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University of Florida Thesis Or Dissertation Formatting Template INDIGENOUS MOBILIZATION, INSTITUTIONALIZATION AND RESISTANCE: THE NGOBE MOVEMENT FOR POLITICAL AUTONOMY IN WESTERN PANAMA By OSVALDO JORDAN-RAMOS A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2010 1 © 2010 Osvaldo Jordan Ramos 2 A mi madre Cristina por todos sus sacrificios y su dedicacion para que yo pudiera terminar este doctorado A todos los abuelos y abuelas del pueblo de La Chorrera, Que me perdonen por todo el tiempo que no pude pasar con ustedes. Quiero que sepan que siempre los tuve muy presentes en mi corazón, Y que fueron sus enseñanzas las que me llevaron a viajar a tierras tan lejanas, Teniendo la dignidad y el coraje para luchar por los más necesitados. Y por eso siempre seguiré cantando con ustedes, Aje Vicente, toca la caja y llama a la gente, Aje Vicente, toca la caja y llama a la gente, Aje Vicente, toca la caja y llama la gente. Toca el tambor, llama a la gente, Toca la caja, llama a la gente, Toca el acordeón, llama a la gente... 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I want to recognize the great dedication and guidance of my advisor, Philip Williams, since the first moment that I communicated to him my decision to pursue doctoral studies at the University of Florida. Without his encouragement, I would have never been able to complete this dissertation. I also want to recognize the four members of my dissertation committee: Ido Oren, Margareth Kohn, Katrina Schwartz, and Anthony Oliver-Smith. I feel fortunate to have a committee integrated by such wonderful individuals and accomplished academics. Their support and mentorship went much beyond the preparation of this manuscript. In the critical decision to continue with my doctoral studies, several individuals offered needed advice and inspiration, perhaps not even knowing how much they were influencing on my career, most importantly Francisco Herrera, Marcos Guevara, Helen Safa, Michael Chege, James Howe, Richard Cooke, Phil Young, Ellen Lutz, M. Renzo Rosales and Marixa Lasso. In the Department of Political Science, I want to thank Dan O‟Neill, Richard Nolan, Aida Hozic, Sue Lawless-Yachisin, Debbie Wallen, and Andrew Blair for their generous support and friendship during all these years. I also have a debt of gratitude with many people at the Center for Latin American Studies, especially Carmen Diana Deere, Richmond Brown, Ana Margheritis, Anita Spring, Terry McCoy, Hanna Covert, Margarita Gandia and Wanda Carter. This work would have never been possible without the constant help of the staff of the Latin American Collection, most importantly Richard Phillips, Paul Losch, Patricia Presvatt and Justino Llanque. Many organizations provided financial resources for my doctoral studies and to all of them I am greatly indebted, most especially the Alumni and Tinker Fellowships of the University of Florida, 4 the Ford-Macarthur-Hewlett Regional Social Sciences Program, the Compton Foundation, and the Secretaria Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (SENACYT). I also want to thank Francisco Sastre, Ana Liberato, Martin Maldonado, Percy Peralta, Indira Rampersad, Peter Lahanas, Jessica Perez and Jeffrey Hamill for their friendship and moral support during all these years. In Panama, I have an eternal debt of gratitude with Elena Lombardo, Bill Adsett, Alyson Dagang, Lucia Lasso, Laila Rodriguez, Marisol Guzman, Ricardo Montenegro and Jose Miguel Guevara. In Bocas del Toro, Chiriqui and the Ngobe-Bugle Comarca, there were so many people whose trust and solidarity were critical for the completion of this project. It would be impossible to mention all of them, but I would like to give special thanks to Pedro Abrego, Feliciano Santos, Arcadio Aguilar, Bernardino Morales, Norman Wood, Tomas Villagra, Celio Guerra, Bernardo Jimenez, Berediana Rodriguez and Weni Bakama. Thanks to all of you for offering your home to such an unpredictable visitor for so many years. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... 8 ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 11 Literature Review .................................................................................................... 15 Research Question and Case Study ....................................................................... 29 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................... 34 Methodology and Epistemological Considerations ................................................. 36 Organization of the Work ........................................................................................ 43 2 THE “INDIAN QUESTION” IN LATIN AMERICA: A BRIEF HISTORY OF LATIN AMERICAN THOUGHT ABOUT INDIGENOUS PEOPLES .................................... 47 Interpreting the Indigenous Peoples during the Colony .......................................... 48 From Independence to Liberal Republicanism ........................................................ 54 The Advent of Indigenismo and the Reinterpretation of Indigenous Descent ......... 60 Reactions to Indigenismo and the Rise of Indigenous Movements ......................... 72 3 GOVERNMENT POLICIES TOWARDS INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ON THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA (1510-1968) ..................................................................... 76 Spanish Colonial Policies Towards Indigenous Peoples on the Isthmus of Panama (1510-1821) ........................................................................................... 76 Indigenous Peoples During the Period of Incorporation to the Republic of New Granada (nowadays Colombia). The First Half of the XIX Century. ................... 80 Political Autonomy, Capitalist Growth, and Indigenous Resistance in the Second Half of the XIX Century ........................................................................... 87 Indian-State Relations in the Liberal Conception of the Republic of Panama, 1903-1931 ........................................................................................................... 95 Nascent Indigenismo during the Advent of the Welfare State and the Onset of Virulent Nationalism, 1931-1945 ........................................................................ 103 Indigenous Marginalization and Formal Indigenismo during the Liberal Welfare State, 1945-1968 ............................................................................................... 112 4 THE NGOBE ETHNIC COMMUNITY ................................................................... 123 The Ngobe Ethnic Community before the European Arrival ................................. 127 The Ngobe Ethnic Community during the Early Encounter with the Europeans ... 130 6 The Ngobe: Civilized or Infidels during the Colony? ............................................. 132 The Ngobe Ethnic Community during the Irruption of Modernity .......................... 138 The Ngobe Ethnic Community in the Construction of the Panamanian Nation ..... 143 The Ngobe Ethnic Community as Seen by Modern Anthropologists .................... 149 5 INCREASING NGOBE MOVILIZATION AND THE STRUGGLE FOR THE COMARCA, 1968-1997 ........................................................................................ 162 Social Mobilization Amidst the Collapse of the Liberal Welfare State ................... 163 Military Populism and the Advent of Charismatic Indigenismo .............................. 167 The Collapse of the National Indigenous Movement and the Emergence of a New Ngobe Leadership under the Torrijos Regime ........................................... 170 The Right Turn of the Revolutionary Process and the Dispersion of the Ngobe Leadership ......................................................................................................... 176 A Struggle for Power: Indigenous Peoples Against the Revolutionary Process ... 181 Indigenous Comarcas and Development Projects in the New Liberal Era ............ 186 6 TEN YEARS AFTER THE COMARCA - THE COMARCA IN PRACTICE AND THE INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF THE NGOBE LEADERSHIP ......................... 196 The Comarca Regime De Jure ............................................................................. 197 The Comarca in Practice – The Formative Years, 1997-2001 .............................. 201 The Fallout of Ngobe Corporatism and the Ephemeral Success of Neoliberal Multiculturalism in Panama, 1999-2003. ............................................................ 206 Leadership Acquiescence and Ngobe Reaction to Neoliberal Globalism, 2003 2006................................................................................................................... 212 Clashing with the Party of the Revolution: The Third Scission of the Ngobe Leadership and the Unexpected Violence of Neoliberal Multiculturalism, 2006- 2009................................................................................................................... 221 The Debacle of the PRD-Ngobe Alliance and the Arrival of a new Democratic Change? ............................................................................................................ 233 7 CONCLUSIONS
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