Marketing Fragment 6 X 10.T65

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88637-6 - Revolution and the People in Russia and China: A Comparative History S. A. Smith Index More information

Index

abortion 214, 215 unemployment and 201 Aksakov, Konstantin 71 Bolsheviks 5, 59, 60, 150, 170, 179, 204 ancestor worship see religion in China October seizure of power (1917) 201, Anderson, Benedict 153 202 Anti-Footbinding Society 113 untypicality of 204 apprentices 133, 1367 see also Russian Social Democrats Arendt, Hannah 21 Bonnell, Victoria 31 Arkash, R. David 166 boycotts 161, 162, 174 Armand, Inessa 145, 212 anti-USA boycott of 1905 63, 161, 162 artels see native-place networks Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (1918) 225 Asad, Talal 83 Brinton, Crane 21 Ascher, Abraham 199 Brubaker, Rogers 1214 autobiographies 40, 42, 43, 167 Buganov, A. V. 156 Russian compared with German and Burbank, Jane 73 French 43 Burke, Peter 70 autocracy, 910 crisis of 2, 910, 1512 Calhoun, Craig 7, 109 Central War Industries Committee, bang see native-place networks workers’ groups 170 Bauer, Evgenii 144 Chen Duxiu 80 Benton, Gregor 62, 193 Chernyshevskii, N. G. 79 Berger, John 37, 57 Chiang Kai-shek 4, 34, 63, 65, 99, Bergol0ts, Ol0ga 221 146, 147, 174, 180, 184 Berman, Marshall 5, 6 policy of ‘pacification before resistance’ Bianco, Lucien 4, 165 185 Blecher, Marc 231 China 152 Bloch, Ernst 18 constitutionalists in 113, 160 bobbed hair 1412 culture holds empire together 152, 158 Bolshevik government decline of Qing dynasty, 152, 160 ability to shape events 205 defeated by Japan (1895) 160 appeals to Russian patriotism 225 few institutions between state and consolidated through Red Army 202, 203 locality 75 curtails soviets 201 Manchuria invaded by Japan economic crisis and 208 (1931) 185 food crisis and 201 militarization of social relations in 202 grass-roots pressure on 201 population of 25 labour unrest and 201 westernization in 10, 112 rules out separate peace with Germany writing in 81 179 see also Cultural Revolution; Great struggles to consolidate power 201, 203 Leap Forward subordinates labour organizations 199 Chinese civil war (19469) 4, 35, 188

236

Index 237

Chinese Communist Party (CCP) 5, 81, simultaneity of urban and rural 82, 91, 175, 176, 209, 211 unrest in 195 base areas of 193, 195, 205 ‘special role’ of military factor in 203 calls for fourth armed uprising (1927) Chinese Women’s Citizens Association 115 202 Chukovskii, K. I. 101 coalition building by 4, 193 Ci Jiwei 210 collectivism of 79, 209, 210 cinema 144, 149 crushed in 1927 34, 147, 184, 194 city and countryside discourages industrial militancy during in China 567 civil war 189 no perceived gulf between 51 Eighth Route Army of 195 Communism creates gulf between 221 encourages violence 199 in Russia 4950, 556 factory protection movement and 189 urban hostility to countryside 50, 57 frustration at native-place divisions 62 class 1, 7 hostility to ‘petty-bourgeois discourse of 7, 31, 107, 178 individualism’ 69, 99, 104, 209, 211 appropriated by Communist regimes image of Shanghai 57 2234, 226, 234 manipulation of workers by 2012 used by workers against Communist national salvation movement and 34 regimes 230, 231, 233 in 1930s Shanghai 34 relationships less polarized in China People’s Liberation Army (PLA) 218 than Russia 190, 226 plans uprising in 1945 188 class identity 5, 7, 12, 234 policy of ‘mutual benefits for capital in China 1702 and labour’ 189 accepts mediation by business popular support for during civil war leaders 183 35, 200 and CCP image of social relations 182 provides defence against Japanese 193 forged through nationalism 175, 190 recognizes need to build an army 195, ‘four vocations’ and 170 202 GMD hostile to 182 red terror policy of 199, 202 gongjie and 174 rejects uprising in Shanghai (1949) 189 inhibited by personal ties 49 rituals of rule of 211 perceptions of Chinese employers sets up popular schools 103 and 182, 183, 195 supports women workers 143, 198 perceptions of foreign employers and takes power in Shanghai (1949) 107, 182 35, 189 persisted during 1930s 185, 190 underground organization during civil persists in PRC today 233 war 189 promoted vigorously in PRC 226 underground organization during tempered by Confucian norms 170, Sino-Japanese war 35, 152, 187 183, 190 ‘white terror’ and 34, 185 tempered by national struggle 183 women’s liberation high on agenda of hegemonizes other identities 12, 13, 147, 150, 198, 218 166, 191 see also New Fourth Army; third ‘misrecognition’ and 109, 110 armed uprising 1927 in Russia Chinese national revolution (192527) Bolsheviks and 17880, 201 3, 66, 1467, 190 category of ‘worker’ and 166 Chinese revolution 205 construes working class as a family 134 carried out in name of nation 152 as heritable 224 CCP as subjective factor in 205 Soviet Union institutionalizes 2234 contingency in 205 ‘them’ and ‘us’ and 166, 178 a long revolution 205 undermined by stress on individual 109 objective circumstances promoting 205 see also labour movement; patronclient peasant mobilization in 203 relations not a ‘peasant revolution’ 4, 193 Clements, Barbara Evans 129

238 Index

Clifford, James 21, 37 Dostoevsky, Fedor 16 Cochran, Sherman 163 dress 93 collectivization of agriculture 219, 220 as assertion of individuality 95, Confucianism 2, 10, 17, 69, 734, 107, 108, 210 109, 121, 122, 136, 160 in China abandoned by political elites 92 foreign versus national 96 bonds of obedience and 74, 79, 118 1911 Revolution and 96 family and 73, 112, 119, 128 politicized issue 967 feeds CCP collectivism 211 qipao 98 self-cultivation (xiushen) and 74, 82 Sun Yat-sen suit 99 see also New Culture Movement western suits 96, 99 Constituent Assembly (Russia) 200, 203 cultural change a measure of 98 consumer culture 2, 93, 135, 148, 208 designed to attract opposite sex advertising and 1612, 163, 209 135, 138 Communism and expenditure of workers on 94, 98 ideological opposition 209 fashion in 10, 71, 93, 94 shopping 208 local styles of 39, 93 shortages 208 migrants aware of meanings of 945 state regulation of 208 migrants critical of fashionable 104 subordination to production 205 nationalism and 97 consumers told how to respond 163 women workers and 94, 98 contention over western values and 96, workers’ concern with 94 99, 105, 148, 149 young male workers and 95, 99, deployment of traditional values in 163 135, 138 development cut short 104 see also bobbed hair; national products identity construction and 1012, 104, movement 209 drink (Russia) 132, 167, 199, 213 middle classes and 104 Duara, Prasenjit 159, 191 migrants critical of 104 nationalism and 104, 1614 education 823, 113 pragmatic attitudes towards 97, 164 Eisenstadt, Shmuel 6 as site of ideological conflict 99, 105, 108 Eley, Geoff 9 contract labour (China) 14, 2930, 43, 52, Elvin, Mark 74 124, 196 employers Cooper, Frederick 1214 Chinese 33, 195 Cross, Gary 10 cooperate with Nanjing government Crossley, Pamela 151 195 Cultural Revolution (China) 210, 211, exploit native-place rivalries 49 21718, 228, 232 as ‘national capitalists’ 182 culture patriarchalism of 172 role in migration 89 prefer to hire fellow provincials 41, 48 Dewey, John 82 anxious about worker radicalism dialects 39, 61, 65 185, 194 Diamant, Neil 217 weaker politically than working dignity 110 class 195 demands for polite treatment and 1056 Engel, Barbara 43, 129 in foreign-owned factories 107 entertainment, mass 2, 10, 100 links class to nation 107, 181 challenges customary values 11 peasant conceptions of 105 see also leisure renge 1067 Esenin, Sergei 55 see also lichnost0 Esherick, Joseph 205 Dikotter,€ Frank 21 discourse 15 factory committees (Russian) 3, 47, 59, see also class 196, 201

Index 239

family 213 Gapon, G. A. 85 Confucian 80, 112, 128 Geertz, Clifford 69 Family Code (1931) 147 Geldern, James von 11 patriarchal 109, 11617, 11819 Gellner, Ernest 153 PRC continues modernization of gender identities 2, 13 211, 216 in China 1212 provider of welfare under Communism CCP’s policy towards 217 213 citizenship and 114 Stalinist pro-natalism and 215, 234 Confucian norms and 143, 148 trend towards nuclear 2, 128, 131, 138, Cultural Revolution and 217, 218 149, 217 erasure of 115, 217 working-class female chastity and 120, 121 housewife in 12931 GMD promotion of housewife husband as breadwinner in 129, 216 and 147 men’s domestic labour in 130 perception of women as polluting proportion of workers living with and 121 families 125 perception of women as prey to smaller than rural 128 emotion and 122 women yearn for stability of 213 Communism and see also patriarchal order domestic labour and 212, 216 fashion 2, 94, 97 masculinity and 218 condemned by conservative persistence of male domination 234 commentators 93, 98 primacy of male image 214 seen as fawning on foreign things wage-earning as key to women’s 97, 99 liberation 212, 215 see also dress femininity under closer scrutiny than Fei Xiaotong 14, 38, 172 masculinity 149, 217 feminism 111 modernization of gender roles in China 115 111, 149 in Russia 140 political challenge to traditional see also ‘woman question’; women 112, 113 workers in Russia 11920 fiction, 93 Bolsheviks and for mass reader 2, 10, 71 attack on traditional gender affronts intelligentsia sensibilities order 212 101, 105 motherhood 145, 215 bandit stories and 101 ideal of female beauty and 120 designed to entertain 100 ideal of male beauty and 120 detective stories and 102 more polarized than in China 218 explores modernity 100, 149 Stalinism and 215 government concern about 100 veneration of motherhood and 120 impact on migrants to St Petersburg wife-activists and 215 100 see also masculinity; ‘woman question’; serialized in newspapers 1012 women Mandarin Duck and Butterfly 1034 Geraci, Robert 155 explores westernization 104 Gerth, Karl 104, 163, 164 picture-story format of 104 Gilmartin, Christina 146 footbinding 113, 122, 141 Glahn, Richard von 88 First World War 152, 154, 155 Gogol, Nikolai 16, 77 impact on Russia 10, 59, 162, Gorky, Maxim 78 16870, 194 governmentality 15 Fitzpatrick, Sheila 224, 229 Great Leap Forward (195861) 211, Fraser, Nancy 109 216, 220, 228, 232 fraternity see masculinity; national identity Guandi 90, 121, 160 Furth, Charlotte 122 guanxi 38

240 Index

guilds 33, 912, 1367, 173 rights of individual 211 see also regional guilds self-improvement 207, 208 Guo Moruo 171 subordination to collective 209 Guomindang (GMD) 3, 33, 64, 65, 83, complex relation with collectivism 171, 209 69, 110 advocates cooperation between labour conservative mistrust of 723, 124 and capital 184 as discourse of social critique 75, 110 sees Communism as incompatible with as ideal shaped by Christianity 789 guoqing 171 and lichnost0 756, 105, 106 corporatism of 184 linked to class emancipation 70 image of social order 174 modernity sharpens sense of 70, 93, 108 imperialism and 1756 at odds with nation-building 801, 209 labour unions and 35, 172, 174 realized through the collective 76, 207 left wing of 147, 176 as release from Confucian bonds 7980 rejects class conflict 182 renge and 80, 105 rejects radical feminism 147 resources in peasant society for 723, right wing of 171 745 see also labour movement; Nanjing subordinated to family interests 75, 124, government 217 underdeveloped in pre-revolutionary Haimson, Leopold 140 societies 109, 206 Hassler, Julie 208 universalist and relativist views of 6970 Hellbeck, Jochen 207 western discourses of 75 Herzen, Alexander 166 see also Confucianism; dignity; Chinese Honig, Emily 47 Communist Party (CCP) and Hosking, Geoffrey 154 ‘petty-bourgeois individualism’; Howard, Joshua 188 workers: ‘conscious’ Hu Hanmin 171 industrialization 1, 3, 9, 205 Hu Shi 116, 146 rural location of factories 19 Hua Mulan 122 injustices Hundred Days Reform (1898) 79 of distribution 109 huidaomen (redemptive sects) 84 of recognition 10910 intelligentsia Ibsen, Henrik 144 in China 75 Idema,Wilt 81 in Russia 75, 77, 78, 107 identity internationalism 167, 205, 223, 225, 234 categorical modes of 1314, 219 concept of 1215 Jahn, Hubertus 162 confusion of 7 Jiangbei see migrants: Subei politics and construction of 15 Johnson, Chalmers 152 relational modes of 14, 172, 219 Johnson, Kay Ann 217 tradition and 67 transnational forces and 10 Kadet party 152, 1767, 178 imperialism 2 Kaiser, Robert 58 semi-colonialism in China 6 Kalinin, M. I. 23 individuality 2, 13, 69, 70, 111 Kang Youwei 113 circumscribed by age and gender Kellner, Douglas 6 hierarchies 72, 74 Kelly, Catriona 145, 208 Communism and Kharkhordin, Oleg 207 complaints that officials suppress 210 Kliuchevskii, V. O. 93 cult of hero 208 Koenker, Diane 209 curtailment of 109, 206 Kollontai, Alexandra 145, 212 debates appropriate boundaries of 210 Komsomol 207, 220 exaltation of self-sacrifice 207, 208 Kondo, Dorinne 15 realization of self 207 Kotkin, Stephen 229

Index 241

Kronstadt rebellion 203 Li Qihan 61 Krylov, I. A. 95 Liang Qichao 113 Liang Shuming 222 labour movement lichnost0 see individuality in China 3 Link, Perry 54, 104 absence of democracy in 199 literacy 2, 24, 81 contribution to 1949 victory 4, 189 among St Petersburg workers 100 control by bosses 196 among Shanghai workers 100, 103 fragmentation of 199 Liu Binyan 210 nationalists champion 174 Liu Hua 65 nationalist character of 200 Liu, Lydia 104 party political consciousness in 200 Lohr, Eric 154 conventional preconditions absent 3 Louie, Kam 121, 218 demobilized after revolution 192, 199 recent emergence of 196 Ma Chaojun 172 rights curbed under Communism 228 McKean, Robert 169 in Russia 32 McReynolds, Louise 11 greater autonomy than in China 196 Mao Zedong 5, 80, 203, 222, 226 greater unity than in China 198 Combat Liberalism 209 high level of militancy of 32 on New Democracy 5 political divisions in 200 on physical education 114 political pluralism of 196 marriage, 126 socialist character of 198, 200 age of 126, 138 trade unions in 3, 59 arranged 116, 126 violence in 199 Bolshevik Code on (1918), 212 ‘workerism’ in 198 church 58, 213 in Shanghai 335 and divorce 117, 212, 213, 215, 217 labour disputes during civil war 188, dowries 117, 126 189 of fellow provincials 40, 41 labour unions 33 growth of conjugal 111, 138, 149 CC Clique and 34, 185 local customs of 39 collaborationist 187 PRC Law on (1951) 211, 216 loyalist GMD unions 187, 196 rate of 213 reformist GMD 184, 185, 196 rejection of conventional 126 in 1930s 4, 185, 190 romantic love and 125, 126, 138, targets foreign companies 181, 190 148, 149, 217 White Terror and 34 secondary importance of husbandwife skilled workers and 31 relationship in 118 see also class identity; Shanghai Soviet Family Code (1926) 213 General Labour Union; strikes; trend towards later 126, 128 women workers masculinity 150 Labour Party (China) (Gongdang) Bolsheviks and 214 33, 173 in China 11315, 121 Lang, Olga 128, 131 filiality and 121 Lamson, H. D. 989, 131, 142 masculine status and marriage Lavrov, P. L. 76 120, 121 Lee, Ching-Kwan 233 physical fitness and 135 Lee, Leo Ou-fan 102 wen ideal of 121, 135 Lei Feng 210 wu ideal of 121, 135, 218 leisure, 1112 yiqi and 136 Lenin, V. I. 50, 55, 667, 178, consumer culture as site of 135 204, 212, 214, 225 family as site of 131 Lermontov, M. Iu. 77 patriarchal form of 131 Li Dazhao 18, 56 procreation and 131, 137, 214 Li Lisan 61 in Russia 119

242 Index

masculinity (cont.) Iaroslavl0 23, 24 dandified style of 135 Jiangnan 26, 278, 98 dirty jokes and 133 Ningbo 45, 47 fighting and 132 Subei 267, 46, 47, 52, 54, 98, 116 fraternity and 134, 214 Tver0 234, 46, 73 heavy drinking and 1325 Zhejiang 26 secured at women’s expense 133 remittances to relatives 5, 27, 28 skill and 1334 responses to city life 57, 67 sport and 132 seasonal 1, 27, 42 tied to physical strength 1312 sexual activity of 137 zakal and 132 single status of 125 sites on which constructed 131 as sojourners 40 workplace as site of 1326 unrealistic expectations of 535 see also gender identities; patriarchal visits back to village 53 order whole family migration 25, 29 May Fourth Movement (1919) 33, 62, 66, see also contract labour 75, 801, 97, 102, 137, 161, 209, 217 migration middle classes disapprove worker causes of 24, 26, 27, 29 involvement in 175 Communism and 219 triple strike (sanba) in 1745, 196 curbs on 219, 220 workers determined to be hukou system in China 2212 involved 174 to Moscow 19, 23 May Thirtieth Movement (1925) 3, to St Petersburg 27, 33, 62, 97, 176 provinces of origin 234 businessmen give financial support passports in Soviet Union 219 to 183 to Shanghai 25 triple strike in 180 provinces of origin 268 Mencius 171 tendency to become permanent 29 Mensheviks 170, 177, 201, 221 militias renewed support for 1918 201 pickets (China) 197 migrants 1 workers’ 196, 197 as bumpkins 545 see also Red Guards Chinese perceptions of 25 Mill, J. S. 80 deracination among 678 modernity 67 difficulties of maintaining ties with ambivalence of 16 village 28 breaks down ascriptive identities 93, families left in village 125, 128 104, 107 female (St Petersburg) 20, 24, 43, 197 capitalist 1, 2, 56, 912, 107, led astray morally 50, 122 108, 111 live alone 123 as compression of time and space 18 vulnerability of 123 Chinese 14, 21 female (Shanghai) 20, 43, 197 Communist 2056, 234, 235 flee unhappy marriages 123 neo-traditional elements in 206, less likely to live alone 123 211, 215, 222, 232, 234 literacy of 24 displacement as constitutive of 212, men predominant in St Petersburg 24 37, 67 men predominant in Shanghai 28 multiple 6, 9, 206 motivated by hope of a better life 523 not equivalent to westernization 10 motivated by individualism 723 relation to ‘tradition’ 201, 36, 37 and ownership of land 5 Russian 5 perceived as immoral 50 women more exposed to 43 pressured to maintain link with Morrissey, Susan 78 village 28 provenance of Nanjing government 65, 88, 147 Canton (Guangzhou) 45, 47 weakened by war 195

Index 243

national identity 2, 13, 154 national products movement (China) in China 12 967, 1624 and ancestral homeland 91, 114 Chinese products use western names 164 and citizen-soldier 114 difficult to distinguish 164 civic construal of 161 National Revolutionary Army (Guominjun) compatible with provincial 3, 34, 146, 147, 180 consciousness 66 national salvation movement 4, 34, 186 consumption as site of 162 nationalism 225 ‘face’ of nation and 180 class appropriation of 175 fraternity and 114, 136 contested terrain of 191, 200 Han predominance in PRC and 226 in China hanjian (national traitors) and 181 anti-imperialist construal of 161 labour as core of nation and 175, 180 class-inflected anti-imperialist 7, 12, mothers as patriotic educators and 147 13, 107, 142, 175, 176, 181, 185, racialized understanding of 161 190, 226 as represented by CCP 66 dissemination among common as represented by GMD 66 people 161 ritual and 158 influence of western ideologies 160 ‘running dogs’ and 180, 181 Mao Zedong as symbol of 226, 233 sexual harassment and 142 minzu 160 vernacular novels and 160 multi-ethnicity and 226 Zhonghua and 158 national crisis and 9, 160, 161 Zhongguo and 159 national extinction and 161 Communism and national humiliation and 161 actively promotes 225, 2267, 234 physical education of people and 114 institutionalized by 2245, 234 PRC promotes non-Han Soviet Union claims to transcend 224 nationalities 226 imperial identity and 154 PRC affects to repudiate Han modernity and 1534 domination 226 not invented ex nihilo 153, 159 as proletarian nation 171 not monolithic 191 workers to fore of movement 152 primordial understanding of 224 empires attempt to emulate nation states proto-national identities and 154, 151, 223 157, 168 rise of nationalist movements 152 in Russia 58, 190 in Russia citizenship and 157, 224 absence of popular support for 167 defined by absence of rights 158 associated with political right 167 and foreign snobbishness 168 minority peoples and 226 foreigners seen more positively than Official Nationality 157 Russians 167 Russians socialists repudiate 167 identification with history and territory tsarist policy of Russification 154 156, 157 see also consumer culture local identities prevail over 155 native-place identity 2, 13, 37, 49, narod deﬁnes 17980 219, 220 nascent sense of 156 in China 389 Orthodoxy as marker of 155 extendible to provincial level 38 patriotism in First World War and generates conflict between 168, 169 workers 62 revolutionary defencism and 177 GMD hostility to 65 in tension with class during First marriage patterns and 40 World War 170 native-place stereotypes 401, 223 tsar as symbol of Russian land 155 Cantonese 40 weakness of as conjunctural 191 Ningboese 40 Sun Yat-sen on 656 Subei migrants 40 see also consumer culture stronger than in Russia 612

244 Index

native-place identity (cont.) middle-class nature of 148 Communism in Russia 144 capitalizes on 220 socialist configuration of 1456 long-term weakening under 219 working women not drawn to 146 in Russia 39, 40 see also ‘woman question’ marriage patterns and 41 newspapers 10, 1023, 161, 163 native-place stereotypes 40 Gazeta Kopeika 101, 139 nostalgia for village 55, 219 Rabochaia Mysl0 105 not as divisive as in China 58 associated with being a worker 103 regional differentiation less than in Northern Expedition (192627) 3, China 39 34, 180 sharpened in city 37, 3940, 67 women and 44 Ono Yazuko 115 native-place networks 14 Osokina, Elena 208 alliances built across 62, 66 artels 41, 59 passports 223, 24, 117, 219, 2212 bang 47, 91, 172, 222 Pastukhov N. I. 101 Communism weakens 219, 220, 222 Pateman, Carole 134 fuel sectional militancy 62, 66 patriarchal order 2, 111, 11617 guanxi and 38 attack on 111, 137, 149 insulate migrants from change 43, 67 calls to reform 115, 146 pose obstacle to working-class unity 66 resistance to Communist attacks on 216 reflect language barriers 61, 66 subordination of junior males within revive in ‘reform’ era in PRC 219, 222 116, 118, 131, 217 revolutionaries and 58 subordination of women within 116, stronger in Shanghai than St Petersburg 118, 217 667 waning of 149 use of 37, 589, 67 see also family; ‘woman question’ cement alliance with peasantry 220 patronclient networks get jobs 41, 47 in China 14, 478, 172 keep villagers informed 42 inhibit class identity 14, 172 organize migration 412 not impediment to sectional structure job market 468, 222 militancy 172 to greater extent in Shanghai 47, 66 personalistic hiring not a political structure residential patterns 445 issue 47 sustain strikes 62 labour unions and 196 women and 434 Pearl, Deborah 31 native-place organizations peasants for labour (China) 645 in China marxists hostile to 57, 65 collectivism of 69, 70 not an expression of separatism 58 conflicts with landlords 165 tongxianghui 634, 99, 127, 186, 222 conflicts over taxation 165 zemliachestva 41, 58, 59, 61 differentiation of 27, 165 Nekrasov, N. A. 225 family size among 128 Nelson, Joan 20 mobilization by CCP 193 neo-traditionalism see modernity owner occupiers among 165 New Culture Movement 17, 79, 8293, particularistic nature of conflict 106, 11516, 137, 146, 147 among 165 New Fourth Army 4, 35, 187, 193, 195 resist marriage reform 211 New Life Movement 148 as second-class citizens in PRC 222, ‘new woman’ 112, 1449 231 in China 146 status of female (PRC) 756 consumer culture and 148 in Russia 1645 conservative critiques of 148 collectivism of 69, 70, 71, 72 as discursive site of conflict 1449 commune and 22, 72

Index 245

conflict with landlords 164 enables personal relationship with conflict with officials 164 gods 84, 90 family size among 128 expenditure of workers on 89 differentiation of 23, 24 guilds and 912 household partition among 73 lacks central institutions 878 social estate of 72 lacks focus on individual salvation Stolypin reforms and 23, 125 84 township courts and 73 not immune to change 93 uprisings (192021) 203 persists among workers 8992, see also women 232 People’s Republic of China (PRC) ruling elites abandon 92 inequality in 231 supernatural world mirrors non-federal character of 226 bureaucratic hierarchy in 90 nostalgia for Mao era in 233 sweeping ancestral graves and 91 territory largely corresponds to Qing syncretism of 87 empire 223 substitution of republican festivals real wages in 231 for lunar festivals 88 see also class identity; family; marriage; waning of religion in republican nationalism; peasants China 91 pickets see militias in Russia Pipes, Richard 155 amount spent by workers on 85 Pokrovskaia, Mariia 144 baptism of children and 86 Populists (Narodniki) 31, 71 Christian burials and 86 see also Socialist Revolutionaries Church’s declining influence in postcards 157 St Petersburg 85, 87 Pretty, Dave 19 churchmen perceive irreligion as Price, Don C. 114 rampant 85 proletarianization controversial issue among in countryside 27 workers 84, 87 historians and 1920 dvoeverie and 84 paradigm of 2, 45 faith becomes a matter of individual prostitution 24, 29, 43, 132, 137 commitment 87 male 114 feast days punctuate social life Provisional Government 152, 176, 177, 84, 86 178, 194 growth of Protestantism 87 Pushkin, Alexander 16, 77, 155, 162 icons in factory workshops 86 local character of 84 qipao see dress Orthodox Christianity and 71, 75, 789, 83 Red Guards peasants infrequent church-goers 84 in China 232 workers continue to believe 86 in Russia 196, 197, 201 selfhood transacted through 8293 regional guilds (huiguan) 38, 63, 222 severed from social roots in city 86, 108 religion 2 see also Confucianism; temperance applicability of concept 82, 84 movement in China, 83 revolutionaries ancestor worship 73, 87, 901 hostility to consumer culture 2, local character of 83, 87, 88 95, 108 obstacle to nation-building 88, 90 propaganda of 31, 42, 59 popular religion 83, 8992 personal happiness and 79 condemned as ‘feudal superstition’ use of native-place networks 58 889 see also Bolsheviks; Chinese Communist consumer choice in 88 Party (CCP); Russian Social enables people to act in the world Democrats; Socialist 923 Revolutionaries

246 Index

revolutions overcrowding in 445 Communist revolutions against population 23 backwardness 225, 2279 born in city 25 comparative study of 8, 2045 female 25 ideology and 227, 229, 232 males predominant in 24 utopianism and 228 resident for more than ten years in 25 violence and 228 as reminder of backwardness 16 romantic love see marriage rents rise sharply in 44 Rossman, Jeffrey 229 as symbol of westernization 10 Roux, Alain 33 Sanborn, Joshua 169, 154 Ruan Lingyu 146 Sargeson, Sally 233 Rubakin, N. A. 77 schooling Russia in China 81, 82, 83, 102 birthrate in 213 in Russia 73, 157 cities underdeveloped in 49 see also women citizenship absent in 154 Schwarcz, Vera 146, 209 civil war (191821) in 192, 204 ‘science and democracy’ 10, 115 emancipation of serfs (1861) in 22 Second World War 221 intermediate institutions between see also Sino-Japanese war village and state 75 secret societies 14, 34, 52, 172, 187, 196 population of 23, 30 Green Gang 34, 30, 135, 185 wage labour force in 30 Red Gang 135 and West 10 sexual harassment see women workers Russian Orthodox Church see religion: Shanghai Russia atypical of China, 16, 36 Russian Revolution of 1905 3, 31, 85, 105, birthplace of CCP 18 155, 156, 157, 166, 199, 204 child labour in 30 peasants in 158, 164 civil war and 188 Russian Revolution of 1917 3, 5961, 106, collaborationist administration during 152, 17680 Sino-Japanese war 187 army in 194 Communist depiction of 57 a consequence of war 194 economy of 32, 34 fought in name of class 152 employment in peasants in 194 female 47, 141 as proletarian revolution 3, 194 male 478 simultaneity or urban and rural exemplifies capitalist modernity 15 movements in 195 exemplifies consumer culture 93 social polarization in 178 factory barracks in 45 weakness of opposition to Bolsheviks in factory jobs coveted in 478 204 fashionable reputation of inhabitants of see also Kadet party, Bolsheviks, 51, 97, 105 Mensheviks, Provisional foreign powers depart from 188 Government, Socialist foreigners dominate economy in 32, Revolutionaries 967 Russian Social Democrats 31, 59, 106, foreigners resident in 17 141, 166 French Concession 17, 89, 127, 184, see also Bolsheviks; Mensheviks 187 illegitimate births in 123 St Petersburg inflation in 184, 188, 190 atypical of Russia 15, 36 International Settlement 17, 29, 45, 89, elicits contrasting reactions 1617 97, 180, 187, 188 exemplifies capitalist modernity 15 Japanese factories in 30, 142, 202 exemplifies consumer culture 93 Japanese take over foreign settlements female employment in 24, 125, 133 187 migrants promote positive vision of 53 lineages weak in 90

Index 247

lilong (alleyway houses) 45 Russians enjoy higher status in 225 ‘lonely island’ (193741) 35, 187 subordination of living standards in 227, native-place divisions in 61 228, 229, 231 population 25, 221 see also class identity; national identity born in city 26 soviets (Russia) 3, 59, 177, 196, 201 density of 45 Stalin, I. V. 203, 208, 209, 224, 225, 228 female 29 Stalinism 21 males predominate in 29 starosta 41 as reminder of backwardness 16 Steinberg, Mark 16, 49, 108, 109 rents rise sharply in 45 Stepniak, Sergei 71 shanty towns in 46 strikes, 1967 as stronghold of nationalism 18 in Russia 31, 167, 196 as symbol of emancipation from First World War and 168, 170 tradition 17, 51 metalworkers and 31, 32, 167, 170 as symbol of foreignness 1718 in 1918 201 as symbol of Mammon 17 not undermined by native-place ‘undeclared war’ with Japan (1932) 186 divisions 58 unemployment in 26, 185, 188 political 32, 170, 196 war casualties in 187 in St Petersburg region 32 Shanghai Commercial Association women’s involvement in 140, 197 (shangye lianhehui) 174 in Shanghai 35, 184 Shanghai Federation of Syndicates Chinese companies targeted by 182, (gongtuan lianhehui) 34, 65 188, 190 Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce Chinese firms less strike prone 182 (shangwu zonghui) 183 in Cultural Revolution 232 Shanghai General Labour Union Japanese firms hit by 105, 106, (zonggonghui), 334, 142, 1801, 198 142, 185, 186, 196 Shanghai Student Union 174 in 1957 232 Shanghai Women’s Industrial Progress painters’ strike (1914) 173 Union 143 Shenxin No. 9 strike (1948) 190 Shifu 80 silk women’s strike (1911) 139, 143 Shorter, Edward 111 women’s involvement in 143 Sino-Japanese war (193745) 4, 34, 64, women’s participation challenges 1867, 195 Confucian stereotype 139, 143 as politicizing force 200 strike-breaking 197 Slavophiles 71, 76 see also labour movement; May Fourth Slezkine, Yuri 225 Movement; May Thirtieth Smelser, Neil 67 Movement Smith, Anthony 153, 154 Struve, Petr 152, 179 Smith, William C. 83 students 58, 59, 196 sobornost’712, 76 Sun Yat-sen 33, 656, 96, 163, 176, 185 Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) 59, 60, on absence of class in China 171 106, 141, 166, 170, 201, 203 father of nation 114 Left SRs 170, 179, 201 on labour unions 174 Soviet Union (USSR) see also dress citizens not afraid to complain 229 Suny, Ronald 13, 224 citizens subscribe to official ideology 229 supervisors command economy of 228 in Japanese mills 141, 181 as federation of ethno-territorial workers demand fellow-provincials republics 224 as 62 First Five-Year Plan 228 workers protest abuse by 105, 139 nationalism in 220, 225 see also national identity: ‘running dogs’ peasants worse off than workers in 228 Swift, E. Anthony 95 re-establishes territory of Russian sworn brotherhoods, 14, 172 Empire 223 sisterhoods 172

248 Index

Tan Sitong 79 ‘four virtues’ and 118 Tan Zhenlin 82 involvement in farming 119 Taylor, Charles 70, 107 more oppressed than in Russia 122 temperance movement 85, 87 property rights and 115, 116, 117 Thernborn, Goran 6 status of wife rises with birth of son third armed uprising (March 1927) 34, 118 34, 62, 180 subordination to mother-in-law 118, Tilly, Charles 8 131 tongxianghui see native-place organizations ‘three obediences’ and 115, 118 trade unions see labour movement wage-earning improves status of Trotsky, Leon 18 daughters 124, 138 Tsai Wei-pin 163 daughters less valued than sons 11617 modernity improves position united front of GMD and CCP (192327) of 111, 234 3, 147, 171, 175, 176 portrayed as victims of modernity 149 second united front (1937) 193 in Russia urbanization 1, 3, 9, 30, 205, 219 domestic labour of 118, 213 involvement in farming of 118 Verbitskaia, Anastasiia 144 legal subordination to husbands vernacular Chinese 102 117 seen as ‘backward’ 141, 198 Walder, Andrew 232 status rises with birth of son 118 Wang Jingwei 35, 187, 200 subordination to mother-in-law 118 warlordism (China) 3, 29 uphold community standards 118 Watson, James 158 wage work secondary to family welfare state 205, 229 responsibilities 138 westernizers (Russia) 76 see also ‘woman question’; women White, James 58 workers; gender identities ‘woman question’ 111, 116 women workers category of ‘woman’ and 115 cast as victims 138 citizenship and 113 claim equality with men 143 civil and political rights and 112, 115 concentrated in collective sector equality of sexes and 143, 149 (PRC) 215 eternal feminine and 112 condemnation of strikes by 143 female autonomy and 112 equal pay for 215 ‘good wife and wise mother’ and 113, fashion and 94, 989, 148 115 home and work not separated 138 linked to national survival 11213, 122 join trade unions 197, 198 men as debaters of 111, 112, 116 as ‘model’ workers 215, 216 parallel with serfdom and 112 not in leadership of trade unions 197, in Russia 112 198 see also feminism; ‘new woman’ prefer language of class to feminism women 140, 197 in China public visibility of 141 agency of 122 resented by male workers 133 as adopted daughters-in-law 116, 122 sexual harassment of 139, 142, 213 betrothal as children 126 construed as capitalist exploitation 140 CCP perceived to bring liberation to wage-earning gives independence to 218 124, 138 as concubines 116, 127 see also footbinding; strikes; women domestic confinement of 43, 119, 126 workers domestic labour of 119 attitudes towards Maoist regime 232, education of 113, 115 233 exclusion from sports 115 attitudes towards Stalin regime female infanticide 116, 122 22931, 233

Index 249

in China role in 1917 Revolution 194 in collective sector 231 support for soviet power 230 contract workers (PRC) 231 see also labour movement; supervisors ‘feeling of emancipation’ in 1949 189 workforce privileged relative to peasantry 231, St Petersburg 233 breaks from employment 25, 28 in state-owned enterprises 231 diversity of 31 stratification of (PRC) 231 Shanghai 33 ‘conscious’ workers 55, 56, 70, 75, 87, female employment in 29, 33 167, 200, 207 halved during Sino-Japanese war 187 argue over literature 77 handicraft sector of 33 aspire to individual autonomy 75, male employment in 33 1078 retail sector of 33 condescending towards mass of rickshaw pullers in 27, 478, 103, 199 workers 76, 78, 167 Wou, Odoric 4 drawn to intelligentsia 767 embrace reason 78 Xia Yan 52 fascinated by science 77, 78 Xiang Jingyu 147 fraternity and 134 xiangsheng 54 hostile to religion 78, 89, 108 Xiao Hong 44 identify with class 108 lichnost0 and 76 Yan Fu 80 literary writing by 778 Yang Zhihua 143 reading as self-improvement 77, 82, Yeh, Wen-hsin 17, 19 100, 208 yin and yang 121 religious commitment of 87 yiqi see masculinity critical of Communist regimes 230, 233 youth, 116 marital status of 125 see also New Culture Movement poverty of 7, 11 Yu Dafu 80 pride in achievements of Communism Yuan Shikai 115 234 Yue Fei 159 privileged relative to peasantry 230 in Russia Zelnik, Reginald 2 protest against use of singular zemliachestva see native-place form of ‘you’ 105 organizations remarkable level of organization 194 Zhenotdel (Women’s Department) 212