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THE CONCEPT OF one way of gaining the perfection of AVALOKITEŚVARA AND wisdom, another option being obviously the use the dhāraṇī. Practising the BUDDHAS IN THE mantra dhāraṇī is equivalent to that of the practice of the six pāramitās. The text also explains that practising the recollection of 1 the name of Avalokiteśvara as Mingkwan Chaiyapong dhāranṇī will eventually lead to the of saṃsāra. Abstract Manifestating oneself in many different forms is another way of that The objective of this research is to see how is stressed as boundless and timeless. the concept of Avalokiteśvara and Avalokiteśvara bodhisattva has already Buddhas is explained in the Kāraṇḍavyūha reached the highest bhūmi by attaining the Sūtra. To do so, I shall study and analyze perfection of wisdom. He can then the ideas regarding the Buddhas, manifest himself in order to help all Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva and sentient beings attain liberation. There is Ādibuddha as found in the Kāraṇḍavyūha no self-existence as the manifestation quality Sūtra. The Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra is one of also comes from the perfection of wisdom. the primary sources of Mahāyāna His power for magical interventions in this composed in , which world is boundless. has been used as the basis for both teaching and practicing Buddhism in many The text also shows clearly some theistic different Mahāyāna schools. In Tibetan influences from the Purāṇic Hindu Sanskrit Buddhism, in particular, the Kāraṇḍavyūha literature by which Avalokiteśvara is Sūtra is one of the most significant texts, portrayed as the one responsible for because it is the source from which the creating the whole universe. “Oṃ Maṇipadme Hūṃ” is derived. 1. Introduction It has been found that according to the One of the key developments within Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra, through Avalokiteśvara qualities, the Buddha's Mahāyāna Buddhism was that of a new nature is clearly centred around the doctrine regarding the nature of the perfection of wisdom, as the latter is said Buddha(s); this doctrine most likely to be the origin of all the tathāgatas. To emerged sometime after the first century gain the perfection of wisdom, the text BCE but the exact timing of this is says, a bodhisattva has to engage himself uncertain. in the development of through the contemplation of (Śūnyatā). New ideas about the Buddha are, in some Having done so perfectly, he will be ways, very different from the earlier non- Mahāyāna understanding. Their textual liberated from saṃsāra. However, in the basis is mostly to be found in the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra, there is more than Mahāyāna Sūtras (also called Mahāvaipulya 1 Financial Director, Tractus () Co., Sūtras or simply Vaipulya Sūtras – Ltd. although the exact relationship between

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these terms is not clear). One of the texts enlightenment, i.e. , as where one can find significant and opposed to earlier Buddhism in which the interesting expositions of the nature of a path to attain enlightenment was to follow Buddha is in the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra the path through the practice of the (henceforth ‘Kāraṇḍ’ for short). The trilogy of training i.e. morality, complete name of this Sūtra is sometimes (concentration), and wisdom in order to presented as Avalokiteśvara- Guṇakāraṇḍa- gain a better understanding of the Vyūha, which when translated means a or the true nature of things that had been detailed description of the basket of discovered by the Buddha (Williams, qualities of the Avalokiteśvara. 1989: 198).

The reason I selected to study the Kāraṇḍ The concept of Buddhas in Mahāyāna is simple. On the one hand, we find Buddhism has been discussed by several explanations of the roles of the scholars who based their various analyses Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva described in on several Sanskrit texts. However, none detail, which is a concept that has had a of these prominent scholars ever variety of interpretations from various investigated the Kāraṇḍ which is one of scholars. On the other hand, we find the the most important Mahāyānist Sanskrit remarkable development of the idea of the texts because in it we can see the further Ādibuddha which is one of the core development of the concept of Buddhas. doctrines of both Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna2 Buddhism. The word Ādibuddha, which is Apart from the concept of Ādibuddha derived from Ādi +Buddha - when which, on its own, is worth investigating translated - equates to ‘the primordial further in the Kāraṇḍ, the concept of Buddha’. The Ādibuddha refers to a self- Avalokiteśvara is also worthy of additional emanating, self-originating Buddha, study and is interestingly more developed present before anything else existed. in the Kāraṇḍ than many of the other “According to Winternitz, the verse Mahāyānist Sanskrit texts. As the Kāraṇḍ version of the Kāraṇḍ, is based on a is one of the most important Mahāyānist theistic of the world. It relates how, Sanskrit texts to detail information at the beginning of all things, Ādibuddha, regarding the Avalokiteśvara bodhisattva the ‘first Buddha’, also called Svayambhū, it is important to further understand the ‘the self-existent,’ and Ādinātha, the ‘First development of the concept of lord appeared and created the word Avalokiteśvara and Buddhas in the through meditation. Out of his spirit arose Kāraṇḍ. This analysis will attempt to shed Avalokiteśvara, who also takes part in the additional insight on how the concepts of work of creation, creating the gods of his both Avalokiteśvara and the Buddhas are own body” (Winternitz, 1983: 294). Not explained and contrasted with those in only is this concept different from early earlier Buddhist teachings. Buddhism but in Mahāyāna Buddhism there is an emphasis on the bodhisattva path, the path to reach perfect

2 Vajrayāna (the Diamond Vehicle) Buddhism is also known as Tantrayāna or Tantric Buddhism.

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2. The Bodhisattva path in the word bodhi is derived from the root budh Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra (Skt. Dicy. M.W. ), which means to wake, wake up, be awake; to recover consciousness (after swooning); to To study the concepts of Avalokiteśvara observe, heed, attain to; to perceive, and Buddhas, I shall examine the notice, learn, understand, become, be bodhisattva path which through the aware of or be acquainted with, etc. He fulfillment of great therefore concludes that bodhi-sakta (mahākaruṇā), aims at the perfection of means ‘one who is devoted or attached to oneself, - no matter how long it takes to awakening’. He points out that the safest reach nirvāṇa - to become an Arhant method of interpretation is usually to go Samyaksambuddha or a Fully Enlightened back to the Pāli interpretation without Buddha. I also will briefly discuss the attaching much importance to the later bodhisattva definition, concept and the lexicographers and philosophers. He relation to and then the bodhisattva remarks that the term satta in this context path in the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra. does not denote a mere ordinary creature and indicates that the word satta is related 2.1 The bodhisattva definition, its to the Vedic word ‘satvan’, meaning concept and the relation to bhakti ‘kelegar’, a strong or valiant man, hero, warrior’. In this respect, bodhisattva in There have been many different Pāli could be interpreted as ‘heroic beings’ definitions and meanings of bodhisattva or ‘spiritual warriors’” (Ibid., p. 4-9). assigned by different scholars. Dayal Therefore we shall also investigate the 3 (1932) definitively states that the word word bodhi in Pāli. In the Ariyesana-Sutta bodhi means ‘enlightenment’ but, for the it is clearly illustrated that the bodhisattva word , expands on interpretations is not yet enlightened. Therefore, I agree previously made by other scholars to that Williams’s (2005) interpretation of the obtain a well-defined interpretation bodhisattva as ‘One who is on the way to (Dayal, 1932: 4). Dayal explains that attainment of perfect knowledge’ may be “most modern scholars have adopted the more appropriate. In my opinion, apart meaning of sattva as ‘any living or from the direct linguistic approach, if we sentient being’ (masculine) (Skt. Dicy. M. understand the duties of a bodhisattva - W.), ‘ein lebendes Wesen’ (Skt. Dicy. which are to help sentient beings attain Pbg), and in the Pāli Dicy, s.v., the word liberation - then bodhisattva may be satta’s definition is slightly different and translated as ‘One devoted to a being’s may mean ‘a living being, creature, a enlightenment’. sentient and rational being and person. He argues that sattva may be a wrongly The bodhisattva concept in Theravāda is a Sanskritized form of the Pāli word satta, Buddha that was a bodhisattva in his past and may really be equivalent to the Skt. life before attaining enlightenment. The word sakta, (from the root sañj) which bodhisattva path in the Mahāyāna school means ‘clung, stuck or joined or connected does not differ from that of Theravāda, in with, addicted or devoted to, fond of, both schools the ascension to becoming a intent on’(Skt. M.W.), as this interpretation covers the chief qualities of an aspirant bodhi. He describes that the 3 , Volume I, PTS (The Text Society), page 163.

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bodhisattva is to follow the path of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra (Probably Buddha and to attain perfect composed in its earliest form in the period enlightenment or Buddhahood. Although 100 B.C.E.–100 C.E.) and the Mahāyāna emphasizes the bodhisattva Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra. In the path, this does not mean that it ignores the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra, Guatama Arhat and Pratyekabuddha paths. These Buddha is described as the loving father of two paths are also prominently mentioned all creatures and all pious Buddhists are in the Yogācārabhūmi śātra, the exhorted to worship and adore him. The Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra, the Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra promises in Madhyāntavibhāga, as well as several the Buddha Amitābha’s (Buddha- other Mahāyāna texts (, 1978: 72). kṣetra) to all who should think of him and utter his name with and devotion. The Dayal states that the development of the larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra excludes bodhisattva doctrine was influenced by from this privilege all sinners, who have two movements of thought in early committed any of the five heinous, or Buddhism, the growth of bhakti (devotion, mortal sins (ānantaryāṇi) but the , love) and the idealization and Amitāyur-dhyāna-sūtra abolishes this spiritualization of the Buddha. Dayal restriction and offers a happy rebirth (not explains that the idea of bhakti has been an nirvāṇa) to all creatures as the reward of integral part of the Buddhist ideal from the bhakti. It is in this period that Bhakti is earliest time and bhakti was first derived directed towards the Buddha. According to as a religious term within Beyer, the Bhagavatgītā (200 B.C.E. to rather than in . The Theragathā 200 C.E.) employs smṛti and anusmṛti speaks of bhatti: “so bhatti nāma ca hoti terms, words commonly used in Mahāyāna paṇḍito ñatvā ca dhammesu visesi assa”.4 Sūtra as equivalents of the important According to Nariman (1972) it is possibly purānic term bhakti (Quoted in Studholme, that Aśvaghoṣa is the one that laid out the 2002: 99). The Kāraṇḍ is one of the tenets of the Buddha bhakti system. bodhisattva doctrines that was composed Aśvaghoṣa came of a family and around the end of the 4th or the beginning had a sound Brahmanic education before of 5th C.E. (Studholme, 2002:9-17) and converting to Buddhism. As a Buddhist he consists of the bhakti system because the likely joined the first Sārvāṣṭivāda School text emphasizes the recollection (smṛti and which laid great stress on Buddha bhakti anusmṛti) of Avalokiteśvara bodhisattva and thus prepared him for the Mahāyāna. for rebirth in the Sukhāvatī realm and One of his works, the Buddhacarita, the eventually to liberation of saṃsāra. story of the Buddha returning home after his enlightenment was composed around 2 2.2 Bodhisattva path in the 5 C.E. Furthermore; according to Dayal, we Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra can see the bhakti system in the evolution of Buddhism as represented in the two The bodhisattva path as described in the Mahāyāna treatises, the Kāraṇḍ definitely falls within the aspects of Mahāyāna bodhisattva ideal and its

basic principles. Here are the principles of 4 Bajracharya (2003:9). 5 J. K. Nariman, January 28, 2011. the bodhisattva path as described in the

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2.2.1 The preliminary devotional development of this concept could be in practices known collectively as anuttara- support of the Mahāyāna concept of pūjā or Supreme Worship compassion.f

The Kāraṇḍ does not have an organized (6) Dedication of merits (pariṇāmanā) system of preliminary devotional practices and giving up the body and possessions although we can see the anuttara-pūjā (atmabhāvādi-parityāgaḥa). The Kāraṇḍ elements in the Kāraṇḍ as follows: does not describe pariṇāmanā but instead suggests that making could be (1) Worship (vandanā) and adoration utilized as a protector at the time of (pūjā) can be seen through the of and the uncountable merits made by precious and beautiful things to Avalokiteśvara are of a significant quality bodhisattvas such as Avalokiteśvara and to enable this. This may be an attempt to Dharmabhāṇaka.a The Kāraṇḍ also mentions present the model for disciples of the the hymn of praising Avalokiteśvara.b bodhisattva that are filled with merit. Avalokiteśvara says that he never tires of (2) Going for (śraṇa-gamana). helping sentient beings. His statement The Avalokiteśvara asks to be the refuge. indicates atmabhāvādi-parityāgaḥa as he His role as a refuge in the Kāraṇḍ gives himself up to help any and all corresponds with the bodhisattva-kṣānti- beings. This corresponds to the great lābhāya dhāraṇī. We also can see the compassion of the bodhisattva and also the connection through the practicing of dāna pāramitā, the first of pāramitās.g contemplation by recalling the name of Avalokiteśvara as bodhisattva dhāraṇī.c 2.2.2 The arising of the Thought of Enlightenment (bodhiciṭtotpāda), the (3) Confession of sins (pāpadeśanā). making of a Great Aspiration The Kāraṇḍ does not mention the word (praṇidhāna) and the receiving of an pāpadeśanā but the act of Bali telling assurance of Enlightenment () Avalokiteśvara about his sinfulness could from a living Buddha count as a confession of sins.d The second stage of practising starts with (4) Rejoicing in merit (puṇyānumodaā). the cultivation of bodhicitta one of the In the Kāraṇḍ, the Śakyamuni Buddha is fundamental features of the bodhisattva personified as rejoicing in merit.e path. The Kāraṇḍ defines the first arising of bodhicitta as being from the meditation (5) (adhyeṣaṇā) and of śūnyatā.h supplication (yācanā). The delayed entering of the final nirvāṇa ideal is in Mahākaruṇā or great compassion supports contrast to Theravāda Buddhism, as the the development of bodhicitta and inures Buddha does not deny entering the bodhisattva’s higher qualities. The parinibbāna. The Kāraṇḍ does not Kāraṇḍ mentions the great compassion of mention whether the Buddha retains his Avalokiteśvara bodhisattva and his ability duties after enlightenment but instead asks to manifest himself not only for one being Avalokiteśvara not to enter formless but also the capability to generate a mind (arūpa) the nirvāṇa realm as long as all of great compassion for all sentient beings. sentient beings are not liberated. The Mahākaruṇā leads to Buddhahood, along

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the goal of bodhisattva path, which makes The Kāraṇḍ is one of the Mahāyāna texts this path distinctive from the Arhat and which stresses the importance of Pratyekabuddha paths. meditation methods. Mahāyāna meditation aspects that are important are the reading The Kāraṇḍ does not directly mention of the scripture and the recollection of the bodhisattva aspirations but emphasizes the theme and contemplation of śūnyatā practice of the Six Perfections (pārāmitā). (emptiness). One bodhisattva aspiration is the receiving of an assurance of Enlightenment Beside the contemplation of śūnyatā, the (vyākaraṇa) from a living Buddha. In the Kāraṇḍ also contains the idea of ‘hair Kāraṇḍ, Maheśvara requests that the pore’ which is not common among Buddha predict his Enlightenment but Buddhists. The Kāraṇḍ compares the instead the Buddha assigns Avalokiteśvara uncountable merits of Avalokiteśvara as to undertake this task himself. This is equivalent to the multitude of hair pores another reference to similar qualities of on his body. A hair pore resembles a realm Avalokiteśvara to the Buddha as described that is inhabited by or bodhisattvas. in the Kāraṇḍ. Each of the hair pores has a name. One of these hair pores of Avalokiteśvara is 2.2.3 The four caryās or courses of named ‘Maḥoṣadhīḥ’ which is where the conduct, the third and most important bodhisattvas reside and contemplate of which is the practice of the emptiness (śūnyatā). The following is perfections (pārāmitā-caryā) found in the Kāraṇḍ:j

The practice of the perfections (pārāmitā- ‘Then bodhisattvas made the caryā) is one of the most important caryās, so (bodhi) arise for the first time the Kāraṇḍ mentions the practice of the six from contemplating emptiness. “Ah! perfections or ṣaṭpāramitā and this is the suffering, suffering from old age, path to reaching the perfection of wisdom, suffering from death, suffering of prajñāpāramitas. It is the core of being separated from what is dear, becoming a Buddha as the Kāraṇḍ suffering from being born in Avīci demonstrates that the prajñāpāramitas is , suffering from being born in the of tathāgata.i the city of .” This is the contemplation of liberation from the The Kāraṇḍ specifically points out the body. When they sit cross-legged importance of the practice of the six and straight faced, stay in perfections namely the perfection of meditation, and that they construct generosity, the perfection of morality, the in these mountains.’ perfection of forbearance, the perfection of diligence, the perfection of concentration Within Avalokiteśvara’s body are the and the perfection of wisdom. It also Maḥoṣadhīḥ hair pores. The bodhisattvas illustrates the seven pāramita, skillful meditate on emptiness and expressions of means (upāya or upāya-kauṣlya pāramitā) the contemplation of the fear of birth, life, another unique feature of the Mahāyāna death and rebirth (saṃsāra) which could bodhisattva trail. lead to an understanding that there is no permanent entity and that everything is empty. Meditation on the concept of

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emptiness is very important and is what emitting a multicolored radiance…..” enables the bodhicitta to arise. (Ibid., p. 125. (From the summary by 1985: 229-31) Moreover, the concept of the hair pores of Avalokiteśvara’s body is in-line with the In the Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra, we can see that concept of hair pores in the Gaṇḍavyūha the hair pore idea is in line with Mahāyāna Sūtra concept that one mind can penetrate idea of inter-penetration. Williams (1989) all things and that the Buddha is an all- comments on this idea, “the world we see penetrating, all-transforming awareness through the Buddha, the dharmadhātu, the (Williams, 1989: 123). way things really are, is one of infinite interpenetration. Inside everything is “To ’s wondering gaze, the everything else” (Williams, 1989: 124). interior of the Tower reveals itself as being as wide as the sky…Moreover Recollection meditation practice utilizes within there are hundreds of the name of the Kāraṇḍ, Avalokiteśvara thousands of towers, each one as bodhisattva, and the six-syllable ‘Oṃ exquisitely adorned…and each one, Maṇipadme Hūṃ’. It is a set of words used while preserving its individual for recitation and it is the so called mantra. existence, at the same time, offering The Kāraṇḍ gives nearly equivalent no obstruction to all the rest…He qualities to the three recollections: first is sees and other bodhisattvas the recollection of the Kāraṇḍ’s name; the entering into samādhi [meditative second is the recollection of absorption] and emitting from the Avalokiteśvara bodhisattva; and the third pores of the hair skin multitudes of is the recollection of the six-syllable ‘Oṃ transformation bodies of various Maṇipadme Hūṃ’ as the extinction of kinds. He also hears all the teachings saṃsāra. of the Buddha melodiously issuing from every single pore of the skin of There are similar qualities in the Kāraṇḍ all the Bodhisattvas. He beholds all and the use of the name of the the Buddhas, together with their Avalokiteśvara bodhisattva identifies respective assemblies, and is the dhāraṇī, as the aspect of meditative spectator of their different activities. practice enabling entrance to the Sukhāvatī In one particular high, spacious and realm where Amitābha resides and exquisitely decorated tower of preaches the dharma. It is written that just incompatible beauty he sees, at one hearing the name of the Kāraṇḍ before glance, the entire trichiliocosm...and dying will allow entry to Sukhāvatī. in each one of the exquisitely Similarly by recollecting the name of the decorated towers of the incomparable Avalokiteśvara bodhisattva, sentient beauty he sees, at one glance, a beings will be allowed to hear the dharma decorated tower of incomparable in front of Amitābha in the Sukhāvatī beauty, he sees at one glance the realm. These acts correspond to those of entire trichilioscos…and in each one Buddhism that led sentient of these worlds he see Maitreya’s beings to the Buddha Pure Land. descent to earth, his nativity and all the subsequent events of his final In addition the Kāraṇḍ also contains existence…He sees, moreover, pillars Tantric practices, utilizing a maṇḍala as a

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mental object and a mantra. The features 3.1 The Iconography of of Tantric practice appearing in the Avalokiteśvara Kāraṇḍ are the of maṇḍala and mantra or mantra dhāraṇī. The Kāraṇḍ A review of Avalokiteśvara iconography, represents the maṇḍala initiation utilizing its chronology and its spread across , the recitation of the six-syllable ‘Oṃ , and its entrance into Maṇipadme Hūṃ’mantra. The Kāraṇḍ is Southeast Asia and are captured in the recitation of Oṃ Maṇipadme Hūṃ, the following summaries of the which will lead to rebirth in Sukhāvatī and iconography of Avalokiteśvara: samādhis. In addition the Kāraṇḍ gives significance to the Oṃ Maṇipadme Hūṃ as There is no firm evidence of when the its quality is equal to the six pāramitās but worship of Avalokiteśvara began in India. simply because both are practised does not It is commonly believed that the concept guarantee automatic accomplishment. It originated in India. One of the earliest still requires effort. The equivalence of the examples of the Avalokiteśvara in qualities of the mantra and pāramitās literature was found in the Suvarṇa Sūtra reflects that the mantra is not just the which unfortunately does not have a recitation but it is the united method of concrete date assigned to its composition wisdom. This idea is a common feature of (Getty, 1962: 57-58). The iconography is 6 Tantric practice. widespread and diverse across India and is evidence of its long presence and 3. The Worship of Avalokiteśvara evolution. Also other regions were clearly Bodhisattva influenced from India. For example, Chinese Hsuan-Tang mentions, the image of Avalokiteśvara found in during In this section I shall examine and discuss th the worship of Avalokiteśvara. In the 7 century C.E. (Bajracharya, 2003: discussing the worship of the bodhisattva, 71-72). I have divided this section into three main parts. Firstly, I shall explain the In , the characteristics of iconography of Avalokiteśvara by Avalokiteśvara uniquely developed under discussing how he is worshiped in various the strong Theravādin philosophy as a countries. Secondly, I shall examine the protective or an Nātha Dēviyō. From portrayal of Avalokitesvara as described in the iconography and epigraphical ṇḍ ṇḍ evidence, the existence of Avalokiteśvara the Kāra and, finally how the Kāra th th illustrates the status and qualities of can be dated between the 7 – 10 Avalokiteśvara. centuries C.E. (Holt, 1991: 76-91).

There are various names and forms of Avalokiteśvara found in Nepal, for example, the Karuṇāmaya, Lokeśvara, Matsyendranath, Mahasattva, and many others. Nepal has the largest number of

6 recorded forms of Avalokiteśvara. Some in : The Great Exposition of of the more significant forms include secret Mantra-volume I. By Tsong-ka-pa Padmapani Lokeśvara, Amoghpasa (1987) Lokeśvara, Sadaksari Lokeśvara,

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Harihariharivahana Lokeśvara, texts were written by the Tibetan king, Sristikanta Lokeśvara, Rakta Srong-btsan sgarn-po, and are the words of Aryavalokeśvara, Anandi Lokeśvara, Avalokiteśvara and the origin of the Lokeśvara and Sahasrabhuja Tibetan religion. Most historians agree Lokeśvara, which are the most prominent that the Avalokiteśvara cult began with the iconographic forms of the bodhisattva. King Srong-btsan sgarn-po and a small These writings historically challenge the group of his followers. Although there is notion of the origination in India as it not sufficient evidence to prove that there dates the background of Avalokiteśvara in was widespread worship of Avalokiteśvara Nepal to the 1st century B.C.E. but this too prior to the 11th century it is likely that the is unconfirmed (Bajracharya, 2003: 59- real spread of the Avalokiteśvara doctrine th 63). and cult began later in the 11 century as shown in other sources (bstan-pa phyi- In China, the name of Avalokiteśvara first dar).k The first great Tibetan figure appears as Kuan-shih yin around 147-86 actively to promote the Avalokiteśvara C.E. Later this name was shortened to was Dipamkara–Srinana (982-1054) at Kuan-yin because it conflicted with the nearby the end of his life at the beginning official name of the Emperor Shin-ming at of 1042. The cult of the Avalokiteśvara around 6th century onward (Neville, 1999: accelerated in Tibet later in the 12th 13). Avalokiteśvara first arrived from century. Today, Tibetan Buddhists China in a male form but later transformed continue to believe that the Dalai is into a female form between the 8th-11th the of Avalokiteśvara and is centuries C.E. (Blofeld, 1988: 40). The a living bodhisattva (Kapstien, 1992: 79- idea of Kuan-yin in female form is similar 85). to the idea of , a beautiful female divinity able to manifest herself in twenty The most common form of Avalokiteśvara different forms for the purpose of in Tibet is white with four-arms. From the succoring sentient beings. From China twelfth-century compendium of Buddhist Kuan-Yin spread to Japan and much of iconography, the Sādhanamāla calls the Southeast Asia and is currently white four-armed Avalokiteśvara Ṣaḍakṣari experiencing a resurgence in mainland Lokeśvara, ‘Lord of the six ’. China. However, Chinese worshipers of Ṣaḍakṣari Lokeśvara is the form associated Kuan-yin have no idea of her gender by Sādhana with the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra transformation from male to female and and as his name suggests, the six-syllable her origins as a Buddhist Avalokiteśvara mantra, “Oṃ Maṇipadme Hūṃ” Ṣaḍakṣari bodhisattva. (Kohn, 2001: 11). However, in the Kāraṇḍ, the Avalokiteśvara is displayed The cult of Avalokiteśvara in Tibet it with a thousand-arms. It is quite surprising seems began in C.E. 649 based on the that the form of four-armed Mani bka – bum which was written by the Avalokiteśvara, which is associated with King Srong-btsan sgarn-po. There is also the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra, is contrasted in the belief that this text was translated in the text itself. the middle of the 12th century and summarized by the fifth , In Japan, the Avalokiteśvara is written in a Ngag-dbang blo-bzang rgya-mtsho (1617- number of different ways with the 1682). This Dalai Lama believed that these different spelling including Avalokiteśvara

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or Avalokitaśvara. The Japanese There is no evidence as to when the translations are derived from the Kannon, worship of Avalokiteśvara began. Kwannon or Kwanzeon respectively. However, from a textual point of view, the Kwannon was the first representation of a earliest Sanskrit literature that mentions Tantric form in Japan. The earliest the Avalokiteśvara name is the Suvarṇa mention of the eleven-headed Kwannon is Sūtra, but the date of this Sūtra is circa C.E. 570 but the oldest image of uncertain. A possible date is in the 1st Kwannon is located at Nachi and is dated century C.E. from the discourse on this around the late 7th or the early 8th century. Sūtra by Kāśyapa Māṭaṅga in India. The The Chinese influence shows earlier form of Avalokiteśvara bears more Avalokiteśvara in Japan assuming a similarity to a human but later the form of female form (Neville, 1999: 13). the Avalokiteśvara looks more like the Hindu deities. The features of increased In Southeast Asia, the Avalokiteśvara is sets of arms, from two to four to a only well-known in and the thousand, from one head, to eleven and to former Kingdom (today’s a thousand are all examples of the Hindu southern Vietnam) of Indo-China. In influence. As discussed earlier the Cambodia the Khmer King was believed Avalokiteśvara’s form has changed over to be a reincarnation of the Avalokiteśvara. time and geography. In China and Japan This is clearly represented in the his image evolved in female form as well of Thom (Locke, 1980: as male form. In Tibet the Dalai Lama is 411). As opposed to the eleven-headed and believed to be his reincarnation and the thousand-armed depictions of the Khmer King refers to himself as having a Avalokiteśvara in other countries, the similar role. Cambodian Avalokiteśvara was normally depicted with up to sixteen heads and arms 3.2 The Portrayal of the in which it held both tantric and non- Avalokiteśvara found in the Kāraṇḍ tantric symbols in its hands. The carvings of the Avalokiteśvara typically The iconography of the Avalokiteśvara show him as bare breasted and in a variety bodhisattva portrayed in the Kāraṇḍ is of different positions and with symbols in eleven-headed, with one hundred thousand its hands (Getty, 1962: 72-75). Most arms and one hundred thousand koṭis of importantly the depiction of the eyes. These characteristics contribute to Avalokiteśvara’s head and adornments are the ability of the Avalokiteśvara consistent with that of the Buddha images bodhisattva to see and help all sentient throughout Southeast Asia and often there beings in all realms. The portrayal of is a third eye which is seldom found in Avalokiteśvara bodhisattva’s form shows Tibet or Nepal and never in China or the Hindu influence as he has the same Japan. In other areas of Southeast Asia the number of arms and eyes. There also is a Kwan-yin or Chinese version of the term that is used in both as well Avalokiteśvara has become very popular as Buddhism to explain gods such as as the goddess of mercy or goddess of the ‘yogin’ and ‘viśvarupī’ both terms are also sea. This influence is clearly from a used to refer to the Avalokiteśvara in the continuous flow of mainland Chinese Kāraṇḍ.l immigrants to these geographic regions over the last two centuries.

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The Avalokiteśvara and his many arms The Avalokiteśvara has the power to have resulted in his being called many manifest himself and to teach sentient different names, such as he who holds the beings in whatever form is most suitable to beautiful lotus and so on. All these names liberate them. This is described below in a relate to the portrayal of the actions of his passage from the Kāraṇḍ:m hands, such as the Padmapani (lotus in the hand). According to early research (Getty, He (the Avalokiteśvara) teaches 1962: 59), the earlier form of the dharma with whatever form that can Avalokiteśvara bodhisattva has one head be taught to those beings. He and two arms. The period the Kāraṇḍ was teaches dharma with the form of composed was around the end of the 4th Tathāgata for those whom the form century to the early part of the 5th century. of conversion of being is Tathāgata. The first images of him as an eleven- He teaches dharma with the form of headed, thousand armed and thousand pratyekabuddha for those whom the eyed being were found approximately in form of conversion of being is the 6th century. It is possible that the pratyekabuddha…and so forth. Kāraṇḍ has influenced the iconographic representation of the Avalokiteśvara. The manifestation into any form best Except in Tibet, the Ṣaḍakṣari Lokeśvara, suited to assist in transforming sentient the designated moniker for the beings is also found in other Mahāyāna Avalokiteśvara, has a body portrayed as texts. The Lotus Sūtra is one example, in having four-arms. This is in marked chapter twenty five, the Avalokiteśvara contrast to the iconography influenced by has the ability of manifestation in order to the famous mantra “Oṃ Maṇipadme Hūṃ” rescue beings. in Tibet. This seems to have been influenced by the Kāraṇḍ in the Ṣaḍakṣari The Buddha declared to the Lokeśvara and is the form associated by bodhisattva Inexhaustible Mind, Sādhana with the Kāraṇḍ. “good man, if there are beings in the land who can be conveyed to 3.3 The Status and Qualities of the deliverance by the body of a Avalokiteśvara in the Kāraṇḍ. Buddha, then to them the bodhisattva He who observe the The Kāraṇḍ praises the Avalokiteśvara for sounds of the world preaches having different qualities and promotes Dharma by displaying the body of a him as a savior of all sentient beings in all Buddha. To those who can be different realms including humans, gods conveyed to deliverance by the body and demons from hell and even lower of a pratyekabuddha, he preaches caste beings. The Kāraṇḍ illustrates the Dharma by displaying the body of a Avalokiteśvara’s ability to manifest pratyekabuddha…….and so forth. himself in a multitude of different forms in (Quoted in Hurvitz, 1976: 314) order to liberate all sentient beings and generate many different kinds of samādhi. However, if the reader employs a literal These bodhisattva abilities can be gained translation and interpretation method to only once he reaches the tenth bhūmi. We understand the meaning of the text then it can say that the Kāraṇḍ emphasizes the is likely that the true meaning is not bodhisttava bhūmi system. understood and it may appear that the

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status of the Avalokiteśvara is higher than Thus, to best understand the real meaning, that of the Buddha. For example, from the we have to look at it in context. In other Buddha’s statement, “The brilliancy of Sūtras like the Lotus Sūtra and the Avalokiteśvara is not found among the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa Sūtra, there is the Buddhas”. The following is the context concept of beyond comprehension or which I found in the Kāraṇḍ:n something immeasurable; therefore the uncountable merit of the Avalokiteśvara is Then Sarvanīvaraṇaviṣkambhin not an exceptional quality of a bodhisattva said to the Blessed One bodhisattva. “today is Avalokiteśvara bodhisattva mahāsattva is not coming?” The In fact, in the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa Sūtra it Blessed One replies that the is mentioned that the bodhisattvas and bodhisattva helps many good men monks do not have the same qualities that and hundreds of koṭis of beings, cause are possessed by the Buddha. We can see their minds to achieve maturity, every from the story of the Buddha that when he day having brought more beings to stayed at the Amra Garden in the city of this maturity. Oh son of noble family accompanied by a multitude of there is no such brilliancy which leading monks numbering eight thousand belongs to the Avalokiteśvara and has including another thirty two thousand never occurred even to those all bodhisattvas, the Buddha utilized his tathāgatas. power to have them accepted and upheld the correct law to protect the Dharma and A literal interpretation of this statement understand the Dharma (Quoted in would lead to the Avalokiteśvara being Watson, 1893: 17-18). perceived as having more abilities than the Buddha but it does not mean that the They (the 32,000 bodhisattvas) came Avalokiteśvara is of a higher status than close to equaling in terms of the the Buddha. To understand the precise freely exercised wisdom of the meaning of the text we should follow the Buddha, the unparalleled one, his ten Buddhist Hermeneutic. The four rules of powers, his fearlessness and his textual interpretation of The Catuḥpratisaraṇa eighteen unshared properties. Though Sūtra, as written under the name of refuge they had firmly closed the gate to all (pratisaraṇa) suggest (Lamotte, 1984: manner to evil existences, they 200-203): allowed themselves to be born in the five lower realms, manifesting (1) The dharma is the refuge and themselves there so that they might not the person; act as great physician kings, adroitly (2) The spirit is the refuge and not healing the ills of others, doling out the letter; whatever medicine suited the ailment, (3) The sūtra of precise meaning is and insuring that the patient took it as the refuge and not the sūtra provisional; prescribed. (Quoted in Watson, 1893: and, 18) (4) (Direct) knowledge is the refuge and not (discursive) consciousness. The Lotus Sūtra also illustrates that the Buddha had been preaching Dharma, teaching and converting uncountable

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living beings but the Kāraṇḍ mentions that to the Dharma from Amitābha. Through the Avalokiteśvara helped hundreds of the practice of invoking the deity to be a koṭis of beings, which is clearly less than protector and reciting mantra “Oṃ the innumerable numbers of beings that Maṇipadme Hūṃ,” it is can be said that the Buddha has helped. The following is Kāraṇḍ contains aspects of Pure Land the context found in the Lotus Sūtra: Buddhism.

At that time, the World-Honored One, 4. The Concept of the Ādibuddha wishing to restate this meaning, proclaimed gāthā, saying: In the prose version of the Kāraṇḍ, there is

clearly no mention of the Ādibuddha but Since I attained Buddhahood, the term Ādideva is used and has some Throughout the number of kalpas similar characteristics to that of the that have passed, Incalculable Ādibuddha. This may be a precursor to hundred thousands of myriads the development of the Ādibuddha Of millions times asaṃkhyeyas, concept. The features and qualities of the Ever have I been preaching Ādideva are similar to those of the Pusuṣa Dharma, teaching and Converting Sūkta in the Ṛgveda, showing the possible countless millions of living beings. influence of Hinduism. Also, Avalokiteśvara (Quoted in Hurvitz, 1976: 242) has many of the same characteristics as the

Ādibuddha, the creator of the world and The Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa Sūtra and The the other divinities which include the Lotus Sūtra both expound the higher status Ādideva, namely Maheśvara. In Hinduism, of the Buddha to that of the the Buddha is the manifestation of the Avalokiteśvara. The fact that the Kāraṇḍ Narayaṇa but in the Kāraṇḍ, Maheśvara is mentions that Avalokiteśvara’s brilliancy the manifestation of Avalokiteśvara that are not found among the Buddhas, bodhisattva. This is, perhaps, an attempt to should not be taken to mean that the compete with Hinduism through a Buddha has less ability but more likely is pluralistic system and is the method which only used to emphasize the bodhisattva’s is utilized to attack and discredit the skilfulness (upāya) in one of the doctrine of a god creator. Here is the bodhisattva practices. context found in the Kāraṇḍ:o

The Kāraṇḍ clearly describes the lower The Blessed One replied – “The status of the Avalokiteśvara when moon and sun arisen from his eyes, compared to the Buddha. The way in Maheśvaraḥ from his forehead, which the Avalokiteśvara pays respect to ṇ the Buddha such as by prostrating his head from his body, Nārāya a at the feet of the Buddha concretely from his heart, Sarasvatī from his demonstrates his lower status. teeth, the wind from his mouth, Dharaṇī from his feet, Varuṇa from his stomach. When these divine The textual evidence in the Kāraṇḍ shows the status of the Avalokiteśvara as beings were born from the body of Amitābha’s assistant who came to help the Avalokiteśvara he said to the sentient beings, liberate and lead them to divine name Maheśvara – Maheśvara the Sukhāvatī realm where they can listen when the kaliyuga arise, You, Maheśvara will appear into the evil

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beings realm and you will be called Thus so his great merits are too many to the primordial god, the creator and calculate / Even all great sages are author. All these beings will be unable to count. / Due to (his qualities) deprived from the path to awakening. he who is world-protector, / The teacher Then the talk among those worldly of the world, the Lord of the world, / common men will be; it is said that The ruler of all worlds, the glorious the space is his liṅga, and the earth is noble Avalokiteśvara. / The one who is his pedestal. Liṅga is the ground of born from the primordial Buddha all because they dissolve into him and himself, / Who is the world-lord, derive from him.” Maheśvara, / The producer of the universe, the sustainer of three worlds. / Studholme notes that there is the influence Who has Perfect knowledge, he is the of the Śiva Purāṇa more clearly seen in sun of the wisdom of awakening. / All the Kāraṇḍ as the Avalokiteśvara is rulers of the world, gods, , Yakṣa, addressed as maheśvara three times: once / Rākṣas, , and Nāga by Yamea, the Lord of death, during have worshipped and praised him bodhisattva’s journey into hell, once by always. Śiva (Studholme, 2002: 38)p and once by Umādevī, in the course of their respective The Avalokiteśvara is born from the conventions. Studholme also states it is primordial Buddha himself and he appears connected to the idea of an īśvara and is in the Guṇakāraṇḍ as primordial’s son. the notion of a supreme puruṣa, a great The text is not addressing him as ‘man’ or ‘person’ who both pervades the Ādibuddha at all. universe and is responsible for its creation. He also finds that Śiva is referred to as I do not think that the Guṇakāraṇḍ has puruṣa, along with īśvara and maheśvara influenced the idea of Ādibuddha as a god in the Śiva Purāṇa (Ibid., p.38.). Even creator. In fact the Ādibuddha appears as though the Kāraṇḍ has purāṇic influence the personification of śūnyatā. The his interpretation of this text appears to following is the context found in the contradict and attack the purāṇic doctrine Guṇakāraṇḍ (Lokesh). of a primordial creator god (Ibid., p.45). In this way, there was great Although the term Ādibuddha does not emptiness, as even the five elements appear in the Kāraṇḍ, prose version, it is had not come into existence. As mentioned in the Guṇakāraṇḍ which is the light indeed, the spotless primordial verse version of the Kāraṇḍ, composed Buddha came into existence. The later (around the 7th century CE) (Bowker, great embodiment in three 1997: 18).q It has a more developed secondary aspects, the universal concept of the Ādibuddha, as the form, came about. That self-arisen embodiment of Śūnyatā, who is Great Buddha, Primordial Protector, transformed into the Avalokiteśvara in Great Lord, placed himself in the order to create and protect the world. Samādhi called ‘Emission of the World’. Then, his own son, with Here is the context of the Ādibuddha divine form and bearing beautiful found in the Guṇakāraṇḍ (Lokesh). limbs, The Embodiment of good, with pure limbs, adorned by good

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marks, shining with the beauty of the Ādibuddha concept has become more merit, the over-lord of all the developed and systematic than the worlds, he also placed himself in the concepts alluded to in the earlier text. Samādhi called the ‘Origin of the World’. If we follow Brandon’s (1970) theory the earliest evidence of the concept of This may be an attempt to more fully Ādibuddha is found in the Mañjuśrī-nāma- develop the Ādibuddha concept as saṅgīti, a book that may possibly date back identified by Günter Grönbold as existing to the 7th century C.E. (Brandon, 1970: in the much earlier texts. The first 29). In the Mañjuśrī-nāma-saṅgīti, reference to the word Ādibuddha is in the Manjusri is a synonym for the collective Tibetan canon, the Mahāyāna- wisdom of all the Buddhas, and it is called sūtralaṃkāra by Maitreyanātha, around Ādibuddha. The Ādibuddha of rd th the 3 or 4 century, but it cannot be Guṇakāraṇḍ, the verse version, which was proven that the system of Ādibuddha composed after the Kāraṇḍ, prose version existed at that time (Hammar, 2005: 93- and around the same time as the Mañjuśrī- 95). Hammar, studied the Kālacakra, nāma-saṅgīti, based on my own research, which is a Vajrayāna Buddhist text, and could be the author trying to promote the tried to define the concept of Ādibuddha Avalokiteśvara bodhisattva as the that appears in the text. He explains that Ādibuddha in order to be more compatible even though the concept of Ādibuddha is with the Manjusri bodhisattva. transcendent beyond worldly nature, it can also be interpreted as a way of expressing To further trace the development of the Śunyata, the void (emptiness), or concept of the Ādibuddha in the Kāraṇḍ, it tathāgatagarbha, the small seed inherent is likely that the best method of research is in all human beings. Hammar’s research to study the Kāraṇḍ in Tibetan which on the Ādibuddha connects the concept of could also derive benefits from its on- the primordial Buddha with that of the going living history. fourth body of the Buddha, sahajakāya. The Fourth body’s essential attribute is 5. Conclusion of the Concept of considered to be the concept of the Avalokiteśvara and Buddhas in supreme unchanging bliss, paramākṣara- . Beside this, the fourth body, called the Kāraṇḍ either sahajakāya, or śuddhakāya or svābhāvikakāya is connected with the The Kāraṇḍ portrays the Avalokiteśvara pure, unchanging mind which is beyond bodhisattva with eleven-heads, one all things. Also, the Sahajakāya being is hundred thousand arms and one hundred beyond (wisdom) and upāya thousand koṭis of eyes. These (method). In addition, the Ādibuddha is characteristics support the ability of the also explained as bindu, the indestructible Avalokiteśvara bodhisattva to see and help or unchangeable nature, which is in the all sentient beings in all different realms. heart cakra of the human body. This The iconography of the Avalokiteśvara human quality is similar to the concept of supports the principal qualities of the Ādibuddha as the supreme unchanging Avalokiteśvara, especially his great (Ibid., p. 88-140). From Hammar’s work compassion. Through his great on the Kālacakra Tantra, we can see that compassion, he has been making a huge

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amount of merit in order for all sentient perfection of wisdom. He can therefore beings to reach liberation. He has the manifest himself, in any form, in order to ability to manifest himself in a multitude help all sentient beings attain liberation. of different forms to liberate sentient There is no self-existence as the beings, which is only gained when the manifestation capability comes from the bodhisattvas achieve the tenth bhūmi. The perfection of wisdom. The magical recollection of his name will lead to the interventions in this world are boundless extinction of the life cycle. Even though and he can cause things to interpenetrate. the Avalokiteśvara has great power, he The dharmadhātu, the way things really still has to follow the bodhisattva path to are, is the world of infinite interpenetration become a Buddha. This is achieved by – the world as seen by the Buddha. practising the cultivation of bodhicitta and According to Ultimate Insight, everything the first arising bodhicitta, through the is in everything else. Therefore the meditation of śūnyatā (emptiness), and the Buddha nature is everywhere and the practice of the six perfections of wisdom bodhisattva can process the Buddha which is the mother of tathāgata. nature. This is why the bodhisattva path becomes the way to attain Buddhahood or The Avalokiteśvara’s conducts reflect the supreme enlightenment. concept of the Buddha and it can be understood that the Buddha’s nature is References concerned with the perfection of wisdom and the perfection of wisdom is the origin Bajracharya, Ranjana. 2003. Bodhisattva of the tathāgata. To gain the perfection of Avalokitesvara and His Symbolic wisdom, the bodhisattva has to engage in Mantra. “ MANI PADME HUM”. bodhicitta through the contemplation of Nepal: Subhash Printing Press. emptiness (śūnyatā) and he will be liberated from saṃsāra. Bowker, J. 1997. The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. London: Oxford However, in the Kāraṇḍ, there is more UP. than one way of gaining the perfection of wisdom, including the mantra dhāraṇī. Blofeld, John. 1988. Bodhisattva of The result of practising the mantra Compassion: The Mystical Tradition dhāraṇī is equivalent to that of the practice of Kuan Yin. Boston: of the six pāramitās, and both methods are Publications. shown to be equivalent. Practicing the recollection of the name of Avalokiteśvara Brandon, S.G.F. 1970. A Dictionary of bodhisattva as dhāraṇī leads to the Comparative Religion. New York: extinction of saṃsāra. This same result is Charles Scribner’s Sons. also gained once the perfection of wisdom has been made to arise and brought forth Dayal, Har. 1932. The Bodhisattva to completion. Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Manifestation is a quality of the Buddhas that is boundless and timeless. The Edgerton, Franklin. 2004 (1953). Buddhist Avalokiteśvara bodhisattva has reached Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and the highest bhūmi by attaining the Dictionary. Volume I: Grammar.

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Appendix paradāragamanaprasaktānāṁ prāṇātipātodyuktānāṁ a Vaida, p. 298, II. 13-16. paraprāṇāhiṁsakānāṁ atha sarvanīvaraṇaviṣkambhī e bhagavantam etad avocat–yathā Vaidya, p. 303, II. 23-28. jñaptaṁ bhagavatā| atha athāvalokiteśvaraḥ sukhāvatīlokadhātor niṣkramya yena jetavanavihāras tena sarvanīvaraṇaviṣkambhī bodhisattvo mahāsattva anekair saṁprasthitaḥ| anupūrveṇa - vihāraṁ saṁprāptaḥ| atha tasmin bodhisattvaparṣadgṛhasthaiḥ pravrajitaiḥ jetavanavihāre praviṣṭo bhagavataḥ pādau dārakadārikādibhiḥ saṁprasthitaḥ| śirasābhivandya ekānte sthitaḥ | tadā tasya dharmabhāṇakasya pūjākarmaṇe kalaviṅka rutasvarābhinirghoṣeṇa divyāni chatrāṇi divyāni bhagavān ārocayati– āgatas tvaṁ upānahānimaulīkuṇḍala sragdāmakeyūrahārārdhahāraratnahār kulaputra? kṛtaḥ te sattvaparīpākaḥ ? skandhopariṣvajānikapṛṣṭha uttaryāṇi f Vaidya, p. 266, I. 21-27 b Vaidya, p. 262, I. 28-30. tadā aryāvalokiteśvarasya atha sa yamo dharmarājoḥ yena guṇodbhāvanāṁ kurute–kīdṛśī tvayā avalokiteśvaro bodhisattvo mahāsattvas avalokiteśvara karmabhūmirniṣpāditā sadā tenopasaṁkrāntaḥ | upasaṁkramya preteṣu avīcāvupapanneṣu? bhagavataḥ pādau śirasābhivandya stotra kālasūtrarauravopapanneṣu sattveṣu, hāhe viśeṣaṁ kartum ārabdhaḥ | namo’stv tapane pretāyane mahānarake, agnighaṭe avalokiteśvarāya, maheśvarāya, mahānarake, śālmalimahānarake, padmaśriye, varadāya, vaśaṁkarāya, … andhakāle mahānarake, śītodake mahānarake–evaṁ cānyeṣvapi? c Vaidya, p. 268, I. 4-9.) mahānarake ye upapannāḥ sattvāsteṣāṁ ca api ca kulaputra sarve tathāgatā daśabhyo karmabhūmiṁ dṛṣṭvā tatra mayā vāgbhiḥ evaṁ vācama bhāṣanta te sattvāḥ sattvaparipāko me kṛtaḥ kartavyaśca | sukhitā loke bhavanti, ye kṛtvā sarve ca anuttarāyāṁ avalokiteśvarasya bodhisattvasya samyaksaṁbodhau pratiṣṭhāpayitavyāḥ | mahāsattvasya nāmadheyam na ca tāvat tvayānuttarā anusmarantite samyaksaṁbodhirabhisaṁboddhavyā, jarāmaraṇavyādhiśokaparidevaduḥkhadaur yāvatsamantāddaśabhyo digbhyaḥ manasyebhyaḥ parimuktā bhavanti, te sarvākṣaṇopapannāḥ sattvā arūpaviśeṣe āpaścimasāṁsārikaṁ duḥkhaṁ nirvāṇadhātau na pratiṣṭhāpitā bhaveyuḥ || nānubhavanti, te śuklapāṇḍarapaṭā iva g rājahaṁsāḥ plutavāyuvegā iva gacchanti Vaidya, p. 277, I. 28-31. and p. 278, I. 1- sukhāvatīlokadhātum amitābhasya 2. tathāgatasya saṁmukhaṁ yadā avalokiteśvaro bodhisattvo dharmaśravaṇāya | mahāsattvaḥ prativasati, tadā darśanamātrāt sarvayakṣarākṣasāḥ d Vaidya, p. 271, I. 12-13. paramahṛṣṭa- tuṣṭāḥ pramudita hṛdayā api ca| , niṣīdasva asminn āsane, bhavanti | atha te’valokiteśvarasya anugrahaṁ kuru, pāparatānāṁ purastād dhāvanti, nirdhāvanti, dhāvitvā jātyandhabhūtānāṁ pādayoḥ praṇipatya saṁbhāṣayanti–mā

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tvaṁ bhagavan śrāntaklānto yas tvaṁ k During the second half of the tenth cirakālena dṛṣṭaḥ, yas tvam asyāṁ century, the King of Ngari, Tsenpo tamondhakārāyāṁ bhumau viharasi | sa Khorey (bTsan-po Kho-re), abdicated his kathayati–anekāni kartavyāni me | na ca throne in favor of his brother, Song-ngey mayaika- sattvasyārthe ātmabhāvaḥ (Srong-nge), and became a monk. He is pariniṣpāditaḥ | api tu sarvasattvānām known to posterity as Lha Lama Yeshey- antike mayā wo (Lha bla-ma Yes-shes ‘ od). mahākaruṇācittatottpādayitavyā || Wanting to reverse the decline of Buddhism in Western Tibet, Yeshey-wo h Vaidya, p. 302, II. 9-13. sent twenty-one young men to in ye te prathamacittotpādikā bodhisattvas te 971 to learn Sanskrit and study Buddhism. śūnyatānimittaṁ cintayanti| aho duḥkham, Of these, only Rinchen-zangpo (Rin-chen jarā duḥkham, maraṇaṁ duḥkham, bzang-po, 958 – 1051) and Legpay-sherab iṣṭapriyasaṁprayogaviyogo duḥkham, (Legs-pa’i shes-rab) survived the journey, avīci upapannānāṁ duḥkham, eventually developing into renowned pretanagaropapannānāṁ sattvānāṁ translators. While studying in Kashmir and duḥkham| idaṁ kāye saṁvegam the famous monasteries of northern India, anuvicintya tadā te paryaṅkam ābhujya they sent back to Tibet several learned ṛjukāyaṁ praṇidhāya pratimukhāṁ smṛtim Indian scholars. These scholars upasthāpya teṣu parvatarājeṣu viharanti| represented several Indian Buddhist schools, though primarily the tantra i Vaidya, p. 299. II. 27-29. tradition of . atha sarvanīvaraṇaviṣkambhī tam āha– kathaṁ vayaṁ ṣaḍakṣarīṁ Yeshe-wo continued to invite Indian mahāvidyārājñīṁ labhemahi yena vayaṁ masters to Tibet. Among them was kṣipravarā bhavāmaḥ ? dharmabhāṇakas (Dha-rma pa-la), who tam uvāca–tadyathāpi nāma together with the Indian disciples who sarvanīvaraṇaviṣkambhin accompanied him, started the second prajñāpāramitānirjātāḥ sarvatathāgatāḥ| monk line in tatprajñāpāramitā sarvatathāgatānāṁ ca Tibet. The they conferred netrīty ākhyāyate | mark the beginning of a period in Tibetan history known as the “Later Flourishing of j Vaidya, p. 302, II. 9-13. the Teachings” (bstan-pa phyi-dar). [The ye te prathamacittotpādikā bodhisattvās te prior period became known, by contrast, śūnyatā nimittaṁ cintayanti| aho as the “Earlier Flourishing of the duḥkham, jarā duḥkham, maraṇaṁ Teachings” (bstan-pa rnying-ma.), March duḥkham, iṣṭapriyasaṁprayogaviyogo 12, 2013. duḥkham, avīcyupapannānāṁ duḥkham, anuvicintya tadā te paryaṅkam ābhujya ṛjukāyaṁ praṇidhāya pratimukhāṁ smṛtim upasthāpya teṣu parvatarājeṣu viharanti

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l Vaidya, p. 290, II. 11-21. kulaputra īdṛśaṁ pratibhānaṁ tadā teṣāṁ romavivarāṇāmantato'hamapi tathāgatānām api yādṛśam kiṁ gamiṣyāmi ? āha–kulaputra, mayāpi āryāvalokiteśvarasya mahāsattvasya || tasya romavivaraṁ vīkṣamāṇena o parimārgayamāṇena na dṛśyate | Vaidya, p. 265, I. 1-8. Bhagavān āha– sarvanīvaraṇaviṣkambhin kulaputra, ayaṁ cakṣuṣoścandrādityāvutpannau, māyāvī asādhyaḥ sūkṣma evamanudṛśyate lalāṭānmaheśvaraḥ,skandhebhyobrahmāda | nirañjano rūpī mahāpī (?) yaḥ, śatasahasrabhujaḥ koṭiśatasahasranetro hṛdayānnārāyaṇaḥ,daṁṣṭrābhyāṁ viśvarūpī ekādaśaśīrṣaḥ mahāyogī sarasvatī, mukhato vāyavo jātāḥ, dharaṇī nirvāṇabhūmivyavasthitaḥ sucetano pādābhyām, varuṇaścodarāt | yadaite devā mahāprājñaḥ bhavottārakaḥ kulīno'nādarśī jātā āryāvalokiteśvarasya kāyāt, prājño nirdeśas- tathācchāyābhūtaḥ athāryāvalokiteśvaro bodhisattvo sarvadharmeṣu, evameva kulaputra mahāsattvo maheśvaraṁ avalokiteśvaro bodhisattvo na śruto na devaputrametadavocat–bhaviṣyasi tvaṁ kenacid dṛśyate | tasya svabhāvakā maheśvaraḥ kaliyuge pratipanne | anyathārtagatā* na paśyanti, prāgeva kaṣṭasattvadhātusamutpanna ādideva samantabhadrādayo'nye ca bodhisattvāḥ | ākhyāyase sraṣṭāraṁ kartāram, te acintyo'yaṁ kulaputra avalokiteśvaro sarvasattvā bodhimārgeṇa viprahīṇā bodhisattvo mahāsattvaḥ prātihāryāṇi bhaviṣyanti, ya īdṛśapṛthagjaneṣu sattveṣu samupadarśayati | anekāni ca bodhisattva sāṁkathyaṁ kurvanti || ākāśaṁ koṭiniyuta śatasahasrāṇi paripācayati, liṅgamityāhuḥ pṛthivī tasya pīṭhikā | sattvāṁśca tān bodhimārge pratiṣṭhāpayati ālayaḥ sarvabhūtānāṁlīlayāliṅgamucyate || | pratiṣṭhāpayitvā sukhāvatīlokadhātum 1 || anugacchati |amitābhasya tathāgatasya p antike dharmamanuśṛṇoti || The Avalokiteśvara referred to as * Willaims (2005:312). The highest maheśvara devaputro by Śiva. It is number in the older system of numbers confusing as the text says that (viz.a Krore or ten millions) Avalokiteśvara created maheśvara.

q m Vaidya, p. 268, I. 18-20. The text was probably composed around th yena yena rupeṇa vaineyāḥ sattvāḥ, tena 7 century CE. The Ādibuddha is tena rupeṇa dharmaṁ deśayati | tathāgata portrayed as the personification of pure vaineyānāṁ sattvānāṁ tathāgata rupeṇa śūnyatā, who transforms himself into the dharmaṁ deśayati | pratyekabuddha Avalokiteśvara in order to create the rūpeṇa dharmaṁ deśayati | …… world, and who as the Avalokiteśvara, then projects himself onto the world stage n Vaidya, p. 264, I. 19-22 as both the historical Buddha and as atha sarvanīvaraṇaviṣkambhī various Hindu deities, for the purpose of bhagavantam etad avocat–bhagavan, teaching different people according to adyāpi Aavalokiteśvara nāgacchaty their needs. The creation theme of the avalokiteśvaro bodhisattvo mahāsattvaḥ? Kāraṇḍavyūha was not developed by later Bhagavān āha – anekāni kulaputra texts, however, and the Ādi Buddha is now sattvakoṭiniyutaśatasahasrāṇi paripācayati connected more specifically with the | dine dine sa āgatya paripācayati | nāsti Tathāgatas than with the world. In Tibet

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he is the original ‘enlightened mind’ (Skt., jñānakāya), the fusion of wisdom and emptiness; the five jinas of the maṇḍala are conceived as his , and all Buddhas and their doctrines are seen as aspects of his nature.

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