BETWEEN MYTH AND MEANING: THE FUNCTION OF MYTH IN FOUR POSTCOLONIAL NOVELS by Aparna Halpé A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of English and the Collaborative Program in South Asian Studies University of Toronto © Copyright by Aparna Halpé 2010 Between Myth and Meaning: The Function of Myth in Four Postcolonial Novels Aparna Halpé Doctor of Philosophy Department of English University of Toronto 2010 Abstract In Anglophone postcolonial fiction of the twentieth century, myth is used as a framing device that contains and interrogates historical event, thereby functioning as a form of alternative history. Despite the prevalence of cross-cultural symbolic systems and radically hybrid forms of narration, the dominant method of reading myth in postcolonial literary criticism remains dependent on conceptual models that construct myth as originary racial narrative. This particular approach fosters readings of contemporary secular myths of “nation”, “land” or “identity” within culturally monolithic frames. I scrutinize the intersections between early structuralist approaches to myth, and later post- structuralist deconstruction of myth and suggest a postcolonial reading of myth as the ideological coded middle space between sacred and secular narrative. Focusing on four novels from Southeast Asia, South Asia and the Caribbean, I demonstrate the continued influence and adaptability of myth to narrate vastly different historical and socio-cultural contexts. Taking into account several major shifts in the conceptualization of twentieth- century myth criticism , I develop a critical vocabulary for comparative readings of myth ii which interrogates existing discourses on the categories of “archetype”, “ideology” and “symbol”. My approach is comparativist, and foregrounds the importance of locating myth within literary and socio-cultural context. The introduction to this study defines the field of myth criticism in relation to postcolonial fiction. I provide outlines of the theoretical positions drawn from Carl Gustav Jung, Roland Barthes, Northrop Frye and Bruce Lincoln and demonstrate the relevance of each in relation to reading myth in the four novels under survey. The first chapter looks at the way Alfred Yuson exposes mythic constructions of Filipino identity in The Great Philippine Jungle Energy Café (1987). The second chapter provides a comparative study of Michael Ondaatje's The English Patient (1992) and Allan Sealy's The Everest Hotel A Calender (1998). This chapter analyzes Ondaatje and Sealy's employment of the Fisher King myth as a device for narrating radically different visions of postcolonial community. The third chapter analyzes the function of archetype as a vehicle for ideology in Wilson Harris's Jonestown (1996). The conclusion of this study suggests the way this method of analysis can provoke further critical inquiry in the field of postcolonial myth criticism. iii Acknowledgments My greatest debt of gratitude goes to my supervisor, Prof. Chelva Kanaganayakam whose supreme patience, wisdom and generosity made this thesis possible. Chelva is the kind of mentor whose living example will remain a source of lasting inspiration in all my future academic endeavors. I also honor Prof. Edward Chamberlin whose vision made it possible for me to traverse the more unbeaten paths of literary scholarship. Sincere thanks to Prof. Neil Ten Kortenaar and Prof. Uzoma Esonwanne who provided inspiration and scholarly mentoring beyond the call of duty, and to Prof. Deirdre Lynch for being a voice of reason in hard times. Prof. Clara Joseph renewed my excitement over this project with her nuanced interrogation of the thesis. To Prof. Marvin Bram who began the dreaming, and, to the shaman in sheep's clothing, Brian Mayo, who taught me the warrior's way, thank you. This project would not have survived without the multiple cups of tea and hours of sitting on the Hart House lawn discussing life, the universe and all that fish with Prasad Bidaye. Irene Morra made it possible for me to find the program that worked for me. Anupama Mohan and Suddhaseel Sen made my final submission possible in more ways than one. Three cheers to Gillian Bright and Antonio Liberachio for their incomparable spare bed and for being so incredibly generous with their time and good spirits. Here's to Perkin and Bindi, the silent witnesses to the many long nights of the soul. And, most importantly, a big thanks to Parmela Attariwala, guardian of the sacred hearth and my soul sister. Finally, all my thanks to Deepak who took every step with me over these long years. iv For Ashley and Bridget, and for Deepak. v Table of Contents I Introduction......................................................................................................................1 1. Myth as Resistance and Recuperation............................................................................1 2. Defining Myth.................................................................................................................3 3. Archetype and Archetypal Image....................................................................................5 4. Myth as Ideology..........................................................................................................10 5. Archetypal Criticism.....................................................................................................16 6. Myth and Magic(al) Realism........................................................................................22 7. Myth in the Postcolonial Literary Context....................................................................26 8. Four Choices: Reading Myth Across the Postcolonial Divide ....................................33 9. A Possible Method .......................................................................................................41 II Excavating the Local: Alfred 'Krip' Yuson's The Great Philippine Jungle Energy Café ............................................................................................................................................46 1. Introduction...................................................................................................................46 2. Literary Inheritances: Myth in Anglophone Philippine Novels....................................50 3. Critical Readings of the Text .......................................................................................65 4. Constructing Myth: Sourcing Leon and Buhawi..........................................................78 5. Juan Tamad: The Hybrid Genesis of Myth...................................................................88 6. Theorizing Laughter......................................................................................................97 7. A Textual Example......................................................................................................105 8. Ending Without Conclusions......................................................................................114 III Asking The Right Question: Mythical Inflections in Michael Ondaatje's The English Patient and I. Allan Sealy’s The Everest Hotel A Calendar.............................................117 1. Introduction.................................................................................................................117 2. Reading Myth in Post-Independence South Asian Fiction.........................................124 3. Situating Allan Sealy within the Indo-Anglian Novelistic Engagement with Myth .127 4. Shifts in Sealy's approach to Myth.............................................................................135 5. The Myth of the Fisher King in The English Patient and The Everest Hotel.............141 6. The English Patient.....................................................................................................142 7. The Everest Hotel........................................................................................................156 8. Conclusion..................................................................................................................183 IV The Ideology of Archetype: Mythical Strategies in Wilson Harris's Jonestown.......189 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................189 2. Contemporary Caribbean Literature and Harris's Mythical project ...........................194 3. Myth in Guyanese Writing..........................................................................................206 4. Reading Archetype in Harris's Fiction........................................................................210 5. Harris and Jung...........................................................................................................219 6. Mythical Doublings: Lazarus and Christ, Hunahpu and Xbalanque ........................226 vi 7. Kali and Anancy: Mythifying the Caribbean Contemporary......................................239 8. The Process of Differentiation....................................................................................252 9. Conclusion..................................................................................................................261 V Squaring the Postcolonial Circle: From Stereotype to Archetype..............................267 VI Works Consulted........................................................................................................273 vii