WAR HEROES: CONSTRUCTING THE SOLDIER AND THE STATE IN MODERN CHINA, 1924-1945 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for The Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Yan Xu, M.A. Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2012 Dissertation Committee: Professor Christopher A. Reed, Adviser Professor Ying Zhang Professor Patricia Sieber Copyright by Yan Xu 2012 Abstract The frequency of wars in modern China between 1924 and 1945 was accompanied by the phenomenon that the soldier figure played an important ideological role in state rhetoric and social discussions. Different political, social and cultural forces, such as Jiang Jieshi (1887-1975)’s Nationalist government (1927-1949), the Whampoa Military Academy, urban intellectuals, activists, professionals, writers, students, and the Chinese Communists in the revolutionary base of Yan’an constructed the soldier figure to argue for their agendas and assert their political influence. The multiple meanings assigned to the soldier figure by diverse forces as well as the intentions behind the meanings are the main theme uniting this dissertation. This theme serves as a useful window to explore the state-building processes in the GMD and CCP areas and the complex state-society relations that were engendered by these processes in modern China. By examining how different political, social and cultural forces resisted, collaborated with, complicated, questioned and confronted the heroic ideal of the soldier promoted by Jiang and the Nationalist government, this dissertation demonstrates that the cultural negotiations over how to create and support a strong army were central to the state-building processes in modern China, and a significant factor in determining different trajectories in state-society relations in the regions controlled by the GMD and the CCP. ii Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to those who have inspired and motivated me: my family and my professors. iii Acknowledgments The completion of my dissertation and subsequent Ph.D. has involved a long journey. I could not have succeeded without the invaluable support of my professors, my family and my colleagues. Without them, especially the select few I am about to mention, I may not have gotten to where I am today. To this select group I would like to give special thanks, beginning with Professor Christopher A. Reed. His intellectual support, encouragement, and enthusiasm made this dissertation possible. Ever since I joined the Department of History at The Ohio State University in 2005, Professor Reed has helped me build a solid foundation as a professional scholar. He has guided me on the fundamental skills demanded of a historian, such as how to read, write book reviews and historiography papers and how to cite sources. He has been very generous in sharing his vast knowledge on archival and database sources with me. He has always been thoughtful in writing support letters for my funding applications, and patient in correcting both my stylistic and historical errors. He is also straightforward in pointing out my strengths and weaknesses; it is his constructive advice that has strengthened my professional sense and my dedication as a scholar in history. His genuine caring and concern, encouragement, and faith in me during my studies at OSU enabled me to meet and surmount any challenge. I will forever be grateful for having had such a responsible and supportive adviser. In every aspect, iv Professor Reed has exerted an immeasurably great and positive impact on my intellectual development, career building and cultural adjustment, which I have and will continue to benefit from the rest of my life. Next, I would like to give a heartfelt, special thanks to Professor Patricia Sieber. Professor Sieber’s seminar on Chinese literature, which I took in Spring 2007, enlightened me on how to use literary works as primary sources to analyze historical issues. Professor Sieber served as a member of my doctorate candidacy examination committee in 2010. Her questions during my candidacy examination of how articulations of the cult of sentiment evolved in Chinese history served as a catalyst for my examining the role of sentiment in state building. Her dialogues with me on these questions after my candidacy examination helped me figure out a general idea for my dissertation argument. It was her questions, comments and dialogues that stimulated me to write a paper on the emotional bond between soldiers and peasants in the Chinese Communist revolutionary base of Yan’an. This paper, which was first written for Professor Reed’s seminar on modern Chinese history in Spring 2010, has become the foundation of Chapter 6 of this dissertation. Professor Sieber has also provided substantial support for my professional activities at OSU. Her recommendation letters have helped me win several scholarships and grants which supported my language study in Japan and my dissertation research trips in China. When the Ohio China Fellows, an OSU student organization I founded in 2006, held a graduate student conference on Chinese studies in May 2007, Professor Sieber attended the conference and served as a keynote speaker and presentation v commentator. Her participation and support have greatly encouraged the academic pursuits of the graduate students in the China studies community of OSU including me. I am also forever indebted to Professor Sieber for giving me her sincere understanding and support when I worked on my candidacy examination and dissertation writing while taking care of my young baby. Her warm motivation will always encourage me to overcome any difficulty in my life. My sincere gratitude is also extended to Professor Ying Zhang. Professor Zhang volunteered to read every chapter of my dissertation draft, although she had her own tight work schedule. After I submitted my chapter drafts to her, Professor Zhang always replied with detailed and useful comments in a very timely manner. She read the introduction chapter of my dissertation twice and held a two-hour dialogue with me on Skype, helping me better organize my introduction and articulate the thesis of the dissertation accurately. It is her hard effort of reviewing my introduction and chapter drafts that has enabled me to finish the dissertation by the deadline my committee members and I agreed on. Her motivation, patience, encouragement and enlightenment have helped me survive the intensive dissertation writing process. Thank you, Professor Zhang. I am also grateful to the following esteemed professors: Professor Cynthia Brokaw, who served as a member of my candidacy examination committee and on my M.A. defense committee; Professor Judy Wu, who served as a member of my candidacy examination committee; Professor James Bartholomew, who attended my candidacy examination; and Professor Philip Brown, who served as a member of my M.A. defense vi committee. The stimulating discussions at their history seminars have refreshed my understandings on a variety of topics and have increased my critical and analytical abilities. Next I would like to thank my colleagues at the Department of History of OSU. My colleagues who attended Professor Reed’s modern Chinese history seminars with me were very kind in sharing their book reviews with the class and in commenting on my paper draft. Wenjuan Bi let me stay at her parents’ place while I collected primary sources for my research in Nanjing. Di Luo helped me submit the graduation form to the Graduate School of OSU when I was unable to do so myself. John Knight read the draft of Chapter 4 of this dissertation, checking my grammar and word choice. Throughout my doctoral program at OSU, I have built friendship not only with colleagues in the East Asian history field but also with colleagues in other fields, especially those who shared the same office with me. We laughed and played together, always encouraged each other and shared information on funding applications and the job market with each other. This joyful experience working with my colleagues at OSU will be a valuable and beautiful memory for my life. This acknowledgement would not be complete without giving thanks to my parents. Without their spiritual and financial support, I could not have finished my college study at Nanjing University or have afforded to apply to the Ph.D. program at OSU. And without my parents’ selfless help in taking care of my young daughter over the last few months, I would not have had enough time and energy to prepare for my candidacy examination and finish my dissertation writing. They understand and support vii my career pursuit in the United States, although they have to bear the pain of missing their daughter. It is my love and guilt for them that have driven me to overcome any difficulty and finish this dissertation. With deep gratitude, I would like next to mention my husband Sean Chao. Ever since I met Sean in the Winter of 2007, he has read almost every piece of my writing. Despite his busy schedule and frequent travels, he still managed to review and comment on every chapter of my dissertation. His extensive knowledge in Chinese politics, history and culture has opened the window for me to see how Americans have viewed issues related to China. His wit has kept me smiling and his sarcasm has given me a different view of the world that has helped me keep things in perspective. His thoughts and ideas have also helped me better design my teaching strategies and materials for US college students in my classes. He went through every excruciating step and mood change with me and grew into a better person along with me. Through his love, support and unwavering belief in me, I have been able to complete this long dissertation journey. Through his eyes I have envisioned myself as a capable, intelligent woman who could do anything once I made up my mind.