologie, parimoine, identités: Y-atsil une spécificité de la sitrration convincingly demonstrated Ùìat the oft-discussed shaPe of Marken frz-;jôçaise?" Iî L'El.uope entre atltures ¿t natioru, ed. Daniel Fabre, 9-24' the low crown-had nothing whatso- skulls-the receding forehead, Paris: Editions de la Maison des sciences de I'homme. man' ever to do with the old Teutonic people, let alone Neanderthal Buzard,James The unique Marken skulls, even the Bøtaaus genuinuq were simply 1993 The Beaten Tro¿k: Euroþean Tout'ism, Litetature, ond' the WaJs to Ct hne' Odo¡d UniversitY Press. the resuli of the tight caPs that all Marken children, both boys and Oxford: Cliffo¡d,James their seventh birthday! girls, had to wear until 1986 "On EthnograPhic,Allegory. " In l/fi titxg Culture: The Poetics and' Poktics of Ethnograþh), ed.James Clifford and George E Ma¡cus,98-121 Berke- Meert¿ns Institute ley and Los Angeles: University of Califo¡nia Press. Amsterd,am 196 Herman Roodenburg Mahing øn Island. in Tine 797

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