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context of these requisites calls into question the legitimacy of attempt- ing to blithely translate ideas and principles from one worldview to another. Ultimately, the contrivance may work, trumped by the at- tainments of the archetypal bodhisattva. With figures like Mother Te- resa, who are regarded as moral exemplars not only within their own Mother Teresa and the traditions but in other traditions and beyond religion as well, perhaps we can expand our understandings of and of the cultural Bodhisattva Ideal and religious categories that delineate religious ideals. A Buddhist henever I teach about the selfless ideal of the bodhisat- Karma Lekshe Tsomo tva in classes on , students inevitably ask: University of San Diego “Is it possible that Mother Teresa was a bodhisattva?” TheW question prompted me to reflect on the Buddhist notion of the bodhisattva, the qualities associated with this ideal and whether The notion of the bodhisattva, the selfless individual who is dedi- or not someone outside the Buddhist tradition could potentially cated to alleviating the sufferings of others, is traditionally articulated fulfill the criteria traditionally required to become one. My inten- within a Mahāyāna Buddhist framework. The question posed here is tion was not to artificially equate Catholic and Buddhist religious whether and to what extent this religious ideal can be conceived of, or ideals, but to place the highly developed expressions of religious instantiated by, individuals whose religiosity is framed by a different life held by these traditions side by side and explore where the cat- set of beliefs and values, taking the Roman Catholic Sister of Charity, egories cross over and where they do not. For example, if renuncia- Mother Teresa, as an example. The broader question of commensurabil- tion were used as a primary criterion, how might the analysis help ity arises when the criteria for qualifying as a bodhisattva, set within highlight different aspects of this religious ideal as conceptualized a specifically Mahāyāna context, are superimposed upon a figure who and embodied in the Catholic and Buddhist traditions? is solidly grounded within another religious tradition. At first glance, The life of the well-known Roman Catholic Sister of Charity, the requisite virtues of the bodhisattva—renunciation, compassion Mother Teresa, has been an inspiration and model for millions and wisdom—seem to intersect aptly with the life and teachings of the of women and men from a wide range of religious backgrounds “ of Calcutta.” In the details, however, the Buddhist philosophical around the world. Her charity work among the poor is heralded as a classic example of , expressing the highest ideals of Catholic Claritas: Journal of Dialogue and Culture, Vol. 1, No. 1 (March 2012) social teachings. While she used Christian language and grounded 96–105 © 2012 her work solidly within her own tradition, Mother Teresa’s

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 1, No.1 (March 2012) 96 life of selfless devotion to the poor epitomized compassionate ser- of Yugoslavian priests working in Bengal, she left home and trav- vice to humanity in a way that reached beyond the confines of re- eled to Zagreb and then to Dublin where she joined the well- ligious categories. Given the fact that she was awarded the Nobel known missionary order, the Sisters of Our Lady of Loreto. Soon Peace Prize in 1979, beatified in 2003, and widely mythologized, it there­after, in 1928, she traveled to India where she completed two is somewhat surprising to find that her life and her charitable work years of novitiate training in Darjeeling before receiving her first have received little scholarly attention to date. vows. She then taught history and geography and later became the In this essay, I offer a Buddhist analysis of the life and social headmistress at St. Mary’s High School, a prestigious girls’ school work of this remarkable woman. The central focus of the essay is a run by the Loreto Sisters in Kolkata. In 1937, she took her final comparative analysis of the principles that guide the bodhisattva, vows and the name Teresa. In 1946, she received a calling from the eminently selfless individual in the Buddhist tradition, and the God that directed her to serve the poor.1 Christian principles that guided Mother Teresa’s selfless service. In 1950, Teresa received approval from the Diocese of Cal- First, I introduce the life and teachings of the “saint of Calcutta cutta and Pope Pius XII to establish an order of nuns, called the [Kolkata].” Second, I describe the bodhisattva ideal and explain the “Missionaries of Charity,” with the express purpose of serving the prerequisites for entering the bodhisattva path. Third, using these unfortunate while living among them: “Our particular mission is criteria as starting points, I assess Mother Teresa’s aspirations and to labor at the and sanctification of the poorest of the achievements in relation to the aspirations and achievements of poor.”2 She began her charitable work immediately and, two years the bodhisattva. In this cross-cultural comparison, I investigate later, opened a home for the dying destitute in an empty pilgrims’ the fundamental values and human qualities that emerge in the rest house at Kalighat, a popular Hindu site. For the narrative of Mother Teresa from a Buddhist perspective. A sub- next 45 years, eventually joined by 4,000 dedicated nuns who fol- text of the essay is the question of commensurability, the extent to lowed her example and 10,000 lay volunteers who assisted, she which similar concepts in dissimilar contexts can legitimately be faithfully tended the sick, downtrodden, and abandoned. Despite compared, and the question of whether such an exploration yields contracting tuberculosis, she continued to give succor to lepers and new insights, either theoretically or practically, into either religious AIDS patients until her death in 1997 at the age of 87, maintain- tradition. ing a lifestyle akin to that of the impoverished she served, while regarding them as “the Lord himself.” To Save and Sanctify the Poorest of the Poor Mother Teresa was born Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhui in 1910 to a 1. Kathryn Spink, Mother Teresa: A Complete Authorized Biography (San Francisco: prosperous Albanian Catholic family in Skopje, now Macedonia. HarperSanFrancisco, 1997), pp. 3–22. 2. From the Constitution of the Missionaries of Charity written by Mother Teresa. As a child, she was very religious and conscientious in caring for See Edward Le Joly, S. J., Mother Teresa of Calcutta: A Biography (San Francisco: Harper the poor in her environs. At the age of 18, inspired by the letters & Row, 1985), p. 28.

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 1, No.1 (March 2012) 97 Despite her widely acclaimed mission of peace and charity, Despite the long “dark night of the soul” she silently experienced, Mother Teresa received considerable criticism. While she was Mother Teresa continued to “see in the face of every beggar.”4 admired as an embodiment of Christian faith and goodness, an Her legacy of compassion for the poor continues in hundreds of “angel of mercy” and a “saint of the gutters” by many, her detrac- centers around the world through the efforts of several thousand tors denounced her as a fanatic and a fraud, and excoriated her for nuns and countless lay devotees. opposing divorce, contraception, and abortion amidst the miseries There is no question that Mother Teresa’s selfless devotion to of an overpopulated world. Eschewing all modern conveniences, the poorest of the poor inspired hope and charity among millions Mother Teresa lived a life of poverty for almost 50 years, yet has of people with an influence that extended far beyond the Cath- been faulted for not allowing her nuns to use fans, washing ma- olic community. The question that concerns us here, however, is chines, or elevators that would have lightened their work. Despite whether or not she can be called a bodhisattva, a supremely selfless these controversies, at the behest of Pope John Paul II, she was be- individual in the Buddhist sense of the word. To answer this ques- atified in 2003 and declared “a blessed of the Catholic Church.” To tion, we need to be clear about the qualities of the bodhisattva and commemorate this penultimate step to sainthood, 150,000 people the criteria for becoming one. from around the world gathered in Rome to pay her tribute. Few doubt that Mother Teresa was a very special person and Entering the Bodhisattva Path many regard her as a saintly and uniquely selfless example of An abiding concern for the welfare of sentient beings (literally, Christian charity and piety. She received tribute worldwide for her beings who possess consciousness) is one of the salient features humanitarian contributions, including the Pope John XXIII Peace of the Buddha’s teachings as evident in even the earliest Buddhist Prize in 1971 and the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979. Her life of kind- texts. The Buddha declared his intention to work for the welfare ness and compassion among the abjectly poor in India set a new of all and exhorted others to do likewise. In the , model for what it means to be devoted to Jesus and become an a text found in the Pāli canon of the Theravāda tradition, we read: instrument of God’s love: Laying aside cudgel and sword, To me, Jesus is the Life I want to live, the Light I want to I live a life of innocence and mercy, reflect, the Way to the Father, the Love I want to express, Full of kindliness and compassion for everything that lives.5 the Joy I want to share, the Peace I want to sow around me. Jesus is everything to me.3 4. Despite her devotion to God, Mother Teresa’s letters reveal that she felt a spiritual 3. José Luis Gonzáléz-Balado, Mother Teresa: In My Own Words (New York: Gramercy emptiness or sense of abandonment throughout much of her ministry. Books, 1996), p. 34. 5. Majjhima Nikāya, III.29ff.

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 1, No.1 (March 2012) 98 In the Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions, this dedication to liv- Mahāyāna texts. Although the term “bodhisattva” may be used ing a life of mercy, kindness and compassion for all that lives is rather loosely in common parlance to denote a kind and compas- even more highly lauded and becomes linked with the new goal of sionate person,9 properly speaking, a bodhisattva must have these achieving perfect . Rather than the earlier ideal of lib- three qualifications. eration from cyclic existence, the bodhisattva ideal of the Mahāyāna stresses the intention of liberating all sentient beings from suffer- Renunciation: The of Selflessness ing. The bodhisattva doctrine of universal salvation is regarded as The primary principle of the bodhisattva way of life is renuncia- a natural corollary of compassion for all beings. This doctrine is tion. The first evidence of Mother Teresa’s renunciation was her founded on the premise that sentient beings are limitless in num- clear decision to leave her natal family and become a nun. Not ber and that, in the incessant cycle of (saṃsāra), all living only did she sacrifice the physical and emotional intimacy of mar- beings have at one time or another been related. Consequently, all riage and children, but she also left her own country and culture to these sentient beings are recognized as having been one’s own lov- serve in the unfamiliar setting of India. That Mother Teresa sacri- ing mother (and father, sister, brother, teacher, student, and so on), ficed selflessly in tending to the poorest and most miserable—the not just once, but innumerable times.6 This recognition, conjoined abandoned, the dying, and the lepers—in the streets of Kolkata is with the virtue of great compassion, results in what the Fourteenth a well-documented fact. After almost 20 years of teaching at St. Dalai calls a sense of “universal responsibility” to relieve the Mary’s, she felt compelled to renounce the relative comfort of her sufferings of all.7 life as a school principal in order to establish a mission that would However, the path of the bodhisattva is not simply a matter serve the neediest segments of the Indian population. She not only of living a compassionate life. To become a bodhisattva, one must lived a life of poverty like the poor she served, but also inspired an meet three specific criteria: (1) renunciation, (2) , and (3) order of nuns with a similar dedication and left a very visible leg- direct insight into emptiness. These criteria were clearly enunci- acy of service to the most indigent sectors of societies around the ated by the Indian scholar and monk Atīśa in his seminal work, world. The austerity of her living environment and diet, approxi- Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment (Bodhipathapradīpa),8 and other mating the living conditions of those she served, are legendary. She has even been faulted for going to extremes by eschewing the 6. In the Buddhist view, the sense of community is limited neither to human beings use of fans in the sizzling heat of Kolkata. There is little question nor to those born from a womb of a flesh and blood mother, but encompasses all sen- tient life, including those who take birth “from an egg, from moisture, and through that she embodied the ideal of renunciation that is the trademark miracle.” of virtually all religious traditions. 7. Tenzin Gyatso, The Global Community and the Need for Universal Responsibility (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1991). 8. Sonam Rinchen, Atisha’s Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment (Ithaca, N.Y.: 9. For example, in Buddhist circles in Korea, laypeople are routinely addressed as bod- Publications, 1997). hisattvas.

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 1, No.1 (March 2012) 99 In examining the notion of renunciation, we find close parallels desirable because it amounts to a lengthy diversion from the task between the Catholic and Buddhist monastic orders. Christians of liberating oneself and others from saṃsāra. Christians, on the take their cue from Jesus of Nazareth’s exhortation: “If you want to other hand, aspire to reach at the end of their life though be perfect, go, sell your possessions and give to the poor, and then the grace of God in Jesus. From a Christian perspective, this heaven you will have treasure in heaven. Then come, follow me” (Matthew transcends the world of birth and death. Christians look forward 19:21). Monks and nuns of the Catholic monastic orders renounce to the creation of a new heaven and a new earth where they will a life of marriage and family to serve God through a life of poverty, live, body and soul, forever. In Buddhism, there is no such idea of a chastity and obedience. A similar notion of renunciation applies to renewal of heaven and earth as a final and eternal reward. the lifestyle of the and bhikkhunīs, the monks and nuns Humility and renunciation of the things of this world are re- who renounce the household (married) life and join the Saṅgha, or garded as great virtues in both the Buddhist and Christian tra- monastic community. In the Buddhist context, however, the term ditions. In both, it may be argued, the ultimate goal is a type of “renunciation” has another specific denotation since it refers not spiritual perfection, though the nature of spiritual perfection is only to renouncing the pleasures of this world but also to renounc- recognized as beyond the comprehension of imperfect beings. ing cyclic existence—the wheel of birth, death, and rebirth known Whereas Christians achieve salvation through God’s love and the as saṃsāra. This understanding of renunciation is premised on the redemptive power of Jesus Christ, Buddhists must achieve lib- theory of repeated rebirth in the various realms of saṃsāra, com- eration through their own efforts. The Buddha, on his deathbed, prised of myriad , , and the realms of humans, animals, instructed his followers: “Work out your own liberation with dili- and ghosts, and their attendant sufferings and frustrations. The gence.” Jesus, by contrast, instructed his followers to have faith in Buddhists worldview within which renunciation is practiced thus him and follow the will of God. For Mother Teresa and her follow- contrasts with the Roman Catholic worldview comprised of an ers, the will of God was expressed in service to the poor and needy. afterlife in heaven, , or purgatory. She and her sisters believed that they belonged to Jesus and, by the While the Buddhist and Christian worldviews share a common grace of the Holy Spirit, were simply doing God’s work. The credit belief in heaven and hell, the Buddhist heavens and hells are plural for any achievement therefore went to God and was not viewed and, in the wheel of rebirth, may be experienced multiple times. as creating any personal . Buddhists, on the other hand, view Although rebirth in a heaven is very pleasant, it is temporary; even the individual accumulation of merit as necessary for spiritual at- if a rebirth in heaven lasts for 80,000 years, it is not a permanent tainment. The “credit” for wholesome actions, even charitable ac- state. As soon as one’s good karma from past lives is exhausted, the tions such as serving the poor, ultimately accrues to the individual pleasant consequences also come to an end, followed by rebirth in practitioner and not to anyone else. Although Christians and Bud- a realm less pleasant than heaven. Moreover, for the determined dhists may practice similar methods to reach their spiritual goals, Buddhist seeker of liberation, a rebirth in heaven is not particularly such as acts of compassion toward those in need, there is a clear

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 1, No.1 (March 2012) 100 distinction between their concepts of the spiritual dynamics of lib- organizations are widely resented by people who feel that their eration and salvation. own religious values and identities are under attack. On the other hand, in reaching out to the abandoned indigent, Mother Teresa Bodhicitta: Compassion in Theory and Practice was working with people whose suffering was beyond religious Bodhicitta, the second principle that is requisite for the bodhisattva, identifications. In striving to bring people to God, I believe that is the altruistic aspiration to achieve perfect awakening in order she was motivated not by an exclusivistic conceptualization of to free all sentient beings from suffering. The task here, then, is to God, but by a notion of pure goodness and love that is beyond investigate the extent to which the Christian ideal of compassion selfish interests or religious agendas. and selfless service is commensurate with the ideals of compassion The Buddha taught the virtues of love and compassion—a and selfless service in the Buddhist context, specifically as embod- spontaneous, effortless compassion toward all living beings that ied in the bodhisattva. Compassion is a central pillar and com- is unbounded in scope and guided by insight. Similarly, love is mon denominator of the Christian and Buddhist traditions. Just the commandment of Jesus and is guided by the Holy Spirit that as Buddhists seek to embody the love and compassion of the Bud- imparts insight. Although it is very doubtful that the Buddha had dha, Mother Teresa emulated the love and compassion of Christ, a social welfare ministry in mind, he did teach his followers to an incarnation of God’s love for humanity. The Christian instruc- care for those who are suffering from sickness and other physi- tion to serve the hungry, naked, and imprisoned is found in Mat- cal and emotional afflictions, as he cared for others himself. This thew 25:35: “Whenever you do this for the least of these, you do is parallel to Jesus’ commandment: “Love one another as I have for me.” Her work among indigent children follows the injunction: loved you” (John 15:12). In the Mahāyāna tradition, the teachings “Suffer the little children to come unto me” (Matthew 19:14; Mark emphasize an altruistic ideal that expands beyond individual ex- 10:14; Luke 18:16). pressions of love and compassion to a universal compassion for all In India and elsewhere, questions arise about whether Mother living beings—human, animal, visible, and invisible. Finally, this Teresa’s motivation was purely to benefit the poorest of the poor great compassion expands to bodhicitta, the altruistic intention to or whether she may have hoped to convert the beneficiaries of her liberate all living beings from the sufferings ofsa ṃsāra. This “en- charity to Christianity or to get into heaven herself. In reading lightened attitude” is of two types: (1) aspiring bodhicitta, which is the accounts of her life, I personally conclude that she was - the strong determination to become fully awakened (i.e., a Bud- tivated by the hope of leading the beneficiaries of her charity to dha) in order to liberate all sentient beings from suffering, and God, but that it was not a conversion effort of the flagrant “body (2) engaged bodhicitta, which is the implementation of this noble count” variety like recent conversion efforts in , Cam- ideal in action. Bodhicitta begins either as a brief impulse or as a bodia, Mongolia, and other developing countries in recent years. calculated response to the sufferings of living beings. Sporadic al- These aggressive conversion attempts by Evangelical Christian truism gradually matures into spontaneous, effortless compassion

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 1, No.1 (March 2012) 101 toward all creatures and culminates in an unwavering determina- the wounds of lepers and sacrificed her health to minister to soci- tion to achieve perfect Buddhahood, a resolve that extends to all ety’s throwaways. She did not go so far as to donate limbs for the future lifetimes until perfect enlightenment is reached. welfare of others, as Āryaśūra’s bodhisattva is purportedly willing The bodhisattva is utterly devoid of self-interest, fully capable to do, but she did sacrifice her life to care for the poor. The bodhisat- and ready to relieve the sufferings of sentient beings at any time tva’s willingness to sacrifice life and limb may be allegorical, since, by providing them with whatever they need. The commitment to as critics of the bodhisattva resolve have pointed out, to destroy the relieve the sufferings of human beings is especially great since a body or damage one’s health impairs one’s ability to serve living “precious human rebirth” is necessary for progress on the spiritual beings. In any case, the sacrifices detailed in bodhisattva narratives path. A verse by Āryaśūra shows the extent of the bodhisattva’s are not instructions for others to follow, but are meant to inspire commitment: compassion and endurance in the course of liberating beings from suffering. Although Mother Teresa never expressed her intention Even if someone should demand my flesh, to become a Buddha or to liberate all beings from saṃsāra, the May I offer it with pleasure in my eyes; tremendous hardships that she endured during her years of work May I always donate my limbs and so on, among the unfortunate are abundant evidence of her commitment For the welfare of all embodied beings. to the bodhisattva ethic of compassion.

May I, like a wish-fulfilling gem, Direct Insight into Emptiness: Wisdom and Insight Provide all that beings desire; The third principle of thebodhisattva way of life is (wisdom, And may I, like the wish-granting tree, understanding or insight), which in the Buddhist context is specif- Completely fulfill their hope.10 ically understood as direct insight into emptiness, the true nature of all phenomena. Wisdom guides the altruism of the bodhisattva Both Mother Teresa and Mahāyāna Buddhists express a deep such that it does not degenerate into mere sentimentalism, but commitment to the welfare of humanity and to the implementa- entails skillful means to effectively accomplish the welfare of all tion of love and compassion in action, especially toward the most beings. Wisdom and compassion operate in tandem. Like the two wretched. As a Roman Catholic, Mother Teresa demonstrated her wings of a bird, both qualities are essential to the achievement of commitment to “the dignity of the human person”11 as she dressed enlightenment. After acquiring an intellectual understanding of the no-self (anātman) doctrine, the bodhisattva gains direct insight 10. Gendun Gyatso, Āryaśūra’s Aspiration and a on Compassion (Dharamsala: into the lack of independent or inherent existence of phenom- Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, 1979), p. 25. 11. “The dignity of the human person” is a stock phrase and core value of Catholic so- ena, that is known as emptiness (śūnyatā). He or she has penetrat- cial teachings inscribed in Gaudium et Spes, a document of the Second Vatican Council. ing insight into dependent arising, the interrelatedness of existing

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 1, No.1 (March 2012) 102 things. This insight reveals the relatedness of all living beings, that, Buddhist sense, her daily devotions and compassionate life led her in turn, supports the development of compassion. Thebodhisat - to inspired insights and commonsense judgments that cut through tva practices meditation on emptiness throughout the ten stages accepted truths: “War is the killing of human beings. Who can of the bodhisattva path, accumulating wisdom and merit through even think that it could ever be ‘just’?”13 In addition, she had the the practice of the ten perfections (pāramitā)12 for three countless practical wisdom that enabled her to negotiate the Indian bureau- aeons. The process culminates in the perfect wisdom of a Buddha: cracy. She deserves sainthood for that alone. She successfully ad- simultaneously knowing all things “as they are,” that is equivalent ministered dozens of social welfare programs while dealing with to omniscience. significant social and cultural differences, and clearly had the wis- Wisdom in the biblical context is most commonly God’s wis- dom to see beyond these differences to the essential dignity of all dom (“the divine wisdom”: he theia sophia) or revelations of God’s human beings. wisdom, rather than human insights (vipaśyanā) into the nature of life, such as those discovered and taught by the Buddha. In the Book Comparing Compassion of Wisdom, the concept has two denotations: in relation to human From studying the life and maxims of Mother Teresa, I conclude beings where it is a profound and perfect knowledge expressed by that although she was probably a saint from any religious point the righteous in everyday conduct, and in relation to God where of view, she may or may not have been a bodhisattva from a Bud- wisdom is the personification of divine knowledge. Wisdom is in dhist point of view. She clearly qualifies as abodhisattva in the eternal partnership with God and is accessible through and broad outlines, in that she embodies the qualities of renunciation, contemplation. Among the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit enumer- compassion, and insight. However, she does not fulfill the specific ated in Isaiah 11:2–3, wisdom is said to be the foremost, represent- criteria of the bodhisattva that are set forth in the Mahāyāna tra- ing the perfection of faith that leads to perfect knowledge. In my dition and explicated by Atīśa. Although she renounced worldly view, Mother Teresa was both contemplative and apostolic. Her pleasures and personal benefit, there is no indication that she con- life reveals both the wisdom of God’s revelation as she experienced sciously renounced cyclic existence or even was familiar with the it, and wisdom as manifest in everyday actions. Although she may concept. Although she manifested great compassion in caring for not have possessed the wisdom that understands emptiness, in the the sick, destitute, and dying, and although she may well have as- pired to relieve all human sufferings, there is no indication that 12. In the Mahāyāna literature, the ten perfections are: generosity (dāna), ethical con- duct (śīla), (kṣānti), joyful effort vīrya( ), meditation (dhyāna), wisdom she aspired to become an enlightened being in order to liberate (prajñā), skillful means (upāya), aspiration (praṇidhāna), power (bala) and exalted wis- all sentient beings from the sufferings of saṃsāra, or that this bo- dom (jñāna). In the literature of the Theravāda tradition, the ten perfections are dhisattva aspiration was even in her vocabulary. Although she was slightly different: generosity dāna( ), ethical conduct (sīla), renunciation (), wisdom (paññā), energy (viriya), patience (khanti), truthfulness (), determination (adhiṭṭhana), loving kindness (mettā) and equanimity (upekkhā). 13. Le Joly, p. 67.

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 1, No.1 (March 2012) 103 wise in ways that appear to have been directly inspired by God or bodhisattva’s activity is not limited, but extends to beings of all her belief in God, there is no indication that she attained direct descriptions, then we run into a different problem. A person may insight into emptiness or even that she had ever encountered the be selflessly devoted to relieving the sufferings of living beings, concept. Without these three specific qualifications, then, she can- but not use the language of the bodhisattva and not have the aim not be considered a bodhisattva in the strict sense of the word. of becoming a Buddha. Such a person might, like Mother Teresa, When questioned about a Buddhist equivalent to Mother Te- define the ultimate in very different terms. resa, Buddhists are hard-pressed to provide an example. His Holi- Looking at the question from a specifically Buddhist angle ness the and other great Buddhist masters work day leads us to one further consideration. In the Mahāyāna tradition, it and night to benefit living beings through their and by is believed that a bodhisattva has the capacity to appear in myriad teaching about the path to enlightenment. But they are not in the forms to benefit sentient beings. The bodhisattva’s capacity to ben- trenches, cleaning the wounds of lepers or tending to indigent pa- efit all increases exponentially as she or he progresses along the tients dying of AIDS. When it comes to active engagement in the paths and stages to awakening. At the first stage, abodhisattva pur- world of suffering and affliction, perhaps Mother Teresa is closer portedly has the ability to manifest in one hundred forms in one to the bodhisattva ideal than any Buddhist. Does the bodhisattva’s hundred world systems. At the final stage of the process, a Bud- ambition to provide whatever living beings need require that per- dha has the power to manifest innumerable forms in innumerable son to be a professed Buddhist who follows the teachings and uses world systems. From this perspective, a bodhisattva could appear the language of Buddhism? Or can bodhisattvas emerge in any in whatever form was most beneficial to living beings. Since in place, in any culture? the world today more people profess Christianity than any other This raises several important questions for Buddhists: Is the religious tradition, it stands to reason that a bodhisattva who uses bodhisattva ideal limited by culture? Is a bodhisattva necessarily Christian terminology and beliefs has the potential to reach the Buddhist? If the bodhisattva’s activity is dependent upon culture, greatest number of people by using a language they can under- the definition and scope of his or her work might be limited to a stand. Using this logic, it is not impossible that Mother Teresa was particular sphere. Is the bodhisattva active only in Buddhist coun- a bodhisattva who manifested in a Christian form to propagate the tries? Is the bodhisattva’s compassion limited only to Mahāyāna ethic of compassion. countries? If this is the case, can we infer that the recipients of The question of commensurability that was raised at the begin- the bodhisattva’s compassion are limited to, or more likely to be, ning of this essay has yielded an unanticipated conclusion. The Māhāyana Buddhists? This leads to a logical impasse: If abodhisat - search for similarities has turned up a trove of differences with tva’s compassion is circumscribed in any way, it cannot be said to many layers of meaning, and has brought to the surface new ques- be universal or impartial, which contradicts the bodhisattva’s stated tions regarding cultural and philosophical congruence. The point ideal of working to liberate all living beings from suffering. If the of greatest similarity that emerges is the value of a life lived with

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 1, No.1 (March 2012) 104 compassion and devoted to the service of all. In the present dialog- compassion as understood in Christianity is God: “God is love” ical exercise, I have attempted to examine a Roman Catholic figure (1 John 4:8). Since God’s love is infinite, it embraces all existence through the use of Buddhist terminology and criteria in an effort including all human beings. Jesus’ life was a self-revelation of that to understand the extent to which the bodhisattva ideal is cultur- love as he cared for the poor and suffering around him. The di- ally constructed and whether it has value outside the Buddhist vine source of compassion, the model of Jesus’ love, and the lov- context. Perhaps this is an exercise in futility, like trying to match ing guidance of the wisdom of the Holy Spirit provided Mother round pegs and square holes, since the bodhisattva ideal is predi- Teresa with her way of serving the poorest of the poor. cated on a set of assumptions that, as far as we know, the Catholic In short, Buddhists and Christians have much to learn from one Mother Teresa never considered. At the same time, through such another. Many Roman Catholics are now using Buddhist teach- an exercise we can expand our understanding of compassion and ings and meditation practices to renew their spiritual life. Many of the cultural and religious categories that define its significance. Buddhists are now recognizing the contributions of Roman Cath- After all, genuine compassion cannot be circumscribed, but must olics to creating a more just society. Important figures like Mother extend to the whole of humanity, transcending boundaries of cul- Teresa are regarded as moral exemplars not only within their own ture, class, and gender. traditions, but in other traditions and beyond religion as well. Fur- Compassion, in Buddhist terms, extends not only to human ther interaction and dialogue will surely expand the effectiveness beings, but to all forms of life: animals, hell beings, hungry ghosts, of both Buddhists and Christians in relieving human misery. and all. All sentient beings in cyclic existence experience the suf- ferings specific to their particular form of existence and also the sufferings of change and the sufferings of being trapped in cy- Karma Lekshe Tsomo received her doctorate in comparative philosophy clic existence. An awareness of these sufferings leads Buddhists from the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. She is associate professor to focus intensively on compassion and contemplation toward the in the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at the Univer- goal of awakening and liberating all beings from suffering. These sity of San Diego where she teaches courses on Buddhism, World Reli- activities entail an ethics of “non-harm” toward all living creatures gions, and Comparative Religious Ethics. She also studied Buddhism with profound implications for peacebuilding, environmental pro- in Dharamsala, India, for 15 years and is one of the founders of the tection, and global justice. Sakyadhita International Association of Buddhist Women. Her pub- Wisdom, in Christian terms, is not an aptitude of human be- lications include Sisters in Solitude: Two Traditions of Monastic ings alone, but is necessarily inspired by God. At the same time, Ethics for Women (1996), Into the Jaws of , Lord of Death: God’s love as incarnated in Christ has inspired both profoundly Buddhism, Bioethics, and Death (2006), and a number of edited compassionate service, such as that of Mother Teresa, and social volumes and articles on . justice movements such as liberation theology. The source of this

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