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Buddhist Influence on Chinese and Popular Beliefs

Guang Xing6

Abstract Chinese religions or Chinese traditional religions include Confucianism, Daoism, and popular beliefs derived from and related to these three. Liu Mi, a Chinese elite of the late Song and early Yuan dynasty, said in his essay Sanjiao Pingxin Lun “Buddhism is for the cultivation of mind, Daoism is for the training of the physical body and Confucianism is for the governance of the world.” This reflects the roles and functions of the three religions in in the last two thousand years with Confucianism at the center supported by Buddhism and Daoism. Although there were conflicts and persecutions in Chinese history but harmony and integration were the mainstream as both Buddhism and Chinese thought uphold the open and tolerate attitude of mind. Thus, Ma Xisa, a specialist in Chinese popular religions said that Buddhism heavily influenced Chinese popular religions in their formations and developments.

Guang Xing is a professor of Centre of , The Univ. of Hong Kong. ([email protected])

International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culturer February 2012, vol. 18, pp. 135‒57. ⓒ 2012 International Association for Buddhist Thought & Culture

The day of submission: 2011.12.14 / Completion of review: 2012.1.4 / Final decision for acceptance: 2012.1.6 136 Guang Xing: Buddhist Influence on Chinese Religions and Popular Beliefs

Key Words: Chinese Religions, Influence, Daoism, Buddhism, Popular Belief.

I. Introduction

Chinese religions or Chinese traditional religions include Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism and popular beliefs derived from and related to these three. But Chinese popular is quite a loose term and it needs some explanation. Let us see the descriptions given by the specialists in Chinese Popular Religion. Vincent Goossaert says in “Popular Religion” in China found in the Encyclopedia of Religion,

Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism within Chinese religion do not function as separate institutions that provide their members an exclusive way to salvation, as in the nineteenth-century Western concept of religion; rather, their purpose is to transmit their tradition of practice and make it available to all, either as individual spiritual techniques or liturgical services to whole communities.

So Liu Mi (劉謐), a Chinese elite of the late Song and early Yuan dynasty, quoted in his essay Sanjiao Pingxin Lun (三敎平心論, A Discussion on the Three Religions) the words of the Emperor Xiaozhong of Southern Song dynasty who said in his essay Yuandao Bian (A Refutation of the Origin of the Way) “Buddhism is for the cultivation of mind, Daoism is for the training of the physical body and Confucianism is for the governance of the world.”1 This reflects the roles and functions of the three religions in China in the last two thousand years with Confucianism at the center supported by Buddhism and Daoism. Although there were conflicts and persecutions in Chinese history but harmony and integration were the mainstream as both Buddhism, the foreign religion and Chinese thought uphold the open and tolerate attitude of mind. Buddhism even encourages Chinese

1 故孝宗皇帝製原道辯曰 (T. 24, no. 2117, 781); 以佛治心，以道治身，以儒治世. (T. 24, no. 2117, 28b –29). International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture 137

people to continue their ancestor worship and the respect of local gods.2 Thus, Ma Xisa, a specialist in Chinese popular religions said that Buddhism heavily influenced Chinese popular religions in their formations and developments (Ma 2004, 36).

II. Buddhist Influence on Daoism

When Buddhism was first introduced into China in Han dynasty, religious Daoism was not formed yet, Chinese scholars called it the Philosophical Daoism. However, from second to seventh centuries, Daoism developed dramatically and many Daoist practices, even their texts and rituals initially took shape by absorbing from both Confucianism and Buddhism. It is also during this period of time that Buddhism gradually took roots in China through translation of large number of scriptures transmitted from both and Central Asia. Buddhist ideas and practices and even the form of organizations were absorbed into Daoism. We will discuss the following four aspects that Buddhism influenced Daoism: (1) Daoist scripture and school, (2) ideas and theories, (3) monasticism and (4) Ritual. (1) The entire Daoist scripture is called “Sandong” (三洞) which includes a) Dongzhengbu (洞真部): Shangqing Jing (上清經); b) Dongxuanbu (洞玄部): Longbao Jing (靈寶經); c) Dongshengbu (洞神部): including many texts for ritual. According to Chinese scholars, the term “Sandong” first appeared in Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420) when Buddhism started to spread in China. As the entire Buddhist collection of texts is called “Sanzang” (三藏), Tripitaka in , so Daoists named their collection as “Sandong.” Today people just call it Daozang (道藏). Second, according to modern scholars such as Qing Xitai, a Chinese Daoist scholar, Daoists, particularly from the Lingbao school, created many of

2 Both the Patakammasutta and Adiyasutta say, “Again, housefather, with the wealth acquired by energetic striving, lawfully gotten, the noble disciple is a maker of the fivefold , namely: to relatives, to guests, to departed ones, to the king and to the gods. This is the third opportunity seized by him, turned to and fittingly made use of” (Woodward 1927, Anguttaranikāya Ⅱ 67; Gradual Saying Ⅱ 76). 138 Guang Xing: Buddhist Influence on Chinese Religions and Popular Beliefs

their scriptures by borrowing ideas and thought from the Buddhist scriptures (Qing 1990, 160, 166–68). For instance, the Longbao Jing (靈寶經) has borrowed much from the Buddhist Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra (大般涅槃經) which was translated into Chinese by Dharmakṣema in Northern Liang dynasty (北 涼) (414–21). According to Qing Xitai, influenced by Mahāyāna prajñāpāramitā literature and school, a Daoists school named Zhongxuan (重玄) which means emphasis on metaphysics appeared in early Tang dynasty and became an important school of thought in Daoism (Qing 1990, 171). The representative person is Chen Xuanying (陳玄英). (2) The Buddhist theory of karma and influenced Daoism most together with the description of and hells. Daoists borrowed many other concepts and terminologies from Buddhism and incorporated into their teachings. According to Qing Xitai, Daoism assimilated the Buddhist theory of karma and rebirth and mixed it with Daoist theory of Chengfu which means future generations will suffer the consequences of their fore fathers’ bad deeds, to describe man’s fortune in the world (Qing 1990, 160–61). They also assimilated the Buddhist ideas of saṃsāra, the round of birth and death as there are no such theories in Chinese philosophy. Qing Xitai gives the following example from the Daoist scriptures,

The evil men will be born in the three evil states after they die, but Daoists will be born in heavens or in the human world....Thus these men with heavy evil deeds will be born in Cilian hell which is full of fire and water for thirty billion kalpas without an end. Even if they are born as men they have only the human physical form, but no human emotion....They will again be born as animals of six kinds eating grass and drinking water just for humans to consume their flesh....Thus is the cycle of rebirth. (Qing 1990, 160)3

We notice in this short passage that some of the Buddhist terms are also taken over without change such as Jie (劫), which is a transliteration from the Sanskrit word meaning an aeon found in .

3 The translation is mine. International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture 139

The Daoist Lingbao school even invented the central named Yuanshi Tianzun (元始天尊) by merging the creator Shangqing (上清) with Buddha who is known in Buddhism as shizun (世尊) “World-Honored One” (Kohn 2001, 95). The Daoists reformed their cosmology modeled after the . Just as the Buddhists, the Daoists also have “a total of thirty-two heavens, placed in concentric circles around it. Like Buddhist heavens they were divided into three levels―the worlds of desire (six heavens), form (eighteen), and formlessness (four)―plus four -heavens for true believers” (Kohn 2001, 97). Just as the Buddhists, Daoists also describe their cosmology as evolving and devolving with Yuanshi Tianzun (元始天尊) as the creator. Each of the world-cycles was then called jie. Livia Kohn says, “The creation...was also understood to depend on sacred sounds....Instead of thinking of these sounds as native Chinese spells, the Lingbao Daoist now linked them with the foreign sounds of Sanskrit and identified them as “Brahma-sounds” (fanyin 梵音). We also find the description of in the Daoist scripture Yunji Qiqian (雲笈七簽) and the description of hell in the Daoist Lingbao Jing (靈 寶經). The Daoist Lingbao Jing (靈寶經) describes twelve hells and the Daoist Sanshi liubu jing Yuqing jing (三十六部經玉清經) describes twenty hells, the names of these hells suggest that they are taken from Buddhist sources. The Daoist assimilation of Buddhist thought is more subtle and conscious in Song dynasty (960–1279). (3) Buddhism also influenced Daoism in establishing their monasticism. According to Qing Xitai, Daoist Lu Xiujing 陸修靜 (406–77) reformed Tianshi Daoism by assimilating Buddhist ideas and other Daoists established Daoist precepts modelling on (Qing 1990, 166). The well known Daoist Tao Hongjing 陶弘景 (456–536) even openly said that he had been prophesied by the Buddha to be born as a and made vows to observe the himself in front of the Buddhist Asoka (Qing 1990, 166). Thus, Daoists openly established their monasticism by modeling on Buddhist monasticism. So Kohn says, “On the whole, medieval Daoist monasteries were quite similar to their Buddhist counterparts, but 140 Guang Xing: Buddhist Influence on Chinese Religions and Popular Beliefs

official celibacy among Daoists was only required in the early Song, when monks and nuns had to be properly registered” (Kohn 2001, 154). (4) Buddhism also influenced Daoist ritual. In mid Tang dynasty, Tantric Buddhism was introduced into China by three great masters Śubhākarasiṃha (善無畏, 637–735), Vajrabodhi (金剛智, 671–741) and Amoghavajra (不空, 705–74). They translated a huge number of small tantric Buddhist texts and also introduced complicated tantric rituals together with and hand gestures. According to a Daoist specialist, Livia Kohn, Daoists absorbed the Buddhist tantric ritual and developed their own ones into sophisticated and standard rites (Kohn 2001, 140). Many of the Buddhist rituals were taken over as they were without modification so they appeared almost entirely as same as the Buddhist. They also created a number of new guardian gods and protectors based on the Buddhist ideas of . Thus, Daoism assimilated many elements from Buddhism such as ideas to theories, rituals and monastic regulations, but it does not mean that Daoism is inferior to Buddhism, it is just a mutual assimilation and borrowing as Buddhism also borrowed many ideas and thought from the former. On the contrary, Daoism became an institutionalized religion with all necessary religious elements during the Northern and Southern dynasties.

III. Buddhist Inspired Religious Movements in History

After Buddhism gradually integrated into the Chinese culture and accepted by Chinese people, it inspired many popular religious movements in Chinese history. Here we will discuss a few influential ones, the White Lotus Society (白蓮教) and the White Cloud Society (白雲宗) which appeared during the Song dynasty and continued till Ming and even Qing dynasties. The White Lotus Society was established in Song dynasty as a society practicing Pure Land and recitation of Amitabha with Mao Zhiyuan (茅子元) as the founder, but later it developed into a secret society. Mao Zhiyuan advocated vegetarian meal and recitation of Amitabha, both men and women practiced together. The teaching is that mind is the centre of practice, people International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture 141

are born in Pure Land according to the purity of their minds. Therefore, cultivation of mind and Pure Land practice should be practiced together. The Society spread so fast that it caused the attention of the Song government and the founder was caught and banished for three years. Later, he was released and even conferred a title by emperor Gaozong of Song. Thus it spread again in the south. In Yuan dynasty, the White Lotus Society was mixed with Chinese folk beliefs and spread fast so it again caused the attention of the government. According to the Yuan Shi (元史–武宗本紀, History of Yuan), in 1308, the Society was banned, their monasteries were destroyed and the practitioners were forced to return to lay life. However, later, a Buddhist monk from Lushan named Pudu (普度) wrote the Lushan Lianzong Baojian (廬山蓮宗寶鑒) to explain the doctrine of the Society and some upper class people of the White Lotus Society supported it, so it was allowed to practice again. But the Society spread fast amongst the ordinary people and its teaching also changed so it instigated and stirred up the feeling of people against the Yuan rule which finally led to the fall of the dynasty. The White Cloud Society was originally a branch of the school, but towards the end of Song dynasty, Kong Qingjue (孔清覺, 1043–1121), a monk from the White Cloud monastery advocated vegetarian meal to attract lay people. Kong Qingjue considered that the doctrine of the Huayanjing or Avatamsaka was the sudden teaching and the final stage in the ten stages of Bodhisattva practices hence it is the Buddhayana or Buddha vehicle. He also advocated the syncretism of three religions and considered that the Confucianism advocated loyalty and filial piety, Buddhism advocated compassion and Daoism advocated simple and quiet life without attachment. So the three religions are the same in teaching but each has its own characteristics. The Society spread fast and attracted many people but since both men and women practiced together so it was treated by both the traditional Buddhism and the government as a heretic. Hence in 1116, Kong Qingjue was 142 Guang Xing: Buddhist Influence on Chinese Religions and Popular Beliefs

banished to far south but later was released. By the end of Southern Song, in 1202, it was reported that the White Cloud Society practiced in night with men and women together either in the name of building bridges or chanting so people suggested abolishing it. In Yuan dynasty, the White Cloud Society spread in Hongzhou area. The abbot of Puning monastery in Hongzhou, Daoan organized to print another edition of the Tripitaka named Puning Edition (普寧藏) in which the works of the White Cloud Society were added. However, it was banned from practice in Yuan in 1320. The third one is the Wuwei (無為, Non-Action) Sect founded by Luo Qing (羅清, 1442–1527) who was a major figure in Buddhist-inspired sectarianism. According to Daniel L. Overmyer, originally a soldier by profession, Luo Qing set out on a quest for salvation, studied with various masters, and drew inspiration from a large number of texts, the majority of which were Buddhist in nature (Overmyer and Adler 2005, 1607). His teachings show a strong influence of , with an emphasis on the individual’s recovery of his or her innate buddha-nature, or Tathagatagarbha. But Lou Qing explained the profound teachings of the three religions in simple and clear language so that even the illiterate ordinary people could understand him. Thus he gained many people’s support and soon became an influential popular religion. For Luo Qing, the concept of Śunyata (emptiness) collapsed all distinctions, including those between men and women, and clergy and laity, opening up release from Samsara for all living beings. His writings were gathered in a collection called the Wubu liuce (五部六冊, Five Books in Six Volumes), which still enjoys the status of sacred scripture among present-day sects such as the Longhua Pai (龍華派, Dragon Flower Sect) of southeastern China. After the death of Luo Qing, his school split into four sects and one of them developed into the popular religion of I-Guan Dao (一貫道) which is still active in Taiwan. The practice of vegetarian diet and worship of have been influenced by Buddhism. The third sect developed from Wuwei is the Sanyi Jiao (三一教, Three-in-One Teaching) founded by Lin Zhao’en (林 International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture 143

兆恩, 1517–98), who sought to combine the Three Teachings of Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism, but in doing so emphasized Confucianism and the internal alchemy of Quanzhen (Complete Realization) Daoism over Buddhism.

IV. Buddhist Influence on Popular Beliefs

With the introduction and translation of Buddhist scriptures, many Buddhist images and iconographies of Buddhas, bodhisattvas and arahants are also introduced into China and some of these bodhisattvas became quite popular amongst ordinary Chinese people and have been completely transformed into Chinese gods and are incorporated into Chinese popular beliefs. For instance, Guanyin is a Chinese transformation of Avalokiteśvara and Mile from and Dizang from Kṣitigarbha. The following are some of the most popular Buddhist bodhisattvas worshipped by Chinese people as gods or goddesses.

A. Guanyin Belief

The most popular Buddhist bodhisattva is Avalokiteśvara and the Chinese name is Guanyin who is worshipped by most of Chinese people as the goddess of mercy. Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara is introduced from India but it became popular from the time of Southern and Northern dynasties and continues to be the most popular Buddhist deity not only in China but in all East Asia. Daoism also accepts Guanyin into their temples and named it as the True Man of Compassion (慈航真人), Great Person of Compassion (慈航 大士). The Daoists of the Lingbao (靈寳) texts or school even created Jiuku Tianzun (救苦天尊, the Heavenly Venerable Savior from Suffering) by imitation of the Buddhist Guanyin.4

4 For a detailed discussion on Guanyin belief in China, please refer to my paper (Guang Xing 2011). 144 Guang Xing: Buddhist Influence on Chinese Religions and Popular Beliefs

B. Milefo (彌勒佛) or Maitreya Belief

The second most popular Buddhist Bodhisattva is perhaps Maitreya, Chinese translation of which is Milefo (彌勒佛) or just Mile (彌勒) who became the Chinese Laughing Buddha (笑佛). He is also called Mile with a bag (布袋彌勒), Mile with big belly (大肚彌勒), Happy Buddha (歡喜佛), Peace Buddha (平安佛), Buddha for good fortune (幸運佛) and Buddha for wealth (發財佛) etc. According to the Buddhist scriptures, Maitreya is now residing in Tusita heaven and will come to this world in the future and become a full enlightened Buddha. All the people will be benefitted from the future Buddha with long lifespan and beauty. There will not be any disease and famine. Maitreya will preach the three times and enlighten billions of people. This new era’s image is so brilliant and attractive to Chinese people from the fourth century onwards. As a result, the belief on Maitreya’s coming has become very popular in China from that time. Even the eminent Buddhist monk Daoan also believed in Bodhisattva Maitreya and made vows to be born in his Tusita heaven. Thus since Northern and Southern dynasties it has inspired many people of political ambition and the leaders of various cults to take the image of Maitreya and his new world as an important ideology on propagating their ideas about their new world and promises people. Many rebellions were also in the name of Maitreya’s coming. Some Chinese popular sectarian religions thought that their masters were Maitreya’s incarnations too. Such as I-Guan Dao (一貫道), it’s members thought that Lu Zhongyi (路中一, 1849–1925), the seventeenth Patriarch, was the last Maitreya’s incarnation. According to Zhanning’s (贊寧, 919–1001) Biography of Eminent Monks (高僧傳), in the late Five dynasties (907–60), a Buddhist monk with a big belly named Qici 契此 travelled around the province, carried a bag all the time, and begged for a living. Hence people called him 布袋和 尚, monk with a bag. Qici (契此) left a stanza after he died, it goes “Maitreya is a real Maitreya, who manifests uncountable transformed bodies. Constantly he manifests before living beings who are not able to recognize International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture 145

them” (T. 50, no. 2061, 848, 23b–8c). Thus, People identified him as the Maitreya, the future Buddha. According to a Song dynasty Zhuan Chuo (莊綽) who wrote Jileibian (雞肋編), people in his time already made statues of Qici (契此) and worshiped him as Maitreya (Zhuang 1983, 52). This tradition is accepted by the mainstream and the Laughing Buddha is usually found in the first Shrine Room when you enter a Chinese monastery. In 1098, Chinese Song emperor Zhezong (哲宗) gave him an official title Great Master Dingying (定應大師). Thus, Indian Maitreya has been completely transformed into Chinese Laughing Buddha Mile in Song dynasty.5 The Mile belief in Chinese society became much more popular after Song dynasty and there came up many Baojuan, Treasure Scrolls, such as Mile sanhui ji (彌勒三會記, Record of Maitreya’s three meetings), Longhua huiji (龍華會記, Record of Longhua meeting), Mile sun (彌勒頌, Praises of Maitreya), Milefoshuo dizang shiwang baojuan (彌勒佛說地藏十王寶卷, Maitreya Buddha preached Treasure Scroll of Dizang and the Ten Kings), Dasheng Mile huadu baojuan (大聖彌勒化度寶卷, Treasure Scroll of the Great Maitreya’s Conversion), Milefo chuxi baojuan (彌勒佛出西寶卷, Treasure Scroll of Maitreya’s appearance in the west), Budai jing (布袋經, Scripture of Budai), Mile gufojiao pian (彌勒古佛教篇, The Ancient Buddha Maitreya’s teaching) etc. Today Maitreya or Milefo is usually depicted in art according to this Chinese monk with a big belly and laughing. This new image of Maitreya in Chinese culture symbolizes the spirit of open-mindedness and tolerance. So Milefo or Maitreya Buddha in China today represents humanistic, practical and happy attitude of life with a spirit to promote peace and prosperity in society. Some people even worship Mile as the god of wealth, Caishen (財神).

C. Amitofo–Amita Buddha

Amitofo is the central figure in Chinese .

5 From Yuan dynasty Yuan Jue’s (元-袁桷) Yanyou Simin Zhi (延祐四明志), Cited from Ma and Han (2004, 53). 146 Guang Xing: Buddhist Influence on Chinese Religions and Popular Beliefs

According to Buddhist tradition, he lives in Western Paradise and vows to save people whoever calls his name. According to the Wuliangshou jing (無量 壽經), the Larger Sukhāvatīvyuha Sūtra in Sanskrit, there was a king who met Guan Zizaiwang Rulai (觀自在王如來), Lokeśvararāja Tathāgata in Sanskrit, and renounced the world after learning the Buddha’s teaching. Then the king became a monk named Dharmakara (法藏) and made forty-eight vows to save suffering people by creating a Pure Land for them in front of the Buddha. The important vow is the eighteenth that “If, when I attain , sentient beings in the lands of the ten quarters who sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to me, desire to be born in my land, and call my Name, even ten times, should not be born there, may I not attain perfect Enlightenment. Excluded, however, are those who commit the five gravest offences and abuse the right Dharma.” After he got enlightenment, he was named Amita or Amitābha which means “infinite light and infinite lifespan” and the land he has created is called Western Paradise, Sukhāvatī in Sanskrit. It is according to the eighteenth vow that Pure Land School followers recite the name of Amitābha wishing to be born in his Pure Land which is believed to be far away on the western side of our Saha world. Amitābha also has two bodhisattvas as his assistants, they are bodhisattva Dashizhi (大勢至菩薩, Mahāsthāmaprāpta) and bodhisattva Guanyin (觀音菩薩, Avalokiteśvara). Together with Amitabha they are called the three saints in the west (西方三聖). The popularity of Amitābha in Chinese society is tested by the popular saying that “there are Amitābha and Avalokiteśvara enshrined in each and every family” (家家阿彌陀，戶戶觀世音). The above mentioned White Lotus Society was connected with Amitabhā recitation. The practice and idea of Amitābha are quite important in Chinese religion and culture. When a person is dying or dead, sometimes the family members and other volunteers will chant the name of Amitābha around the dying person wishing him or her to be born in Western Pure Land. The family members will also come to Buddhist monasteries asking Buddhist monks to perform rituals for the dead, which involves chanting of the name International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture 147

of Amitābha and the shorter version of the Amitābha Sūtra.

D. Belief of Zhongtan Yuanshuai (中壇元帥)

Zhongtan Yuanshuai (中壇元帥), the marshal of Central altar, is the title for Nazha (哪吒) who is an Indian deity named Nalakūvala. Nazha is the third son of divine king Li Jin (李靖) in Chinese legend. Zhongtan Yuanshuai is Nazha’s divine official title in Chinese popular religion. Originally, Nazha was the third son or grandson of Vaisravana, the of the North (北方多聞天王). He was introduced to Chinese in Buddhist scripture of the . After Buddhism was introduced into China, Nazha became more vivid. Still as the third son or grandson of Heavenly king, he held a tower or trident as his weapon. Nazha was a guardian deity of Buddhism. In Ming dynasty, Nazha became a major character in popular novel. In the well known novel Fengshen Yanyi (封神演義), he was a trouble maker of Heavenly king, Li Jin. Nazha killed the son of Dragon King, Long Wang (龍 王), quarreled with Jade Emperor. Eventually, he committed suicide and returned his body to his parents. However, his kind-hearted mother and the master, Taiyi Zhen-ren (太乙真人) helped him to reborn in a lotus and enhanced his spiritual power. As a result, Nazha became a powerful general who assisted Jiang Ziya (羌子牙) to defeat Shang king in the mystical battle between Shang and Zhou kingdom. As a result, Nazha’s image spread in China with the Fengshen Yanyi’s popularity. Nazha is the leader of five divine battalions which guard a temple of popular religion in Taiwan. The name of these five divine battalions in Taiwan is called Wu-ying (五營), the Five Camps. The Five Camps or battalions are named in directions, including the East (東營), the West (西營), the South (南營), the North (北營), and the Central (中營). Every temple of popular religion is quartered with the Five Camps. In other words, every temple enshrines Nazha as well. Nazha’s image is a muscular teenager who steps on a fenghuo lun (風 148 Guang Xing: Buddhist Influence on Chinese Religions and Popular Beliefs

火輪, wind and fire wheel). The wind and fire wheel is a powerful vehicle which can carry Nazha swiftly to any place wherever he wants to go. He holds a trident in his right hand and a large golden ring in left hand as his arms. This magical ring is called qian kun quan (乾坤圈), which can change its size freely as Nazha wishes. Nazha is an important cultural icon in Taiwan now.

E. The Belief in Hells and the Ten Kings of Hells

According to Tang Yijian, a Chinese scholar, there is no idea of next life in ancient Chinese thought (Tang 1999, 164). Ancient Chinese people believed that man would go to hell when he dies, but their idea of hell is quite vague. People believed that hell is in Taishan 泰山 and Fengdu (豐都). According to the Shanguo Zhi (History of Three Kingdoms), Taishan is a place for governing ghosts, not for governing human beings” (Chen 1964, 826) Again according to the ancient book Bowuzhi (博物志), Taishan is the grandson of the heaven and he is in charge of ghosts. The belief of Fengdu (豐都) as a place for ghosts is found in the Daoist books such as Ge Hong’s (葛洪, 284–363) Zhenzhongshu (枕中書) and Tao Hongjing’s (陶弘景, 456– 536) Zhenlin weiye tu (真靈位業圖). These two are eminent Daoists in Chinese history. However, Chinese people believe that hells are same as the world of human beings, there are many departments in charge of different things and offices for different districts. After the introduction of Buddhism, the description of hells is found in many Buddhist scriptures. For instance, the Dīrgāgama (長阿含30經, 世記經地 獄品) translated into Chinese by Buddhayaśas and Zhu Fonian in 413 includes a full description of hells. But the popular belief of eighteen hells was introduced into China as early as the second century when translated the Nirayasūtra (十八泥梨經)which describes eighteen hells called Niraya or Naraya. It already became popular in Northern and Southern dynasties as the term “Eighteen hells” (十八地獄) is already mentioned in the story of Liu Sahe (劉薩何) in the Liang History book (梁書). Therefore, International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture 149

Daoshi (道世) describes eighteen hells together with as the king who has eighteen ministers to govern the eighteen hells in his book Fayuan Zhulin (法苑珠林, Forest of Gems in the Garden of the Dharma) compiled in 668. Today Chinese people’s belief of eighteen hells is almost a combination of Buddhist and Daoist traditions. According to the Chinese belief, the King of Eastern Mountain (東嶽大 帝) is the chieftain to govern the hells. But in the Buddhist texts, Yama (閻 羅) is described as the king of hells. The belief of Yama as the king of hell is found in the ancient Indian text Yajurveda (梨俱吠陀) as Yamaraja and Buddhism absorbed it into its own system of belief. The belief of Yama as the king of hells was already widely spread in the Southern and Northern dynasties as the Biography of Han Qinhu in the Sui History (隋書-韓擒虎傳) informs us that Han Qinhu (韓擒虎) even made vows that he would become Yama the king of hell. We find from a full description of the ten kings in hells in the two versions of the apocryphal Scripture on the Ten Kings (十王經) which were written by a Buddhist monk named Zangchuan 藏川 the Dizang Pusa faxin yingyuan shiwang jing (地藏菩薩發心因緣十王經, Scripture of the Ten Kings about the Causes of Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva’s Making of Vows) and Yanlouwang shouji linsizhong niexiu sheng qizai gongde wangsheng jingdu jing (閻羅王受記令四眾逆修生七齋功德往生淨土經) found in Dunhuang. According to Stephen Teiser, the apocryphal Scripture on the Ten Kings came into being in late Tang or in the tenth century. After the Tang dynasty, the ten kings of hells became popular and they became the subjects of the King of Eastern Mountain. Daoism assimilated the Buddhist idea of Yama and hells and popularized it during the Tang dynasty. According to the popular belief that there are ten courts in hells and there is one king to each court. The names of the Kings of the ten courts in hells are a mixture of names from historical Chinese people and also Buddhist scriptures. They are (1) Qingguang (一殿秦廣王), (2) Chujiang (二殿初江王), (3) Songdi (三殿宋帝 王), (4) Wuguan (四殿五官王), (5) Yanluo (五殿閻羅王), (6) Biancheng (六殿 變成王), (7) Taishan (七殿太山王), (8) Pingzheng (八殿平正王), (9) Dushi 150 Guang Xing: Buddhist Influence on Chinese Religions and Popular Beliefs

(九殿都市王), (10) Zhuanlun (十殿五道轉輪王). There are some differences with regard to the names. According to Zhiru, medieval sources indicate that by the end of the eighth century, Dizang (地藏) worship, a Buddhist Bodhisattva named Ksitigarbha in Sanskrit, melt with other death and afterlife cults, especially in Dunhuang and Sichuan, where the bodhisattva shows up frequently in portrayals of afterlife judgment (Zhiru 2007, 198). Buddhist Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha or Dizang is well known for his great vows to save suffering people in hells as portrayed in the on the Original Vows of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva (地藏菩薩本願經) which is fundamentally a teaching concerning karmic retribution, graphically describing the consequences one creates for oneself by committing undesirable actions. Bodhisattva Dizang’s heroic vow: “Not until the hells are emptied will I become a Buddha.” In motifs Dizang normally appear in hell as an intercessor, a ray of mercy and redemption in the afterlife judiciary process over which the Ten Kings presided as found in Shizhuan Shan in Dazu Sichuan. Later again, Dizang worship was mixed with Mulian’s descent to hell to save his mother as shown in Yuanjue Dong (圓覺洞) at Anyue. People believe that worshipping Dizang during the Ghost festival can save their suffering relatives because Dizang can open the door of hell. In Daoist theology the role of Dizang as bodhisattva of the underworld was assumed by the Supreme Heavenly Worthy Who Delivers Sinners from Suffering (Taiyi jiuku tianzun). The cults of Dizang and Jiuku tianzun offered solace by holding out the possibility of escaping the net of karma through contrition, repentance, and faith in the power of a compassionate savior.

F. The Mother Delivering Children

The fourth is the belief of the mother of child ghost (鬼子母). This is also from Buddhist tradition and according to which a female (ghost) who has five hundred children used to eat other people’s children. Upon hearing this Sakyamuni came and hid the youngest child so Hariti could not International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture 151

find it. Then she asked Sakyamuni to help and Sakyamuni taught her to compare herself with other women who also have children. So she realized her wrong deeds and became a protector woman who always protects children. So she is worshipped in China as the mother who delivers children for childless people (送子娘娘). She is depicted as a middle aged woman with many children around her and one child in her arms.

G. Jigong (濟公), the Living Buddha

Jigong (濟公) is the honorable name for the Buddhist monk Jidian (濟 顛) whose lay name is Li Xiuyuan (李修緣) live in the Song dynasty. Because of his good deeds of helping people so they named him the Living Buddha Jigong (濟公活佛) after he died. He is a descendant of a military marshal, Lee Wenhe (李文和), around Tiantai (天台) area. When he was eighteen, he became a monk at Lingyin monastery (靈隱寺) in (杭 州) under master was Huiyuan (慧遠). It is said that Jigong was a monk who did not follow the disciplines of Buddhist monastery. He drank wine and ate meat, his talking was naughty and behavior was crazy. Other monks did not like him and always wanted to expel him from the temple. However, his kind master always kept him stay well until his master was dead. Then Jigong was expelled from the Lingyin monastery and moved to another temple, the Jingci monastery (淨慈寺) and stayed there till his death in 1209. According to legend, he had some magical power, so he always helped people curing their illnesses or predicting their accidents etc. As a result, People loved him and thought that he was the incarnation of the Buddhist who tamed a dragon. Thus the belief of Jigong became popular and there came up many folk literature about his life and legend. By the beginning of Ming dynasty, many storytellers propagated Jigong’s thaumaturgical stories. All the material enriched Jigong’s story. Today, Jigong’s story is rewritten as TV shows and they are very popular in Taiwan, Mainland China and Tibetan area. Jigong is an important figure in the popular religion as many sects regard him as a deity. For example, when people call upon their gods 降神 152 Guang Xing: Buddhist Influence on Chinese Religions and Popular Beliefs

or hold on the flying phoenix ritual (扶鸞), Jigong is one of the major who possesses on the medium. In I-guan Dao, the disciples call Jigong ‘Lao shi’ (老師), the master or the teacher, and they believe that I-guan Dao’s founder, Zhang Tianran (張天然, 1889–1947), was the incarnation of Jigong. Another famous sect, Ci Hui Tang (慈惠堂), is the one who familiar with Jigong’s mediumship. In popular religion, although Jigong is not the highest god, he is the benevolent messenger who helps people.

H. Buddhist Influenced Festivals

There are many festivals in China influenced by Buddhist teachings such as the Buddha’s birthday which falls on 8th of fourth month in Chinese lunar calendar. Of course it is mainly celebrated in Buddhist monasteries throughout China, but ordinary people who are not particularly Buddhists also come and attend the celebration. The second is Yulanpen Festival or popularly known as the Ghost Festival which is celebrated on the fifteenth of seventh month in Chinese lunar calendar. The name Yulanpen is a Buddhist term from the Yulanpen jing or Ullanbana Sūtra which tells a story of how , a disciple of the Buddha, saved his mother from hell. So it is a text that teaches filial piety. This festival became quite popular in the Tang dynasty (618–906) that Daoism also created their own festival called Zhongyuan (中元) celebrated on the same day with the same purpose to save all souls from hell. Today this festival is celebrated by all Chinese people no matter they are religious or not, because it is for ancestor worship. The third is the Laba Festival (腊八) which falls on the eighth day of the twelfth month in Chinese lunar calendar. La means the end of the year and ancient Chinese people used to make offering to gods and ancestors at the end of the year for good fortune and blessings. So the twelfth month is La month among the common people and they made offerings to eight gods such as the harvest god and insect god so it is called Laba. After its introduction, Buddhism became widely spread and influential in Northern and International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture 153

Southern dynasties and Buddhists celebrated various birthdays for Buddhas and bodhisattvas. According to the Buddhist tradition, Sakyamuni attained enlightenment on the eighth day of the twelfth month by practicing meditation under a bodhi tree after he ate congee offered by a young lady. This took place after he realized the futility of practicing ascetic life for six long years. From the Song dynasty onwards, Chinese monasteries offer congee to people every year on this day and thus it became a tradition for people to enjoy congee for good luck and happiness. Thus, the Laba festival is celebrated with both Chinese and Buddhist characteristics.

I. Funeral Practice

The long lasting practice of Chinese people for the dead is to bury with a thick coffin because they generally believe that it is a filial act to their parents or grandparents as told in the Chinese Classic of Xiaojing. But after Buddhism integrated into Chinese culture, the Buddhist practice of cremation has also been gradually accepted by Chinese people although Buddhism does not require its followers to cremate after death either as a way to heaven or good rebirth or as a crucial ritual act in treating the dead. Indeed Buddhist liberation has nothing to do with how the corpse is handled because the Buddhist attitude to the physical body is that it has only an instrumental value. However, as Buddhists practiced cremation in India and they also brought the tradition to China and it became widely spread in Song dynasty. According to Patricia Buckley Ebrey,

Beginning in the tenth century, many people willingly gave up the long-established custom of burying bodies in coffins to follow the practice introduced by Buddhist monks of cremating bodies and either scattering the ashes over water, storing them in urns aboveground, or burying the urn in a small grave. Throughout the native Song (960–1279) dynasty and its successor, the alien Yuan (1215–1368) dynasty founded by the Mongol conquerors, cremation flourished despite strong objections on the part of the state and the Confucian educated elite. (Ebrey 1990, 406) 154 Guang Xing: Buddhist Influence on Chinese Religions and Popular Beliefs

A Song dynasty Chinese elite Hong Mai 洪邁 (1123–1202) also said in his Rongzhai suibi (容斎隨筆),

Once the Buddhist theory of transformation by fire arose, everywhere there have been people who burn the corpse after death. When the weather is hot, out of dread of the foul secretions, they invariably lay out [the body] before the day is over and burn it before the flesh is cold. (Ebrey 1990, 410)

Of course, cremation had not become the major way to dispose the dead for the Chinese people, but only an alternative way. Some performed it because of economic reasons as there was a shortage of land for the poor city dwellers to bury their parents or grandparents, but others followed the custom because they liked it. According to Ebrey’s study, Buddhism provided the institutions necessary for the spread of cremation as all the recorded crematoria were run by Buddhist temples, and some Buddhist temples provided storage for the burnt remnants, and others had pools of water where they could be scattered. However, the practice of cremation declined from Ming dynasty because of the Confucian criticism and government intervention. The Confucians from Song dynasty argued that cremation was a foreign custom introduced along Buddhism and it was cruel, a desecration of the corpse, barbaric, and unfilial. The well known Neo-Confucian philosopher Cheng Yi (1033–1107) argued that cremation was a severe way to handle a corpse. “Today if a fool or drunkard accidentally hits a person’s ancestor’s coffin, he will take great offense and want revenge. Yet he may personally drag his parent and toss him into the flames, finding nothing odd in it” (二程 集 Chapter 3: 85) (Ebrey 1990, 421). While the other Song Neo-Confucian Zhu Xi (1130–1200) just straight away rejected cremation as an unacceptable practice. It was perhaps motivated by the Confucians that the Song government issued codes to prohibit cremation but it was quite difficult to enforce it in society. But during Ming and Qing dynasties, the government code became severe and social control became more persuasive so cremation declined rapidly. However, the practice of cremation still continued but it was confined to special circumstances such as Buddhist monastic and dead lepers International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture 155

who were burnt in order to prevent disease. The cremation becomes a major practice as people become more aware that the physical body is just a natural product of parents and cremation is more environmental friendly than other means of disposing the dead.

V. Conclusion

As the Buddhist influence on Confucianism is mainly in the philosophical area so it is not included in this paper. The Buddhist influence on Daoism and popular beliefs is strong and direct as demonstrated above and as a result, many Buddhist ideas and practices, images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas were incorporated in Daoism and Chinese popular religious practice. Today, Buddhist elements are seen in many aspects of Chinese religious practices, but few people recognize it as they have already been entirely integrated into the local religious systems and beliefs. 156 Guang Xing: Buddhist Influence on Chinese Religions and Popular Beliefs

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