Redalyc.The Meditating Bodhisattva in the Collection of the Museu

Bulletin of Portuguese - Japanese Studies ISSN: 0874-8438 [email protected] Universidade Nova de Lisboa Portugal

Romanowicz, Beata The meditating bodhisattva in the collection of the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga in Lisbon Bulletin of Portuguese - Japanese Studies, núm. 8, june, 2004, pp. 7-19 Universidade Nova de Lisboa Lisboa, Portugal

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THE MEDITATING BODHISATTVA IN THE COLLECTION OF THE MUSEU NACIONAL DE ARTE ANTIGA IN LISBON

Beata Romanowicz National Museum in Cracow, Poland

The sculpture of the Meditating Bodhisattva in the possession of the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga in Lisbon is among European collections an exceptional example of a Buddhist image cast in bronze, which rivets the viewer’s attention, compelling him to stop, reflect, and concentrate (Fig. 1). Once in the collection of the Parisian architect and ceramicist Georges Hoentschel (1855-1915), it was purchased at auction in 1919 by Calouste Sarkis Gulbenkian (1869-1955), who, when speaking about art, emphasized “with no presumption of false humility – ‘only the best is good enough for me’”; in 1952 Gulbenkian donated it to the museum (Fig. 2). The uniqueness of this object should be considered in a few aspects: its place in Buddhist art – the iconography and tradition of the Bodhisattva

Fig. 1. Meditating Bodhisattva, Fig. 2. Side of the sculpture: The human dimension Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon. of contemplation is underscored by the torso slightly Photographic Archives of the Museu inclined forward and by the head lightly bowed and Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon. propped on the arm bent at the elbow. Photographic Archives of the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon. 8 Beata Romanowicz image; size and techniques; workshop in which the sculpture was created; and the problem of imitation and copying of ancient masters as well as conti- nuity of religious art canons. In addition, it seems extremely interesting and important that this sculpture appeared in Europe, first in Hoentschel’s and then in Gulbenkian’s collection, far away from the Japanese islands.

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Buddhist images in art have been defined in the Japanese language by the term butsu-zó. However, this term mainly concerns sculpture in which the most important representations are those of Buddhas 1 and Bodhisattvas 2 as well as images of Myoo (fierce divinities) and Ten (heavenly beings), though the last two are of minor importance to the subject under discussion.3 The Sacred Texts record 32 essential characteristic features of the Buddha in all.4 Although these attributes originate from an ancient Indian tradition and concern a belief in the possession of these characteristics by the historical Prince Siddhartha, by being passed down in successive records they became an iconographic determinant. The works created in the region of Gandhara around the 1st century AD are regarded as the earliest butsu-zó. From there, via China and Korea, they reached Japan in the first half of the 6th century. Their expression, form, and style depend on Buddhist schools and historical periods as well as regions. Some attributes of the First Buddha pertain to Bodhisattvas as well, though in their appearance those elements are always accentuated or suggested which testify to their ties with life in the earthly realm. Very often it is an image of a person beyond sexual denotation, with a half-naked torso partially covered with a simple, plain robe draped longways on the body, and with a jewelled crown or diadem, called hókan, on the head. A crown ornamented with precious jewels is also referred to as tenkan (Crown of the Heavens), its forms varying and including those which cover the entire head or only its part.

1 Buddha – a term denoting a person who has attained the state of enlightenment – nirvana – having released himself from the cycle of successive incarnations by the extinction of worldly concerns. The first Buddha was Siddhartha Gautama, a prince from the Shakya clan (ca 560-480 BC). Nirvana – supreme stage of enlightenment, after the extinction of worldly concerns. 2 Bodhisattva – Sansk. Bodaisatta; it refers to a person seeking enlightenment; it originally concerned Gautama Shakyamuni before he reached the stage of nirvana. 3 Sawa Ryuken, Butsuzo zuten (Illustrated Dictionary of Buddhist Images), Tokyo, 1963. 4 Taikichi Irie, Shigeru Aoyama, Buddhist Images, Osaka, Hoikusha, 1990, pp.104-106. The Meditating Bodhisattva 9

The year 1912 saw the publication of an epoch-making book by Ernest Fenollosa, Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art. The book was read by all who wanted to learn more about Far Eastern art. Since this was the time of the two collectors Hoentschel and Gulbenkian, who were successive owners of the discussed sculpture, let us quote the definition of a Bodhisattva as pro- posed by Fenollosa in the early 20th century:

“The general Buddhist idea of a Bodhisattwa is of a being who has advanced so far in the scale of wisdom and insight, and the renunciation of fleshly ties, as to be just on the point of entrance into Nirvana and salvation. Spoken of human beings, it means their last earthly incarnation. But it comes to have much more special sense in Northern Buddhism: namely, a being who, though having the right to enter Nirvana, deliberately renounces it, electing to work under the conditions and possibly renewed temptations of the world, for the love of one’s fellow-man or of the whole sentient world.” 5

The sculpture of a person sitting in a meditative pose with the right hand touching the cheek, the left leg pendent and the right foot placed on the left knee, seems to play a role of great importance among Buddhist images. Primarily popular in Chinese Northern Wei sculpture for the representation of Prince Siddhartha before his enlightenment, it then became an iconographic type for the Bodhisattva Maitreya, whose name means in Sanskrit: Born of Love or Compassion. It is believed that Maitreya is exceptional among Bodhisattvas as the only historical disciple of Buddha Shakyamuni. His another name – Bodhisattva of the Future – is connected with the prom- ise that he will descend into the realm of humans and become a Buddha 5.670.000.000 years after the death of his Master Shakyamuni.6 At present he dwells in the Tusita heaven (Jap. Tosotsu-ten), in the fourth of the six realms, in the Inner Temple of the Palace of Seven Jewels. In Korea, particular worship and great religious respect for this representation produced numerous sculptures of exceptional importance especially in the Three Kingdoms Period (6th-early 7th c.). The cult of Maitreya came to Japan from the continent in the Asuka Period (1st half of 6th c.-645) owing to the Kingdom of Paekche. Although many examples of statues are

5 Ernest F. Fenollosa, Epochs of Chinese & Japanese Art, NY, Tokyo, Osaka &London, ICG Muse, Inc., [2000], pp.106-107; Originally published in 1912 by William Heinemann in London and by Frederick A. Stokes Company in New York. 6 A Dictionary of Japanese Art Terms. Bilingual Japanese-English, ed. Tokyo Bijutsu, 1990, p. 607 10 Beata Romanowicz dated to the Hakuhó (645-710) and Nara (710-794) Periods,7 this image gained special popularity again in the Late Heian Period (894-1185), when people believed in the forthcoming apocalyptic “latter days of the law”.8

1. The Bodhisattva Maitreya in Lisbon

The sculpture, 110 cm high, represents a sitting figure with the right leg – bent at the knee – resting on the left knee and the pendent foot supported by the left hand. The fingers of the right hand are lightly touching the face (Fig. 3). A decorative diadem, hókan, covers the entire head, while ornamental crown tassels called in Japanese kanzó (kantai or tentai) hang on the left and right sides. The hair combed smooth falls in two braids on the shoulders on which wisps of hair, resembling frozen streams, seem to assume the form of moun- tain ridges (Fig. 4). A simple, plain robe is thrown over the rounded shoulders, exposing the torso, and decoratively draped on the back. Marked below the waist is the “fleshy” protuberance of the abdomen; round the hips the cloth is arranged in repeated stylized folds which form a frieze of seemingly iden- tical segments. They are, however, quite irregular in shape, thereby intro- ducing a kind of subtle restlessness due to a delicate asymmetry. The textile falls clinging to the body, tightly enwrapping the right knee, whereas the precise shape of the left leg on the ground is lost under the surface of the

Fig. 3. Detail of ﬁg. 1. Fig. 4. Detail of ﬁg. 1. Crown tassels kanzó. Photographic Archives of the Museu Photographic Archives of the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon. Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon.

7 According to: The Handy Chronological Table of Japanese Art, Tokyo, Geishinsha, 1987. 8 Kyötarö Nishikawa, Emily J.Sano, The Great Age of Japanese Buddhist Sculpture AD 600- 1300, Kimbell Art Museum – catalog of the exhibition 1982-1983, p.58. The Meditating Bodhisattva 11 cloth. The octagonal pedestal for the seated figure is a transposition of the Lotus Throne encircled by a row of stylized lotus petals. Originally quite simple in design, over the centuries the Lotus Throne underwent changes until it became highly intricate and complex. When the robes worn by an image overlay the edges of the pedestal, providing a decorative effect, this is called the Draped Throne. The left foot is placed flat on an additional step jutting out. The step, too, is encircled by a row of falling lotus petals alternating with decoratively rolled leaves. The surface of the cloth is draped in ornamental, clearly marked, rather angular folds which form an ornament „living its own life”, with no reference to the neighbouring shapes. Despite their angularity and stiffness, one can discern a fanciful line of the draperies (Fig. 5). They are only seemingly regular, symmetrical in form – the outline of each fold is different.

Fig. 5. Detail of ﬁg. 1. Angularity and stiffness of the seemingly regular fold; Different shade of colour of the so-called artiﬁcial patina. Photographic Archives of the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon.

The human dimension of meditation and contemplation is underscored by the torso slightly inclined forward and by the head lightly bowed and propped on the arm bent at the elbow. This is a highly essential element of the entire composition. The arrangement of the hand closely resembles the mudra Abhaya responsible for protection: the blessing of fearlessness. 12 Beata Romanowicz

(“Right arm is elevated, slightly bent. Hand is level with shoulder, all fingers are extended, and palm is outward. Mudra of Buddha and Dipankara”).9 Such a rendering of a hand – with the outward palm – frequently appears in Korean sculptures, also those from the Three Kingdoms Period (Fig. 6 and Fig. 7). Here again we should emphasize the essential significance of Korea for the development of several spheres in Japan (religion, art, handicraft) and the necessity to analyse its cultural phenomena through the presence of strong continental influences.

Fig. 6. Contemplative Bodhisattva, Fig. 7. Bodhisattva in Meditation, gilt bronze, Silla, 7th century, H. 14.1 cm, gilt bronze, Three Kingdoms Period Kyonju National Museum. 7th century, H. 15.5 cm, Musée Guimet.

The Bodhisattva’s face in particular arrests the beholder’s attention – a broad smooth forehead cut with two arched lines of the eyebrows which decline gently, to pass into the bridge of the straight nose with clearly marked delicate alae. From under his half-closed eyelids he seems to gaze far beyond the beholder. This secret gaze seems magical, as if the line of vision drawn below the viewer’s eyes followed the gaze directed beyond us, beyond time. What is kept hidden from us is as it were contained in the smile modelled delicately but distinctly, with curved up corners of the mouth. In Buddhist art this image represents the iconographic type of the meditating Bodhisattva.

9 Antoinette K. Gordon, The Iconography of Tibetan Lamaism, Rutland, Vermont & Tokyo, Japan, Charles Tuttle Company, 1959, p. 20. The Meditating Bodhisattva 13

2. Analysis

The general outline of the figure presented here is well-founded in the Far Eastern iconographic tradition of the Bodhisattva Maitreya – the arrangement of the body, inclination of the torso, bow of the head, rounded line of full shoulders, small waist with the marked fold of the slightly protu- berant abdomen underlining fleshiness and, finally, the draped Lotus Throne with the left foot in a forward position… Nevertheless, the first impression of harmonious proportions, compact composition, and competent execution in accordance with religious art canons must be verified. The lack of coherence in form is visible in placing the statue on an octagonal pedestal, whereas the figure is enclosed in a quadran- gle. A particular touch of realism observable in the Lisbon sculpture, compilation of various motifs, meticulous rendition of some details, and rare, comparatively large dimensions indicate a number of sources of inspiration. The sculpture so closely refers to famous models of the 7th-8th centuries, known from Japan, that it almost immediately brings to mind a classical example of a Bodhisattva in the Chúgú-ji Temple at Nara, popularly called Nyoirin Kannon, representing the realism of the Tori school (Fig. 8) and Bodhisattva Maitreya (Jap. Miroku Bosatsu) in the Kóryú-ji Temple in Kyoto (Fig. 9) – both seated in the hanka shiyui pose (half cross-legged in meditation).

Fig. 8. Bodhisattva in Contemplation, Fig. 9. Miroku Bosatu, wood, wood, painted, 7th century, H. 87 cm, 7th century, H. 84.3 cm., Kóryú-ji Temple. Chúgú-ji Temple, Nara Pref. 14 Beata Romanowicz

Although the type of face in these three cases looks very much the same, we must not forget that only the Lisbon Bodhisattva is cast in bronze. This indicates its being preceded by a long tradition of bronze sculptures. We can find sculptures from the Hakuhó Period in Japan, when many objects came from Korea or were influenced by Korean models – among them numerous examples for Bodhisattvas half cross-legged in meditation poses – but all of them are of a characteristic small size – about 30-35 cm high (the above- mentioned Korean objects even smaller, 13-15 cm). The matter of height is of major importance to this analysis. The collections of the National Museum of Korea include two outstanding statues of Bodhisattvas (gilt bronze) from the Three Kingdoms Period and both of them are famous for their unusual size: 83.2 and 93.5 cm (Fig. 10, left; Fig. 10, right).

Fig. 10, left. Meditating Bodhisattva, Fig. 10, rigth. Meditating Bodhisattva, gilt bronze, 7th century, H. 83,2 cm, gilt bronze, 7th century, H. 93,5 cm, National Museum of Korea, Seoul. National Museum of Korea, Seoul. The Meditating Bodhisattva 15

The elaborate diadem and gorgeous kanzó decoration clearly recall bronze sculptures of this Period, but the shape and engraved motifs rather belong to a semi-Indian and a semi-Chinese tradition. Likewise, the hair worked out with meticulous care, with many elements rendered in great detail, suggests the influence of the Japanese Tori school and ancient Indian decoration joined together. A compilation of these elements in one sculpture, resulting in the lack of stylistic homogeneity, is one of the characteristic phenomena of late 19th century workshops. In the case of well-known ancient statues the representation of the large, complex, and fluent folds of the drapery hanging over the pedestal indicates the realism of the latter part of the Asuka Period. What can be described as different in the rendition of drapery in the Lisbon piece is its comparative stiffness and rigidity, this producing the impression of sheet-metal hardness of the decorative design motifs. Visible on the octagonal pedestal are four panels not covered by the drapery. They contain heavenly images – Apsaras – with musical instruments (Fig. 11). One of the most famous examples can be found in Byodó-in, Kyoto (Fig. 12), where around the Buddha image fifty two Bodhisattvas float on clouds, playing musical instruments. The technique of casting in bronze is here not only a technological term but also an element permitting the dating of the sculpture. Artificial patina on its surface, which is obtained in special chemical baths, is further evidence of the late, 19th century, origin of the work. Many bronze objects produced in the second half of the 19th century were coated with yet another layer of a kind of artificial patina to suggest their earlier date; this is a slightly

Fig. 11. Detail of ﬁg. 1. One of four panels with heavenly images – Apsaras with musical instruments on the octagonal pedestal. Photographic Archives of the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon. 16 Beata Romanowicz

Fig. 12. Apsaras-Musicians / called the Bodhisattva on Clouds, polichromed wood, joined block construction, 1053 A.D., approx. 50-70 cm, Byódó-in, Kyoto thicker layer, resembling a heavy coat of paint, which can also be seen on the surface of the sculpture discussed here.10 The cast was made in a clay mould fragments of which are discernible through the broken part of the diadem, forming a hole on the top of the figure’s head. The surface of the whole sculpture reveals numerous “defects” – fragments faultily cast at the first working and later made up in the fin- ished cast. As the percentage composition of bronze, made mainly of copper and tin with an admixture of several other metals, such as, e.g. aluminium, silicon, or beryllium, is very difficult to repeat accurately, successive alloy samples may vary in this respect. Even slight changes in the composition of alloy result in a different colour of bronze (See Fig. 5), while an additional chemical bath produces a different shade of colour of the so-called artificial patina.

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In conclusion, we should emphasize the eclectic, 19th century character of the sculpture of the Bodhisattva Maitreya in the Museu Nacional de Arte

10 Appropriate technological tests would permit the determination of the precise composition of the layer coating the surface. The Meditating Bodhisattva 17

Antiga, which is responsible for its specific charm. Although it was probably intended as an imitation of old masters, especially those of the 7th-8th centuries, a combination of many different stylistic features gives the impression of a certain new value. At first glance it throws the beholder into some confusion which does not allow him unequivocally to determine the provenance of the work, compelling him to seek its workshop somewhere between Japan and Korea… However, analysis of both the whole object and its particular elements permits at the present stage of research its attribution to a Japanese workshop, though with the reservation that the sculpture does not repre- sent a purely Japanese style. The first impression of its not being of Japanese origin is actually due to its not being purely Japanese in style. We have one more record that seems to confirm the above-expressed opinion. The documents of the auction of 1919, at which Calouste Sarkis Gulbenkian purchased the sculpture discussed here, contain the characteri- zation of the object: “Très belle pièce, d’une facture et d’une grâce exquise, dans le style de Tembio, exécutée par un des meilleurs artistes de Kwan-si. Japon.” Two terms ‘(...) le style de Tembio’ and ‘(...) artistes de Kwan-si. Japon.’ seem to be of essential importance and great interest. Both are Chinese read- ings of Japanese names written in kanji (Chinese characters). This means that ‘Tembio’ should be read ‘Tenpyó’ in modern Japanese and the whole sentence understood as “a sculpture made in the style of Tenpyó” (Period dated 729-48). The second phrase, read ‘Kwan-si’ in Chinese, should be understood as Japanese ‘Kansai’ – the Kyoto-Osaka area in the western part of Japan. The opinions presented in this paper are based on the up-to-date state of research; however, the smile of the pensive Bodhisattva may doubtless be riddled with many more secrets so intriguing for art historians. It is the viewer who decides to what extent the values conveyed in the ideological message of the image of the Bodhisattva Maitreya are in harmony with the representation of a deity, how convincing is the pensiveness and compassion hidden under a melancholy smile, and to what degree the viewer’s sensitivity will enable him to experience this encounter and remain under the spell of Meditação. This paper would not have been possible without tremendous assistance and support from the curators who provided me with materials of great value. I wish sincerely to thank. Alexandra Curvelo Campos and Maria João Vilhena de Carvalho for their invaluable contribution and Anízio Franco to whom I owe my introduction to the circle of art historians in Lisbon. 18 Beata Romanowicz

Abstract

The sculpture of the Meditating Bodhisattva in the possession of the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga in Lisbon is among European collections an exceptional example of a Buddhist image cast in bronze. We should emphasize the eclectic, 19th century character of the sculpture, which is responsible for its specific charm. Although it was probably intended as an imitation of old masters, especially those of the 7th-8th centuries, a combination of many different stylistic features gives the impression of a certain new value. At first glance it throws the beholder into some confusion which does not allow him unequivocally to determine the provenance of the work, compelling him to seek its workshop somewhere between Japan and Korea… However, analysis of both the whole object and its particular elements permits at the present stage of research its attribution to a Japanese workshop, though with the reservation that the sculpture does not repre- sent a purely Japanese style. The first impression of its not being of Japanese origin is actually due to its not being purely Japanese in style.

Resumo

A escultura do Bodhisattva Meditativo conservada no Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga de Lisboa é, no âmbito das colecções europeias, um exemplo excepcional de uma imagem do Buda realizada em bronze. Devemos enfatizar o carácter ecléctico, típico do século XIX, desta escultura e que acaba por lhe conferir um encanto particular. Embora fosse provavel- mente pretendida como uma imitação dos antigos mestres, especialmente os dos séculos VII e VIII, uma combinação de diversas características estilísticas acaba por lhe conferir um valor próprio. À primeira vista a peça deixa o observador bastante confuso, impossibilitando-o de determinar inequivocamente o local de origem da obra, levando-o a procurar a sua proveniência algures entre o Japão e a Coreia… Todavia, na actual fase de investigação, uma análise do objecto, tanto no seu todo como nos pormenores, permite atribuir a produção desta peça a uma oficina japonesa, embora a escultura não represente um puro estilo japonês. Aliás, a primeira impressão de que a obra não é de origem japonesa deve-se ao facto de não ter um estilo puramente japonês. The Meditating Bodhisattva 19

要約

リスボン国立古物美術博物館が所有する瞑想菩薩の像はヨーロッパにあるコレクションの中でひときわ優れた青銅の仏像である。像の折衷主義、１９世紀に造られた特長はそのとりわけ優れた魅力の要因であることを強調するべきである。７世紀から８世紀における巨匠の作品を模倣するつもりで作られたが、多くの異なった流派の特色の結合が新たな価値の印象を与えている。一見して観る人を混乱に陥らせ、作品の出所を明白に特定させはしないがその工房を日本と朝鮮の間に強く探求させる。けれども、作品の全体及び部分的要素の分析により、研究の現段階では像が純粋に日本流の物ではないという条件を置く限り、日本の工房で造られたと推測される。日本で造られた作品ではないという第一印象はそれが純粋に日本流ではないから生じるのである。