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Prenesi Prenesi Jana S. Rošker Li : Struktura kot temeljna epistemiološka paradigma tradicionalne kitajske filozofije LI 理: STRUKTURA KOT TEMELJNA EPISTEMOLOŠKA PARADIGMA TRADICIONALNE KITAJSKE FILOZOFIJE Zbirka: Razprave FF (e-ISSN 2712-3820) Avtorica: Jana S. Rošker Recenzenta: Andrej Ule, Mitja Saje Lektor: Nataša Visočnik Prevod povzetka: Jana S. Rošker Tehnična urednica: Lavoslava Benčić Založila: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani Izdal: Znanstvenoraziskovalni inštitut Filozofske fakultete Za založbo: Roman Kuhar, dekan Filozofske fakultete Oblikovanje in prelom: Lavoslava Benčić Ljubljana, 2021 Prva e-izdaja Publikacija je brezplačna. To delo je ponujeno pod licenco Creative Commons Priznanje avtorstva-Deljenje pod enakimi pogoji 4.0 Mednarodna licenca. (izjeme so fotografije) / This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (except photographies). Publikacija je v digitalni obliki prosto dostopna na https://e-knjige.ff.uni-lj.si/ DOI: 10.4312/9789610604747 Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani COBISS.SI-ID 65888515 ISBN 978-961-06-0474-7 (PDF) 2 Kazalo vsebine Prolog: Strukturalizem in njegovi kitajski predniki . 5 1 Specifi čne posebnosti tradicionalne kitajske fi lozofi je. .11 1.1 Imanentno videnje sveta in binarno strukturirani holizem . .11 1.2 Načelo komplementarnosti . .13 1.3 Kitajski model analogije. .15 1.3.1 Značilnosti analogizmov kot oblike relacijsko-strukturnega mišljenja . .16 1.3.2 Specifi ka kitajskega modela. .17 1.3.3 Semantične konotacije sklepanja . .20 2 Kulturna pogojenost razumevanja strukture . .29 2.1 Metodološke osnove: pojmi in njihove semantične implikacije v okviru medkulturnih študij . .29 2.2 Tradicionalno in moderno pojmovanje strukture na Kitajskem . .32 3 Izvor in semantični razvoj termina li 理 v klasični kitajski tradiciji . .35 3.1 Ontološke osnove: strukturni red kozmosa (天理) . .38 3.2 Struktura družbe, države in kulture (文理) . .45 3.3 Ustroj jezika in pomena: rojstvo strukturne semantike (名理) . .55 3.4 Izpraznjena struktura ali struktura izpraznjenja (空理) v siniziranem budizmu . .63 3.5 Strukturna združljivost bivajočega in struktura človeške narave (性理). .69 3.6 Struktura in tvornost: komplementarnost konceptov li 理 in qi 氣. .73 3.6.1 Križi in težave prevajanja. .74 3.6.2 Komplementarnost in varljivost primarnosti strukture . .79 3.6.3 Etične razsežnosti . .81 4 Strukturna združljivost zavesti in zunanjega sveta . .85 4.1 Zavest kot strukturno vodilo zaznavanja, dojemanja in razmišljanja . .85 4.2 Primer glasbe . .87 4.2.1 Epistemologija Ji Kangove teze o odsotnosti čustev v glasbi . .91 3 4.2.2 Stvarnost (shi 實) glasbe in njena konceptualizacija (ming 名). .97 4.2.3 Odprtost strukture: prazni koncept glasbe in harmonija svobode . 101 4.3 Strukturna epistemologija zgodnjega novega veka . 106 4.4 Na razpotju tradicije in moderne dobe: li kot zakonitost, princip ali logos? . 113 5 Kitajska moderna in strukturni pristop k spoznanju . 123 5.1 Renesansa in nadgradnja tradicionalne strukturne epistemologije. 123 5.2 Epistemologija relacij . 125 5.3 Prenova strukture v modernem konfucijanstvu: Feng Youlanov »Novi nauk o strukturi (新理學)« . .129 5.3.1 Fengova nadgradnja neokonfucijanskega koncepta strukture . 130 5.3.2 Strukturni vzorec (義理) . 135 5.3.3 Struktura in tvornost (理氣), celota vseh struktur (太極) in utelešenje poti (道體) . 136 5.4 Zhang Dongsunov epistemološki panstrukturalizem (番架構主義) . 141 5.4.1 Odsotnost substance . .143 5.4.2 Pluralnost spoznavnega procesa. 148 5.4.3 Elementi zaznavanja in dojemanja . 152 5.4.4 Struktura zunanjega in notranjega sveta . 161 5.4.5 Chan in evolucija. 165 Epilog: struktura sem, struktura tja . 167 Povzetek . 183 Abstract . 189 Viri in literatura . 195 Priloga 1: kronološka tabela kitajskih dinastij . .205 Priloga 2: koncept kronološke razčlenitve kitajske idejne zgodovine po vekih . 207 Imensko in stvarno kazalo strokovnih terminov v kitajščini . 208 4 Prolog: Strukturalizem in njegovi kitajski predniki Na pragu tretjega tisočletja smo strumno zakorakali v obdobje, v katerem večina ljudi koncept strukture dojema kot nekaj samoumevnega in vseprisotnega. Struk- tura je za nas osnovni, a često nejasen pojem, s katerim povzemamo spoznava- nje, opazovanje, naravo in stabilnost vzorcev ter odnose med entitetami. Koncept strukture je ključnega pomena za domala vsakršen tip raziskovanja na področju znanosti, fi lozofi je in umetnosti. Struktura je osnova vsakršnega sistema, in – kadar je vanj vključena tudi dinamična komponenta časa – tudi vsakršnega procesa. Je konfi guracija posamičnih elementov oziroma dejavnikov. Lahko je hierarhična (n.pr. kaskada odnosov ene in iste entitete z večimi različnimi), ali pa predstavlja omrežje mnogoterih odnosov med različnimi entitetami. Zato ni naključje, da se je v diskurzih »zahodne«1 humanistike in družboslovja že sredi prejšnjega stoletja razbohotila ideja strukturnega pristopa k spoznanju, k dojemanju in interpretaciji stvarnosti. Tovrstni pristopi so povzeti v nazivu struk- turalizem, ki predstavlja zbirni pojem za vrsto metod in raziskovalnih programov, s pomočjo katerih je mogoče analizirati strukture in relacije. Objekti raziskav se pri tem ne obravnavajo izolirano, kajti v tovrstnih diskurzih noben objekt ne more obstajati izven določene strukture, ki ga povezuje z drugimi. Šele znotraj strukture postane torej možen kot posamična entiteta, katero je moč tudi opazovati, razisko- vati, opisati in posredovati drugim. Strukturalistični diskurzi so vselej osredotočeni na strukturo, ki status objekta sploh omogoča. Često so te strukture opredeljene tudi s konvencijami našega dojemanja oziroma obravnavanja sveta, zato nam lahko služijo kot razlaga načinov oziroma vzorcev, v katerih se objekti vzpostavljajo, obli- kujejo in spreminjajo. Strukturalizem je osnovan na predpostavki, po kateri pojavi ne nastopajo izolirano, temveč izključno v povezavi z drugimi pojavi. V okviru strukturalizma se pojavi oziroma objekti, ki jih lahko opazujemo in opisujemo, razdelijo na segmente, med katerimi se potlej poskuša vzpostaviti (oz. rekonstruirati) povezavo. Strukturali- stični pristopi poskušajo analizirane pojave zaobjeti v sklopu raznovrstnih (koordi- natnih) omrežij, znotraj katerih je vsak element opredeljen z značilnostmi, korela- cijami in opozicijami, ki izhajajo iz njihovih vzajemnih razmerij. 1 Konotacije terminov »vzhod« in »zahod« so problematične in v funkciji kategoričnega razlagalnega modela vsebujejo nevarnosti grobega posploševanja. Zaradi bistvenih in merodajnih razlik med osnovno konceptualizacijo indijskih in kitajskih fi lozofskih sistemov je termin »Vzhodne fi lozofi je« popolnoma deplasiran in ga zato nikoli ne uporabljam. Tudi termina »zahod« tukaj ne uporabljam v smislu strogo politične ali celo geografsko pogojene kulturne specifi kacije, temveč kot rezultat refl eksije diferenciacije med transcendentalno in imanentno fi lozofi jo. »Zahod« je tukaj mišljen kot kulturno – civilizacijsko območje, ki je zaznamovano z rekurzi treh abrahamitsko- semitskih religij, namreč judovstva, islama in krščanstva. Kadar se uporaba termina »zahod/no« nanaša na jezike, so mišljeni tisti jeziki, ki sodijo v indoevropsko jezikovno skupino. 5 Evropski in ameriški teoretiki druge polovice 20. stoletja so strukturalizem razvijali naprej in ga v večih pogledih oziroma na več različnih ravneh nadgradili. Tovrstne teoretske nadgradnje običajno povzemamo z izrazom poststrukturalizem, četudi so precej večplastni in jih zato le stežka stlačimo v okvire enotne idejne struje. Temeljno razliko med njimi in zgodnejšimi strukturalističnimi diskurzi lahko v grobem povzamemo s tem, da takoimenovani poststrukturalisti obstoječe strukture in diskurze obravnavajo manj statično, kar pomeni, da se močneje osredotočajo na zgodovinske (časovne) diskontinuitete, ki te strukture določajo, predvsem pa tudi na pogoje njihovega nastanka. Zanje je značilna tudi kritična obravnava norma- tivnih predstav in teoretskih principov. Ti teoretiki raziskujejo in analizirajo tudi pogoje veljavnosti principov, ki urejajo klasične metafi zične sisteme. Pri tem upo- rabljajo v glavnem psihoanalitske, diskurzivne, semiotične in jezikovno-fi lozofske metode. Skratka, strukturalizem (vključno s svojo kritično negacijo oziroma nadgradnjo, imenovano poststrukturalizem), je ena od najpomembnejših teoretskih paradigem 20. stoletja, ki je najmočneje vplivala na idejne tokove sodobne lingvistike, soci- ologije, antropologije, zgodovine, psihoanalize, literarne teorije in sorodnih ved. Prvi tovrstni pristopi so izhajali iz lingvistike; ta model se je kmalu razširil tudi na vrsto ostalih disciplin, zlasti na antropologijo, psihoanalizo, sociopolitične vede in literarne študije. Strukturni model, nadgrajen z dinamičnimi vzorci postruktu- ralističnih diskurzov, je predstavljal prelomnico v razumevanju esence in funkcije jezika, subjektivnosti in kulture. Vsi ti diskurzi se seveda niso mogli izogniti raziskovanju določenih epistemolo- ških vprašanj, kot so na primer vprašanja po razmerju med subjektom in objektom (sebstvom in drugim), ali po razmerju med zaznavanjem, dojemanjem (oz. razu- mevanjem) in interpretacijo oziroma posredovanjem. Evropsko-ameriška teoret- ska produkcija 20. stoletja je proizvedla vrsto pomembnih elementov, ki so – zlasti na podlagi novih, temeljnih teoretskih pristopov v semantiki in semiotiki – pov- zročili bistvene premike v razmišljanju na področjih humanistike, kulturologije in tudi družboslovnih znanostih. Vsemu temu navkljub
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