Society and Natural Resources in Southeastern Central America
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Jason Paiement Ph.D. Tutorial #3 Society and Natural Resources in Southeastern Central America No other system of human occupancy so well preserves the natural rainforest diversity. (Gordon 1982:3); in reference to Guaymi land use practices in western Panama. Since biological and cultural systems are closely linked, the ecological health of [Central America] depends overwhelmingly on the preservation of diversity in all its forms. (Grosvenor et al. 1992:198) The horizontal platform created by the biodiversity / sociodiversity synthesis succeeds in placing in the same frame environmental justice and social justice. [But] A sanctioned role as guarantors of steady, sustainable output of low-cost forest produce hardly ameliorates their [Amazonian peasants and indigenous peoples] subject status, and certainly stops far short of mobilizing ecological argument in the name of eradication of underprivilege. (Nugent 2003:204) CONTENTS 1. Introduction.................................................................................................................1 2. A social and ecological history of resource tenure ..................................................... 4 2.1 Pre-Hispanic ecology and political geography ................................................... 4 2.2 Conquest and colonization.................................................................................. 8 2.3 Republican modernity....................................................................................... 12 2.4 Neoliberal globalization.................................................................................... 20 3. The importance of resource tenure in human / environment relations ..................... 24 3.1 Political ecology................................................................................................24 3.2 Structure versus Agency ................................................................................... 26 3.3 Resource conservation and sustainable development....................................... 34 4. Conclusions and recommendations........................................................................... 38 5. Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 41 1. Introduction This essay is about the resource-use options and the social consequences resulting from human adaptations to the physical environments and political economies of the Caribbean coast of lower Central America; a region that extends from the Miskito Coast in northeastern Honduras and Nicaragua to the Kuna islands of the San Blas Archipelago on Panama’s northern border with Colombia. This is an extremely diverse region where countless drastic ecological, sociocultural, technological and political transformations, Page 1 of 51 July 2004 Jason Paiement Ph.D. Tutorial #3 syncretic adaptations and millennial continuities have shaped a great variety of distinctive life forms and cultural expressions. Data available for the wider Mesoamerican Biological Corridor1 region as a whole indicate that the area is home to roughly 9% of the world’s total biodiversity – much of which is endemic and threatened by alarming rates of deforestation (Guzmán 2003a:2-3). In 1950, about three quarters of Central America was covered by forests. Fifty years later only a third remained – most of this being increasingly fragmented and concentrated in protected areas and indigenous territories on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus (Heckadon Moreno 1997:195). But plant and animal species diversity is not the only casualty of rapid forest conversion – soil erosion, loss of fertility and soil compaction are also threatening the agricultural economies, transportation infrastructures and water supplies in several areas within the region (Utting 1993:9-11). Figure 1: Regional topographic divisions of Central America that have controlled land use and settlement patterns (Wallace 1997:78-79). In addition to such high levels of ecological diversity, at least 60 indigenous peoples or linguistic groups account for some 11 million people or 23% of the total regional population (Grosvenor et al. 1992). More than half of this total population is 1 An area that includes the seven modern countries that comprise geographic Central America (Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Belize) as well as the five southernmost states of Mexico (Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Quintana Roo and Yucatan). Page 2 of 51 July 2004 Jason Paiement Ph.D. Tutorial #3 considered poor, and in rural areas – where about a third of the population and most indigenous peoples live – the percentage living in poverty is closer to 70% (Annis 1992:5-6). Only about 10% of this regional population lives on the Caribbean side of the isthmus though, which also accounts for roughly 90% of the total protected surface area in the region. These land use restrictions intended to promote resource conservation are increasingly in conflict with the needs of poor farmers and indigenous peoples whose access to critical subsistence resources has been negatively affected (Heckadon Moreno 1997:213). The highly skewed distribution of access to resources and a related set of problems deriving from tenure insecurity (e.g. inadequately defined, delimited and/or enforced property rights) are commonly cited as being the main catalyst behind the many and severe social and environmental problems affecting much of Latin America.2 To my view, some of the most successful attempts to address these problems have analyzed the historical circumstances behind local patterns of resource use and control (i.e. resource tenure) using multidisciplinary frameworks inspired by efforts to integrate human and cultural ecology with political economy that began in the 1970’s.3 During the 1990’s, researchers continued to be interested in the “… ways in which power and politics affect and are affected by ecology and the environment.” (Stonich 2001:4053), to the point where “Political Ecology” has become a diverse and expanding set of perspectives on: a) the contextual sources of environmental change, b) conflicts over access to resources, and c) the political ramifications of environmental change (Nygren 2000:14). And as I show in this essay, each of these three sets of interrelated issues has characterized, with varying degrees of violence and severity, the Caribbean region of lower Central America. The goal of this essay is to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of various anthropological approaches to understanding human – environment relationships in this region. The specific objective is to assess the relevance of theoretical debates concerning resource tenure against a series of location- and culture-specific analyses of the physical environments and political economies in which local communities are embedded. For as 2 Variations of this claim have been made by: (Brockett 1998, Howard 1998, Huber and Safford 1995, Kay 2002, Nygren 2004, Painter 1995a, Partridge 1989, Richards 1997). 3 Examples of such early efforts to forge a broadly political perspective on ecology could include: (Davis 1977, Despres 1975, Gross 1979, Young 1971). Page 3 of 51 July 2004 Jason Paiement Ph.D. Tutorial #3 this paper will show, the nature of the means, in addition to formal property rights recognized by governments, by which people gain legitimate access to natural resources for the purposes of their management, extraction, use and disposal (International Development Research Centre 2001)) can have some very significant consequences for local and national socio-political, economic, cultural, and ecological processes and their outcomes. The first section of this paper is organized in a roughly chronological order. For each major time period, I analyze and present the significant events and factors that have shaped local and regional resource tenure dynamics, significant environmental impacts and major social consequences. This historical review will then serve to highlight key theoretical debates about the nature of society and ecology and the determinants of the relationships between them. For as will become apparent, underlying the often bewildering array of settings, actors, histories, institutions and environmental problems common to much of Central America is an apparent structural consistency; a set of regularities grounded in relations between the core components of economic production and environmental degradation, and their associated effects upon such interdependent variables as resource scarcity, demographic increases, and population distribution (Durham 1995:262). 2. A social and ecological history of resource tenure “All historical societies have transformed their relations with the environment; this is the very definition of their historicity.” (Touraine 1981:8, quoted in Nygren 2000: 29) 2.1 Pre-Hispanic ecology and political geography The Caribbean region of lower Central America is an area of high annual rainfall (2000mm-6000mm) and frequent tropical storms. In 1998 for instance, more than 20,000 people were killed and 2 million left homeless after hurricane Mitch pounded Central America causing extensive flooding and landslides that also devastated roads, bridges, electrical lines, crops and livestock (The World Bank 1999). The region’s swampy coastal lands are also frequently subject to severe drainage problems, while its more Page 4 of 51 July 2004 Jason Paiement Ph.D. Tutorial #3 sloping terrains are extremely vulnerable to the quick erosion of