ASIA IN FOCUS conflicts, classroom observation classroom conflicts, Keywords: ‘national humiliation’ to the students. anti-Western sentiment and presenting agrand narrative of past in Chinese history classes is about more than promoting Cultural Revolution –which indicates that the narration of the imperialism are emphasized in class –most notably the show that conflicts other than the struggle with Western textbook. Furthermore, Idemonstrate how my observations narration of the Chinese past in the classroom than in the conflicts play amuch larger and more profound role in the of classroom observations in China, Ipresent how historical reality of classroom sessions in China. Based on four months to befound between the content of the textbook and the refute this statement show that and there are differences education. In this article, Ipresent research results which textbook material in order to understand Chinese history by curriculum stipulations that it is sufficient to analyze the grounds that history classes in China are so heavily dictated include classroom observations as empirical data on the within this field of study there has been atendency not to examining history education in Mainland China. However, In recent years, various studies have taken on the task of PETERSEN KJEMS TROELS education history Chinese in flicts con historical of role significant waysNew of understanding the Beyond Historical Humiliations China, education, collective history memory, historical narratives, historical 14 - ISSUE 3

------The results I present in this article are based based are article this in I present results The my on school the at observations the all I did education. However, it is my belief that the exclusive exclusive the that belief my is it However, education. stipulations political and material textbook on focus suggests in a gap serious researchers previous by history education, Chinese of understanding our behind politics the into insight offer only they since deep a give than rather China, in education history within taught actually is what of understanding er I article this in Hence, classroom. the of reality the disserta master my of results research the present (Petersen, Copenhagen of University the from tion I offer so, do to researcher first the as and, 2014) taught is what of understanding our to insights new using by classes school high history Chinese in data. as empirical observations classroom a high at observations classroom of months four on ob I 2013, of fall the In Province. Zhejiang in school gaoyi different four of classes history the served per me gave school high The classes. year) (first the from slides PowerPoint the all use to mission interview to me allowed and I observed, that classes long as project, research my for teachers the of one were involved students and teachers school, the as keep to order in Thus, research. my in anonymous re is school high the intact, anonymity school’s the article. this in school” “the as to ferred as interpreter, or a translator of use the without own a high me given has Studies China in education my that aware I am Chinese. Mandarin in proficiency classes the in observer a foreign as presence my way teachers’ the affected have may school the at the of content the communicating and narrating of ob no was there however, students, the to classes 15 ------

The long-standing scholars of argument many

n recent years, history education in Mainland Mainland in education history years, recent n to interest major of subject a become has China Chinese examined Some have researchers. many is that in East Asia in general and in Mainland China China Mainland in and general in Asia East in that is classroomin particular, sessions dictat heavily are strument for political legitimation of the CCP lead CCP the of legitimation political for strument nationalist anti-Western of and promotion ership Hughes, 2005; Gries, 2004; (Callahan, sentiments have researchers Other 2008, 2012). Wang, 2006; ed history Chinese viewing with preoccupied been in issue political post-1945 the part as of ucation a common of misrepresentation mutual of Asia East Müller, 2005; Vickers, 1991; (Mash, region the in past dif their Despite 2013). Morris, 2011; Sneider, 2011; stud previous these all scope, and focus in ference a similar had have education history Chinese on ies as education history Chinese view only to tendency re previous Thus, socialization. political of a matter po on exclusively focus to tended have searchers litical stipulations, outlines curricula and textbook materials when Chinese examining history educa have classes history of observations actual and tion, before. a method as incorporated been never the analyzing thus and content, textbook the ed by a give to be sufficient should textbooks of content in history how is taught of understanding proper Vick 1991; (Mash, China throughout classrooms the observing of task the since Furthermore, ers, 2005). and difficult a very is China in education classroom it is - logi exercise, anthropological time-consuming - class in engaged not have studies previous that cal history Chinese analyzing when observations room history education since the 1990s as a political in a political as 1990s the since education history I ASIA IN FOCUS stipulations and textbook material, it is logical that Chinese history education on the basis of political Wang, 2012; 2008, Sneider, 2011; Morris, 2013). today (Callahan, 2004; Gries, 2005; Hughes, 2006; trauma and narrative in Chinese collective memory perialism between - 1949 1840 are the most central im foreign with conflicts China’s ‘humiliating’ that education, mainly because many researchers argue modern period as acentral period in Chinese history preoccupied with examining the teaching of the (xiandai) times times ancient times (gudai) tional history is divided into three broad periods: In Chinese history education today, Chinese na classroom narration The differencebetween textbookand porating observations. classroom ple of new insights that can achieved be by incor high schools. Rather, Ipresent amethodical exam generalize taught is how history about in Chinese results presented in this article do not offer a way to narration. It is also important to emphasize that the these differencesbetween textbook and classroom as well as excerpts from my interview, to underscore I use examples of PowerPoints slides used in class, logical order, historical themes and topics in class. school, despite the textbook dictating the chrono and classroom sessions during my time at the centralto observe differences between textbook material. school’s collective interpretation of the textbook and the history teachers observed, I oflesson the thus represent very well the exact content of each slides PowerPoint The slides. PowerPoint the of that to write up the same content on the blackboard as Even the few teachers using the blackboard tended Point slides for all their lessons on Chinese history. at the school used the same pre-produced Power vious sign of this. To the contrary, all of the teachers Given that previous studies have only analyzed In the following, Ipresent how it was possible (jindai) (jindai) (1949 - 2000). Previous studies have been (1840 - 1949) and contemporary times (2000 B.C. -1840), modern ------16 cient, modern and contemporary (see Table 2). historical period of the Chinese past –both an centralas to the historical development of each teachers focused on narrating historical conflicts and Western imperialism in modern times, the only focused on China’s conflicts with feudalism ent to that of the textbook. Where the textbook the school, the narrative structure was very differ Chinese society after China was ‘liberated’ in 1949. showing how well the CCP leadership developed epilogue to the modern period, with the purpose of the contemporary period only served as a narrative in the modern period (Zhu, 2013, p. 2-21). Likewise, sharp narrative contrast to the struggles and wars ful period with no real conflicts, which served as a was narrated as astable, progressive and peace (see Table 1). In the textbook, the ancient period al center in the narration of China’s national past foreign imperialism was very much the clear pivot in Mainland China (MOE, 2006), the conflict with outlines curriculum official the 2013), followed which structure of the textbooks used at the school (Zhu, Chinese history classes. If we look at the narrative and Japanese imperialism to the be main focus of many researchers see the conflicts with Western explained to the students why it was important to period. However, unlike the textbook, the teachers ment of the political system throughout the ancient taught the about constant, progressive develop the teachersod, followed the official guidelines, and When teaching the students about the ancient peri Table Narrative 1: structure of the content textbook However, in the classes that Iobserved at ------

ISSUE 3 Figure 2: PowerPoint slide from the class the slide from on ancient Chinese 2:Figure PowerPoint history to teachershow the emphasized slideNotes:The illustrates in political institutions of development the that students the each dynasty same “strengthening had purpose the both of the and weakening Empreror political the the power of Ministers” Prime political (Huangquan the power of Figure 1: PowerPoint slide from the class the slide from on ancient Chinese 1: PowerPoint Figure history teachers, how the slideNotes: The illustrates in contrast political all that textbook, students the the to explained to Chinese a result the was of rulersdevelopment attempt “to two fundamental the conflicts” solve liang (jiejue zhe fenquan) and jibenmaodun)“regionalism” (difang with “the ministers” (xiangquan). the power of (Petersen, 2014, Appendix I) 17 - - - - - Even though the textbook characterized the the characterized textbook the though Even the period, contemporary the at look we If Notes: Table 1 & 2 gives an overview of the difference the overview an of 1 & 2 gives in Notes: Table focus between textbook official the and narrative content classroom my observations. of content the Table 2: Narrative structure of the classroom the of content structure 2: Narrative Table develop the political system in ancient times. In the the In times. ancient in system political the develop teachers the history, Chinese lessons on ancient the political developing that emphasized heavily ‘two pairs solving of a way was autocracy of system maodun) jiben dui (liang conflicts’ fundamental of of pairs two These China. ancient in existed that Cen hand one the on were conflicts fundamental development of the political institutions as a means as a means institutions political the of development administrative and the centralism strengthen to China ancient in authorities central the of power mention not did textbook the 14-16), p. 2013, (Zhu, bureaucratic or regionalism solve to attempt the institu political for reason main the as corruption narra classroom and textbook between difference tralism vs. Regionalism, and on the other hand the the hand other the on and vs. Regionalism, tralism (see power Minister’s Prime vs. the power Emperor’s 2). 1 & Figure Figure the throughout developed being constantly tions - class the in focus explicit an placing by Yet, period. cor the and regionalism with conflicts the on room of name the them giving by and ministers, of ruption a deeper added teachers the conflicts, fundamental China. unified ancient, an of narration the to level rul different the all that underlining by so did They the throughout conflicts two same the fought ers period. whole ancient ASIA IN FOCUS the democratic institutions. 3) The establishment of insane personal cult of the Red Guards assaulted fundamental human rights of the citizens. 2) The 1) The reckless abuse of the Constitution and the CR destroyed the democratic legal system in China: festations went further than the textbook by listing four mani the textbook (Zhu, 2013, p. 71-72). The teachers also which was at no point mentioned or illustrated in of the event to the students; areality of suffering, still served the same purpose of showing the reality the pictures showing the war crimes of Japan, they errors and abuses of the CR were not as terrifying as grams or maps. Even if the pictures illustrating the when narrating the event, rather than tables, dia teachers relied vividon pictures and illustrations lesson on the war with Japan, in the way that the ways, the lesson on the CR was very similar to the the problems encountered during In many the CR. also used a lot of photos and pictures to illustrate Liu Shaoqi’s sufferings under the CR, the teachers the red guards. Besides telling the story martyr of during the CR as adirect result of physical abuse by People’s Republic of China Liu Shaoqi, who died ers telling the same story of former president of The many victims. This was reinforced by all the teach emphasize that the CR was a terrible period with ing about this war, the teachers did not hesitate to teach to Similar when War 1937-45. of no-Japanese given an equal amount of classroom time, the Si the contemporary period. sized to the students that it was apivotal event of the Cultural Revolution (CR), and clearly empha stead dedicated a whole lesson to teaching about mentioned the Cultural Revolution, the teachers in narrated the period as stable, and only very briefly tion was even more apparent. Where the textbook I) Appendix 2014, (Petersen, quanli xueruo. authorities”regional difang (Zhongyang quanli jiaqiang, the central authorities weakening and the“Strengthening buduan xiangquang jiaqiang, buduan xueruo), but also Only one other specific historical event was (biaoxian) that were examples of how the ------18 opment to perfection” (fazhan wanshan). ership were explained to in class represent “devel a since all of the post-1978 policies of the CCP-lead same time promote the current CCP government, PRC. Moreover, all critique of the CR would at the political foundation and political development of the teachers then narrated the CR as aviolation of the cy as areturn to “the rule of law” (yifa zhiguo) 1982 constitution and “Reform and Opening” poli stitutional rights, and at the same time narrating the explicitly. By criticizing the CR for violating the con students about the violence and errors of the CR so planation as to why the teachers could teach the nese society. This narrative focus is also the ex violation its in constitutional’ the CR was narrated in the classroom as being ‘un (Petersen,tions. 2014, Appendix I) consultation encountered violations destruc and National People’s the institutions and Congress of wards in the building of political organization. 4) The various revolutionary committees was astep back rated this point further: Thetheir teacher classes. that interviewed I elabo school still focused heavily on historical conflicts in national history. the Nonetheless, teachers at the teachers should focus “conflicts” on teaching when guidelines mention “conflicts” directly or that the book material, curriculum outline, nor the teaching interpreting the textbook material. Neither the text of some level of autonomy given to the teachers in er that it should instead seen be as an indication as discrepant from the textbook material, but rath ancient and contemporary period should seen be that the teachers’ focus on historical conflicts in the What is interesting about my observations is not historical development Conflicts ‘driving the as forces’ for It is clear from these four manifestations that it says like this (points in the guidelines). For have to know about these conflicts”. Instead, Well, this guideline does not tell us “hey, you (pohuai) of the Chi the of , the the , ------ISSUE 3 ------Now, this Western influence … From our nation nation our … From influence Western this Now, we view], of point [‘s state a sovereign … from so rights, sovereign our on a violation received aggression. an influence Western the call we devel civilization of aspect the from However, from progressively transformed we opment, to economy Chinese self-sufficient of a form awards modern industrial civilization. Petersen 2014, appendix II Based on this interview and my classroom observa classroom my and interview this on Based were conflicts historical the that argue I would tions, than narration classroom the to central more much em to wanted teachers the because textbook the were conflicts historical specific these that phasize de historical the for forces’ ‘driving underlying the Thus, history. Chinese in period each of velopment historical of dynamics the illustrated teachers the way detailed more a in period each in development the in apparent even was This textbook. the than conflicts the where period, modern the on lessons with imperialism Western as narrated were more they since classroom, the in humiliation tragic than historical the to connected being as narrated were teach the though Even period. the of development students the showing time of deal a great spend ers and Japanese of crimes war the of depictions vivid textbook, the unlike teachers, the soldiers, Western the reasons behind different the also explained powers, foreign the with conflicts and wars many shaped conflicts these how addressed also and Chinese society: interpre an is here at hinting was teacher the What as imperialism with conflict historical the of tation and threatened that force antagonizing an just not a necessary as conflict also but China, humiliated moderni into China propelling to key the was that as imperialism with conflict the of narration This ty. something difficult and hard, but something which devel to order in solve and endure to had China conflicts the of description the to similar is itself, op 19 ------example here, when describing “lesson three” three” “lesson describing when here, example political Chinese Ancient on chapter the [in “3 secre the mentions guideline the history] and Dynasty Tang the of 6 ministries” taries, the of power” ministerial the of “partition the of development the of illustration an as Song in system political the of characteristics the these teach to have we When China. ancient mea take we students, the to characteristics about actually was this that explain to sures emper the of reinforcement continuous the the of weakening a continuous and power or’s power. minister’s prime II Appendix 2014, Petersen, characteristics these that this like is it Well, the of interpretation our on be based might you like, be just might It material. teaching dif how event an viewing to regards in know, view. of points different have people ferent Petersen, 2014, Appendix II themselves, in important not are conflicts The the to explain to is intention the rather but on focusing [of method this with students things the of context social the conflicts] the to connected are things Many happened. that conflicts. these II Appendix 2014, Petersen This supports my observation of the difference be difference the of observation my supports This emphasize to tended all they then why When asked ex teacher the period, each in conflicts historical tween the classroom and textbook narration of the the of narration textbook and classroom the tween explained further teacher the and period, ancient liberty to the had least at teachers history the that themselves: textbooks the interpret plained: ASIA IN FOCUS (Petersen, 2014, Appendix I) Appendix 2014, (Petersen, (daoluis bright” quzhe shi qiantu de). guangming shi de, characterized the path but future iscomplicated, by “the (minzhupolitics” zhenzhi jianshe) being were as viewed ofwanshan), democratic the how also “establishment but symbolizedbeing by “development (fazhan to perfection” 1978 after as everything described thehow teachers to This both students overview illustrates by the teachers. given development period political inthe contemporary to conclusion the and The is an overview Notes: slide history Chinese Figure PowerPoint 3: contemporary on from slide the class velopment of each period. narrative role as ‘driving forces’ for the historical de torical conflicts should understood be as having a each period, and that it is through this that the his- er future was central to the classroom narration of ‘walk acomplicated path’ in order to reach abright qiantu guangmingquzhe, de). shi is complicated, but the future is bright” (daolu shi democratic politics was characterized by: “The path and at the bottom, it is stated that the building of political development in the contemporary period, ers used a graph to illustrate to the students the in the contemporary period. In Figure the 3, teach I would argue that this idea of the necessity to - - - 20 reestablish the thesis-stage. (Lincoln, 1992, p. 158-159) p. 1992, (Lincoln, the thesis-stage. reestablish merely it Instead, a novel from different stage the thesis. the by synthesis-stage not dialectics seeing as Hegelian to note important classical from that differs Lincoln’s theory within their narrative process dialectic same structure. It is the had period contemporary and both modern the ancient, developmentdialectic innarratives, Table how 3presents of With Lincoln’sNotes: inspirations from Bruce theory of Zhonghuarebirth minzu in the narration period of each Table and of the decline of process the dialectic Overview 3: classroom narration of each period. nance of minzu Zhonghua it was always the unity, progress and good gover with conflict contemporary the Cultural Revolution, ple’s modern conflict with foreign imperialism and with regionalism and corruption to the Chinese peo ernance. From the ancient Chinese struggle rulers’ the good values of unity, progress and good gov timeless Chinese that essence was symbolized by and represented the imagined idea of an eternal, minzu national myth was a discursive vision of myth of decline and rebirth. At the center of this class, which seemed to formed be around anational od represented adialectical narrative-structure in historical conflicts as ‘driving forces’ in each peri and Bruce Lincoln (1992), Iargue that the role of Inspired by the theories of Anthony D. Smith (1993) minzu ofrebirth Zhonghua The national myth of and decline the , which translates as ‘Chinese nation/people’ that was at stake in the Zhonghua Zhonghua - - - - ISSUE 3 ------. This .’(MOE, is clear . Similarly, the pur . Similarly, Zhonghuaminzu .’ (Lü, 2013, p. 6); ‘[The students students ‘[The 6); p. 2013, (Lü, .’ , which I found to be central in the the in be central to I found , which .’ (Lü, 2013, p. 4); ‘[The students should] should] students ‘[The 4); p. 2013, (Lü, .’ pose of history was no longer to save socialism, or or socialism, save to longer no was history of pose Zhonghua minzu save to but values, Confucian and guidelines teaching the by supported further is curriculum outlines where Zhonghua minzu national the of narration the to central as visible ly [the clan-system, the of study the ‘Through past: Zhonfor love of affections realize should] students ghuaminzu of fighting-spirit unyielding and heroic the realize Zhonghua minzu the that significances great the understand should] unifica complete motherland’s the of achievement of revival the for had tion Necessary conflicts or Western Western or Necessary conflicts humiliations? offer article this in presented results research The of understanding the for insights new important - his Chinese in narrated is past national the how historical of role the particular, in and, classes tory I believe past. national the of narration in conflicts of rebirth and decline the of myth national the that Zhonghua minzu a adds conflicts, historical on teacher each of focus Jones Alisa like scholars of works the to aspect new histo the in that argued has Jones 2005). (2002, conception the China memory in ry collective of a total to connected been always has past the of and eternal one as China of vision discursive ized would I 2005, 2002). Jones (see nation inviolable in itself canonized vision totalized this that argue spired by both traditional Chinese historiography historiography Chinese traditional both by spired tradi the both that Given materialism. Marxist and tional cyclical view of the past and the linear view view linear the and past the of view cyclical tional part of integrated an is materialism historical from nat only seems it tradition, historiographic Chinese in take would school the at teachers the that ural Chinese when teaching views both from spirations the of heroes the classroom, the in However, history. of or class, a given of members longer no were past and ethnic the of members but entity a Confucian national entity of Zhonghua minzu 4). 2006, p. 21

------. in each pe each in Zhonghuaminzu struggling against the internal I argue that this grand narrative had a narra a had narrative grand this that I argue In addition, the teachers’ focus on the strug the on focus teachers’ the addition, In particular this at taught classes history The Zhonghua minzu would go through the same socio-political process process socio-political same the through go would be then status, hegemonic a stable having first of finally and conflict, period’s the by threatened ing reso the after re-established hegemony its having the thesis, is, the that conflict, period’s the of lution Ta in exemplified as synthesis the and anti-thesis a heavy shown have which 3. observations, ble My teacher history each by conflicts historical on focus the of period each narrated they when school the at the or story overall the that indicate past, Chinese at history Chinese when teaching narrative’ ‘grand pro continuous the of a narrative was school this Zhonghua minzu the of rebirth and decline cess of traditional of aspects resembles that structure tion a of repetition cyclical the historiography: Chinese of rebirth and decline In the narration of each period, Zhonghua minzu period, each of narration the In Chinese high school anno 2013 were clearly in clearly were 2013 anno school high Chinese riod resembled the dynastic cycles of decline and and decline of cycles dynastic the resembled riod Chi traditional in Heaven of Mandate the of rebirth nese historiography. the as forces impersonal conflicting between gles resembled development historical of force’ ‘driving according which materialism, aspects historical of Chinese defined (2002) Jones Alisa historian to 1976. to 1949 from period the in education history and peasant class struggle materialism, historical In histor of force’ ‘driving the as seen were uprisings the school, the at classes the In development. ical con between struggles the narrated still teacher of force’ ‘driving the as forces impersonal flicting history the edu but unlike development, historical forces conflicting these era, Maoist the of cation struggling peasant-class no heroic longer the were socialist the or landlord-class, villainous the against the Instead, capitalism. against people struggling of people united heroic the were forces conflicting the stag disunity, of forces antagonizing andexternal and corruption. nation ASIA IN FOCUS and as such violated the hegemony of Zhonghua central government and the hegemony of the CCP, tional”, and that the Cultural Revolution violated the taught that the Cultural Revolution was “unconstitu In the classes that Iobserved, the students were minzu ghua were emphasized in class as being athreat to Zhon than the struggle modern with Western imperialism more, my research has shown that conflicts other nese nation, not just as tragic humiliations. Further rated as significant to the development of the Chi classes that Iobserved, historical conflicts were nar terpretation of the role of historical conflicts. In the national humiliation” (Wang, p. 2008, 792). na since the as simply 1990s, being “education on furthermore characterizes history education in Chi ation” ation” day with the phrase: “never forget national humili Wang even sums up Chinese collective to memory order to promote anti-Western sentiments. Zheng as traumatic humiliations in the history classes in are narratedmiliation’, conflicts that historical and tion is shaped by a grand narrative of ‘national hu scholars have argued that Chinese history educa 2005; Hughes, 2006; Wang, 2012). 2008, These its nature (see for example Callahan, 2004; Gries, educationhistory primarily being as anti-Western in a critique of some scholars’ interpretation of Chinese historiography. Chinese Confucian essence in traditional dynastic Heaven represented ashared imagined idea of a the same way as the concept of the Mandate of sence in today’s Chinese collective identity in much represent ashared imagined idea of aChinese- es concept of ‘One China’ and that of minzu Zhonghua threatened its hegemony. Iwould argue that Jones’ cle of decline and rebirth as each historical conflict historical essence of China that went through acy at the school, the minzu Zhonghua of the concept of minzu Zhonghua thatthe with lessons observed the I teachers’ use However, my research different a suggests in The research results can furthermore serve as (wuwang guochi) , most notably the Cultural Revolution. (see Wang, 2012 p. 3), and represented the . In the lessons ------22 promote national sentiments to the students. rely solely on anti-Western narratives in order to tion of the past in Chinese history classes does not minzu is being taught in Chinese history classes. data when attempting to define or understand what inclusion of classroom observations empirical as the textbook. Consequently, Iargue strongly for the could emphasis things place on not mentioned in in interpretingerty the textbook material, and thus the textbook. The teachers clearly lib had some significant role in the classroom narration than in of historical conflicts: the latter played amuch more content of the national textbook in terms of the role at the school in Zhejiang Province differed from the have shown that the content of the history classes corporating the method of classroom observation, I in different ways in Chinese history By classes. in understanding of how the national past is narrated observations in order to achieve amore profound nese history education to incorporate classroom it is relevant and in necessary the research on Chi The research presented that in this suggests article Conclusion Email: ucation and collective in memory Mainland China. gen. His primary research interests are history ed tory and China Studies from University of Copenha Troels Kjems Petersen has an MA degree in His- . Thus, my research indicates that the narra [email protected] ------ISSUE 3 - New London: London: . New York: . New York: 23 , 30, 545-566., 30, DOI:10.1016/S0883- London: Routledge. London: New York: Oxford University Press. Press. University Oxford York: New , 29, 199-218. DOI: 10.1177/030437540402900204 DOI: 199-218. , 29, Discourse and the construction of society, comparative studies of studies Discourseof comparative and society, of the construction Alternatives . London: Routledge. Routledge. . London: Journal Research of Educational

memories politics and transnational aspirations. Publisher Blackwell gaozhong lishi kecheng biaozhun (shiyan) [History curriculum criteria for normal (shiyan) lishigaozhong kecheng biaozhun chubanshe. Renmin Beijing: secondarysenior schools (experimental)]. Available school history classes Thesis). in Republic the People’s (Master China of No. (Thesis Service. Library University Copenhagen and Library Royal The from 4727-1110-4). London: Routledge. Routledge. London: culture. popular and schooling [Guidelines for teaching courses at Zhejiang Province’s normal senior secondary senior normal Province’s Zhejiang at courses teaching for [Guidelines Zhejiang Province: Zhejiang Hangzhou, Print. Second Edition. 2012 History]. schools, jiaoyu chubanshe. Mainland China. In Edward Vickers et al. (Ed.), History and Education National (Ed.), al. et Vickers Edward In China. Mainland Routledge. York: New Identity Asia in 65-100). East (pp. myth, ritual and classification. national 0355(03)00050-8 University of California Press. California of University Routledge. Nationalism. Nationalism. York: Routledge. York:

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