Possible Early Images of Avalokiteshvara

Shirley Khoirom1

1. 7/14 Kalkaji Extension, New Delhi – 110 019, India (Email: [email protected])

Received: 25 July 2018; Revised: 18 September 2018; Accepted: 27 October 2018 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 6 (2018): 838‐853

Abstract: Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of compassion is one of the most popular deities of the Mahayana Buddhist pantheon. Over time the iconography of the deity became more and more complex with many additional attributes. Its origin, however, is traced to lotus bearing yaksha figures specially depicted on the stupas of Shunga or pre‐Kushana period. This paper attempts to trace back these figures and throw light upon certain figures of possibly later period that perhaps are a missing link between the lotus bearing yaksha figures and the Avalokiteshvara figures that we come to know of in the Kushana period. Certain images from Mathura in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India and Butkara in the Swat region of Pakistan have been brought to notice in this context.

Keywords: Bodhisattva, Avalokiteshvara, Padmapani, Mathura, Gandhara, Butkara, Yaksha

Introduction Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of compassion is one of the most popular deities of the Mahayana Buddhist pantheon. Lotus being the identifying attribute of Avalokiteshvara, the deity is also commonly known as Bodhisattva Padmapani. But before one accepts lotus as the identifying feature of the Bodhisattva, it is important to go back to images in ancient Indian art that might have been an inspiration for the iconography of the Bodhisattva of compassion. Coomaraswamy (2001) is of the opinion that the lotus holding yaksha figures depicted in early Indian art can be described from an iconographic point of view as Padmapani, meaning having a lotus or ‘padma’ in hand. While these figures may not already represent Bodhisattva Padmapani, Coomaraswamy asserts that when it became necessary to present this Bodhisattva, the type lay ready to hand. He also suggests the likelihood that the very conception of Bodhisattva Padmapani drew from the already existing Padmapani yaksha, like in the case of Vajrapani who Buddha’s faithful attendant was earlier and later evolved to the Bodhisattva Vajrapani of the Buddhist pantheon.

The padma bearing yaksha has been represented a number of times in ancient Indian sculpture. For instance, Sanchi guardian yaksha at the base of a pillar, north toraṇa; and yaksha on a railing pillar from Mathura, holding lotuses in right hand (Agrawal 1984: 25). The pillar at the northern entranceway of Bharhut, now kept in the Indian Museum, Khoirom 2018: 838‐853

Figure 1: Yaksha Ajalaka (sandstone), Figure 2: Yaksha from Kaushambi Bharhut, Indian Museum, Kolkata (sandstone), Allahabad Museum (Photo Courtesy: AIIS) (Photo Courtesy: AIIS)

Kolkata, features Ajalaka yaksha, as mentioned in the accompanying inscription (Figure 1) (Mishra 1981: 115). He is shown standing on a human figure, holding a half‐blossomed lotus in the right hand while the left‐hand displays katihasta pose. So what we have here is a yaksha with an identity, holding a lotus. He is depicted together with Kubera (guardian of the north) and Chandra yakshi. We also have a lotus bearing figure from Kaushambi (Figure 2). The figure is carved on a railing pillar fragment. Stylistically it seems to belong to Shunga period (Tripathi 2003: 56). The yaksha holds the lotus in his left hand which is lifted up. The lotus stands erect next to the face of the yaksha. The

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right hand is held close to the chest in an unidentifiable mudra. The figure wears a dhoti below and a scarf above. The turban is very typical of those seen in Shunga period figures.

Figure 3: Ahichchattra triad (red sandstone), National Museum, New Delhi (Photo Courtesy: AIIS)

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Figure 4: Figure holding lotus cluster (red sandstone), Government Museum (Photo Courtesy: AIIS)

The lotus bearer is also seen depicted in many triads from Mathura region. Figure 3 is a triad from Ahichchattra dedicated in the year 32 of Huvishkaʹs reign (Mitra 1955: 63‐67). The central figure is that of Shakyamuni, while the figure to the left is that of Vajrapani. The figure on the right side holds lotus flowers in the right hand. The left hand clenches the left thigh. At this point, the figure can be called a padma bearing deity or padmapani yaksha. Though we may be inclined towards drawing comparisons with Gandhara Buddha triads that have Maitreya and Avalokiteshvara as attendants, however it is

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uncertain if the lotus bearing figure in the Ahichchattra triad is Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara. It could simply be an attendant with lotus flower offerings. But Coomaraswamy’s assertion that when it became necessary to present Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, ʹthe type lay ready to handʹ does seem to apply (Coomaraswamy 2001: 18).

Figure 5: Figure holding lotus cluster from Butkara (Faccenna 1962)

There is an interesting rail fragment from Mathura on which is depicted a bold figure holding, what appears to be, an erect cluster of lotuses in the right hand (Figure 4). With the left hand proudly held akimbo, the figure is no ordinary guardian or any kind of subsidiary figure. The big turban makes the dating of the fragment likely to be around Shunga period or maybe a little later. The figure wears a dhoti. A thin long scarf is held between the two elbows from behind the body. A V‐shaped neck ornament is worn by the figure who also has a slightly corpulent belly. The eyes bulge out a little and there is a hint of smile on the lips.

Interestingly this figure is comparable to some figures from Butkara (figs.5 and 6) in Swat, Pakistan (Faccenna 1962). These figures too hold a cluster of lotus flowers in one hand while the other hand is held akimbo. Figure 7 too is from the same region. Here the deity holds a cluster of lotuses in one hand while the other hand is held up in abhaya mudra. Though slightly different, it seems to represent the same deity seen in figures 5 and 6.

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Figure 6: Figure holding lotus cluster Figure 7: Figure holding lotus cluster from from Butkara (Faccenna 1962) Butkara (Faccenna 1962)

There is a striking similarity between these images from Butkara and figure 4 from Mathura. The stiff lotus buds and the arm held akimbo in both cases cannot be missed. While one cannot establish the period the images from Butkara belong to, stylistically they appear to be older than many of the images seen in Gandhara. Figure 8 is helpful in giving us an idea of the time period of these images. Now housed in the British Museum, it is again of unknown provenance.

The fragment appears to be a portrayal of the worship of Buddha’s seat by Brahma and Indra. Or is it an aniconic representation of the Buddha whose lone halo here shines in all its glory? It is uncertain if this image belongs to the aniconic phase of Buddhist art. It is possible that in the period when this particular sculpture was carved, Buddha was depicted in both aniconic and iconic forms simultaneously. Perhaps not depicting the Buddha himself was a comfortable option compared to later times when aniconic representations of Buddha came to be rarely seen. Thus, one can place this piece in a period earlier than the many icons of Buddha and Bodhisattvas seen in Gandhara. The drapery style of the devas in this image shows some similarity with our lotus holding

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deities above, specially figure 5, in the manner it is brought from the hip on side to the shoulder on the other side. The similarity of the manner in which ridges run on the drapery as well as dhoti, and the rough and chunky quality of carving in both cases cannot be missed. Also, their ornamentation is comparatively much less than seen in many of the images in Gandhara. Such characteristics point to an earlier period of making.

Figure 8. Aniconic representation of Buddha? (Isao 2003)

We may not be wrong in suggesting a connection between these figures from Butkara and figure 4 of Mathura. Though the latter seems to belong to an earlier period, they all seem to have a common origin. However, what we are unsure of is who they represent. Are they really Avalokiteshvara? or yaksha? The Butkara images seem to have acquired enough importance to be depicted as a deity in Buddhist art. It seems that, even if a

844 Khoirom 2018: 838‐853 prominent yaksha at one time, by now the lotus bearing figures that we see in Butkara have come to acquire the status of a Bodhisattva. The figures have a standard iconography. Dressed in a princely manner, one hand is held akimbo while the other hand holds a bunch of lotus buds.

Figure 9: Figure holding flower bunch Figure 10: Figure holding flower (Faccenna 1962) bunch (Isao 2003)

There are a few more figures that also seem to be of relevance in the present context. Figures 9 and 10 depict a princely figure delicately holding a bunch of flowers with both hands. That the figure is perhaps a deity is indicated by the halo around figure 10’s head and the pedestal below. Figure 9 is from Butkara, while figure 10 is of unknown provenance. Who indeed do these figures represent? Could it also be an early form of Avalokiteshvara? In Gandhara Avalokiteshvara is shown holding a lotus or a wreath or

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sometimes both. There is a strong association of floral symbolism with Avalokiteshvara. Considering that, these images too could be of the same deity. There are certain images from Mathura that are of interest in the present context. Figures 11 and 12 are two standing princely figures holding a long garland topped by a lotus in the right hand and a handful of flowers in the left hand.

Figure 11: Garland bearer from Mathura Figure 12: Garland bearer from (Photo Courtesy: AIIS) Mathura (Photo Courtesy: AIIS)

The ornamentation is simple like the many deva figures seen in Mathura. It consists of thick looped earrings, a circular and a V‐shaped neck ornament and a few bangles. The headgear, dhoti and scarf are worn in a manner typically seen in Mathura images. These two images are almost identical. Considering the abundance of floral offerings and Avalokiteshvaraʹs association with floral symbolism as also seen in Gandhara, it may, perhaps, be presumed that these figures represent Avalokiteshvara or a prototype. The manner in which they are carved on a stele with a pedestal surely tells us that they are no ordinary garland bearers, but deities of importance. The floral symbolism makes these images comparable to figures 9 and 10 discussed before. The possibility of these images representing a particular deity, probably an early form of Avalokiteshvara cannot be ruled out.

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Figure 13: Doorjamb, Figure 14: Fragment from Butkara Mathura (Sharma 1995) (Faccenna 1962)

Figure 13 from Mathura, which is a door jamb fragment has another representation of a flower bearing deity which seems to be of importance. The deva like figure seen in the compartment below the one in which a standing Buddha figure is carved, holds up a lotus flower with his right hand. The left hand is held akimbo. Apart from these two compartments we can see two more on the adjacent face of the door jamb. The one on top shows the seated figure of Bodhisattva Prince Siddhartha, symbolizing the episode of his meditation under the jambu tree. The compartment below shows the young Prince contemplating giving up royal life while his wife sleeps next to him oblivious to what is happening. All the compartments are of the same size. While three of them are directly related to the Buddha, the fourth one containing the lotus holding figure too is not lacking in significance. It is shown in the same size as the other figures and stands affirmatively commanding respect. We cannot help but wonder if we have an established figure here. These instances make a strong point for the presence of images that actually represent early forms of Avalokiteshvara or its prototype.

That the lotus bearing figures discussed above are of importance and their worship at the time was perhaps stronger than we imagine are indicated by a narrative relief from Butkara. Figure 14 is a very telling find from Butkara. Again, stylistically the fragment seems to belong to the same period as the other Butkara images discussed earlier. We have here a very interesting relief carving which seems to tell us a story. It appears to be

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a visual depiction of a deity in active service of his devotees. The devotees are seen in adoration of the deity. The fragment actually seems to be divided into two parts. We have two different scenes here, the dividing line running next to the man holding the hilt of his sword with his left hand.

Figure 15: Fragment from Butkara (Faccenna 1962)

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This is clear in figure 15 which is a detail of the right side of the complete fragment. While the deity on the left side displays his right hand probably in abhaya mudra, the deity on the extreme right has his right hand displaying abhaya mudra and left hand holding what appears to be an inverted bunch of lotus or lotus buds. Considering the depicted scenes are next to each other, it is likely that it is the same deity in both of them. The lotus held in hand instantly makes one associate it with the lotus bearing figures we have been discussing. Other than the lotus symbolism, the manner in which the worshippers are in adoration of the deity, and also the deity’s gesture of protection, especially noticeable in figure 14 suggest that the deity is no other than Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara. What we have here then are narrative carvings depicting the deity’s greatness. While there is no denying that we need many more evidences to accept that making narrative carvings of Avalokiteshvaraʹs greatness too was a trend, this fragment nevertheless throws light on possibilities.

Going back to the Butkara lotus bud bearing images in figures 5, 6 and 7, we seem to have a proof that they indeed are early forms of Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara commonly seen in Gandhara. Figure 16, of uncertain provenance is of great significance. The deity appears to hold a wreath in his right hand and a cluster of stiff lotus buds, very similar to those seen in the Butkara images, in his left hand. What we have here might be a connecting link between the early lotus buds‐holding Avalokiteshvara and the many wreath bearing Avalokiteshvara seen in Gandhara, particularly those images where Avalokiteshvara holds both wreath and lotus (Isao 2003; Miyaji 2008). Figure 17 is one such image. Here we can see that the figure of Avalokiteshvara holds a small lotus bud in the right hand and a wreath in the left.

While figure 16 has a rather stiff appearance, whether it is the body of the deity or the perfectly circular wreath or the erect stalked lotus buds, figure 17 on the other hand is depicted in a rather relaxed stance. There is a certain flow in the manner the image has been carved, not to mention the manner in which the lotus bud and the wreath too are depicted. The right hand holds the lotus bud which bends slightly inwards. The wreath held in the left hand is no longer circular but is loosely held. It is also noteworthy that in figure 16 the eyes of the deity are wide open, and the facial expression too is a rather serious one. However, figure 17 has an aura of calm and serenity, specially brought forth by the smoothness and flow in the carving of the image and also the half‐closed meditative eyes. These are characteristics seen in the later art of Gandhara (Marshall 1980: 109). Despite these differences, one can see that they depict the same deity. It can be posited that figure 16 is but an early version of figure 17, and hence a precursor of many of the Avalokiteshvara images seen in Gandhara.

According to textual traditions, at least by the mid‐third century AD we have Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara as a full‐fledged god. In the Larger Sukhavativyuha sutra, the earliest available Chinese translations of which go back to the third quarter of second century AD (Nariman 1992: 79), Avalokiteshvara appears as one of the two leading Bodhisattvas in Amitabha’s Sukhavati, the other Bodhisattva being Mahasthanaprapta.

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Figure 16: Deity holding wreath and Figure 17: Deity holding wreath and lotus lotus buds (Isao 2003) (Isao 2003)

Avalokiteshvara is given an edge over Mahasthanaprapta by being mentioned earlier in the text and called mighty and a Buddha‐son (Muller 1894: 48). Nothing more is mentioned. However, in Saddharmapundarika and Karandavyuha sutra we have Avalokiteshvara as an all‐encompassing, all pervading compassionate deity. In the Saddharmapundarika sutra, which was translated into Chinese three times before 286 AD, Avalokiteshvaraʹs position is much more elevated (Nariman 1992: 71‐75). The twenty fourth chapter of the Saddharmapundarika sutra gives us a good account of the deity’s power, compassion and status in the Buddhist pantheon (Kern 2012: 282‐289). It says how myriads of creatures in this world who are suffering from troubles have only to hear the name of the Bodhisattva Mahasattva Avalokiteshvara and all of them will

850 Khoirom 2018: 838‐853 instantly be released from their troubles. We have a long list of troubles that the Bodhisattva can save his devotees from. From saving one from a great mass of fire, river currents, dreadful oceans, mighty spells, witchcrafts, executioners, enemies, goblins etc. to bestowing a son or daughter to parents desirous of an offspring, the deity is there to one’s rescue at all times. He is mentioned here as one who is thoroughly practised in the power of magic and capable of showing himself in all directions and in all regions of the world. Another bit of information in this chapter establishes the high rank of this deity in the Buddhist pantheon. The merits accumulated from worshipping a number of Lord Buddhas equal to sixty‐two times the sands of the river Ganga, making offerings of robes, alms‐bowls, couches, medicaments for the sick have been equated with the merit accumulated from the simple act of adoring the Bodhisattva and cherishing his name. This at once tells us how greatly he was to be perceived by the devotees.

The Karandavyuha sutra is entirely dedicated to Avalokiteshvara. There is a Chinese translation of the text belonging to 270 AD (Nariman 1992: 71‐75). In this text Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara refuses Buddhahood until all creatures have been emancipated. So much is the Bodhisattva given to exercising sympathy on creatures that it is deemed tolerable to even commit sins on the way. Hence, by the third century AD, we have a full‐fledged God Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara at least in the texts. That by this time Avalokiteshvara had in fact acquired a status similar to those of the Buddhas, at least in the text, is proved by the mention in Saddharmapundarika sutra that the merits accumulated from worshipping a number of Lord Buddhas equal to sixty‐two times the sands of the river Ganga, making offerings of robes, alms‐bowls, couches, medicaments for the sick is the same as the merit accumulated from the simple act of adoring the Bodhisattva and cherishing his name. Such an elevated position in the texts explains the numerous images of the Bodhisattva in Gandhara.

Why was there a need at all for a Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara? One explanation seems to be that apart from the Buddhas, past, present or future there was perhaps a need felt for a deity who would look after ones more personal needs. With the passage of time, the idea of the Buddha perhaps gradually transcended beyond mundane life and hence was no longer directly associated with daily problems of the devotees. Hence, to address the daily concerns of the devotees a new deity had to take birth. This must have been a fresh attempt as part of the Mahayana wave to maintain a mass following of the religion.

Rosenfield (1967: 241‐243) comes to the conclusion that Avalokiteshvara is actually a deification or hypostatization of a moment in the biography of Shakyamuni. Rosenfield refers to the description of the Maravijaya in Ashvaghosha’s Buddhacharita (Chapter XIII) where an invisible character tells Mara that Shakyamuni is like a great physician who is full of pity for the world which is in distress and is full of diseases and passions. Like a dependable informant when a caravan is lost, he is a lamp of knowledge for beings lost in the dark. Seeing the world drown in the great flood of the cycle of existence he vows to release it from rebirth and free mankind from delusion. His great vow, energy, psychic power and compassion have made him invincible. Rosenfield also refers to the

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Mahayana appendix of three chapters that were added to the Hinayana meditation manual, the Yogacharabhumishastra written by the monk Sangharaksha, in 284 AD, when the work was translated into Chinese by the Yueh‐chih monk Dharmaraksha, then at Tun Huang. He points out that the appendix contains a series of aphorisms and parables which define a Bodhisattva’s functions. No particular Bodhisattva is mentioned but a generic “Bodhisattva‐Mahasattva” is used in these descriptions. Rosenfield highlights the similarity in the description of this Bodhisattva and that of Shakyamuniʹs compassion given by Ashvaghosha. The Bodhisattva‐Mahasattva is described as a guide of the caravan. He restores order and reassures travellers when they are deluded and frightened. For him all beings are his children. He has vowed to save them even though he submits to the torments of transmigration. Knowing the misery that the three spheres is filled with, he vows the salvation of one and all.

Rosenfield infers that these primary qualities of the Bodhisattva Mahasattva are those that become the basic qualities of Avalokiteshvara. Hence the aphorisms used by Ashvaghosha to describe the compassionate Shakyamuni comprise a part of the nature of Avalokiteshvara. The fact that both Prince Siddhartha and Avalokiteshvara are seen displaying the pensive mudra in the art of Gandhara also supports this theory (Lee 1993; Isao 2003; Rhi 2006).

As we can see that by the third century of the Common Era Avalokiteshvara has a very high standing in the texts, one can imagine that popular worship of the deity had begun much earlier. Iconography of the pre‐existing popular lotus bearing yakshas might have been adopted for the bodhisattva. The Bharhut yaksha Ajalaka specially hints at that (Figure 1). The lotus bud and flower bearing figures of Butkara (figs.5, 7 and 6), and garland bearing figures of Mathura (figs.11 and 12) thus could be early forms of Avalokiteshvara. Avalokiteshvara worship, and hence its icon making tradition probably goes back much earlier in time than generally understood.

Acknowledgements I would like to thank American Institute of Indian Studies for allowing me to use images from their photo archive. I would also like to thank Kurita Isao for allowing me to use images from his book Gandharan Art. Images from Domenico Faccenaʹs Sculptures from the Sacred Area of Butkara I and R. C. Sharmaʹs Buddhist Art: Mathura School have also been used in the article.

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Kern, H. 2012. The Lotus Sutra: Saddharmapundarika Sutra. New Delhi: Lotus Press. Lee, Junghee. 1993. The Origins and Development of the Pensive Bodhisattva Images of Asia. Artibus Asiae Vol 53 No 3/4: 311‐357. Marshall, John. 1980 (Reprint). Buddhist Art of Gandhara: The Story of the Early School, Its Birth, Growth, and Decline. New Delhi: Oriental Books. Mishra, R. N. 1981. Yaksha Cult and Iconography. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Private Limited. Mitra, Debala. 1955. Three Kushana Sculptures from Ahichchattra. Journal of Asiatic Society, Letters,Vol XXI No 1: 63‐67. Miyaji, Akira. 2008. Iconography of Two Flanking Bodhisattvas in the Buddhist Triads from Gandhara:̄ Bodhisattvas Siddhartha,̄ Maitreya and Avalokiteśvara. East and West Vol 58 No 1/4: 123‐156. Muller, F. M., E. B. Cowell, and J. Takakusu. 1894. Buddhist Mahayana Texts. In the Sacred Books of the East, edited by F. Max Muller. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Nariman, J. K. 1992. Literary History of Sanskrit Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Rhi, Juhyung. 2006. Bodhisattvas in Gandharan Art: An Aspect of Mahayana in Gandharan Buddhism. In Gandharan Buddhism: Archaeology, Art, Texts, edited by Pia Brancaccio and Kurt Behrendt, pp. 151‐ 182. Vancouver: UBC Press. Rosenfield, John M. 1967. The Dynastic Arts of Kushans. Berkeley: University of California Press. Sharma, R. C. 1995. Buddhist Art: Mathura School. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Limited. Tripathi, Aruna. 2003. The Buddhist Art of Kausambi. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld.

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