CHAPTER II

THE CONCEPT OF ^RUTI,SVARA, ETC.

A, The Concepts of Sruti« Svara, GTaaa.% Murchana

Among the topics dealt with in Sangitaparijata, Pandit Ahobala has mentioned, Nadotpatti (production of sound), Sruti, Svara, GrSnas, Murchanas, etc. These topics constitute the fundamentals of music. It is therefore essential to consider them at the outset,

i) Marga and Desl Music

Ancient Indian music was called G^dharva Veda, It was regarded as a subsidiary Veda of SaoBaveda. The term Gandharva denoted a special body of music having a well defined form in all the three aspects of Svara, Tala and Pada, It was regarded as immutable and sacred as Veda- mantras, and its performance was also respected like a Vedic sacrifice. The ultimate aim of the performance of the sacri­ fice was to attain heaven. Similarly, the ultimate aim of Gandharva, which was the Ganayajna, was also to get away from the bondage of life and death and attain Moksa. The sacred nature of Saman was also borrowed by Gandharva( being the Upaveda of the former). Ahobala, in the beginning of his treatise (Sangitaparijata), lays down^ that music has been composed with the words of Veda and practice thereof gives

52 ^3

Moksa. It should therefore be practised as religiously as a Vedic ritual, G&dharvas'astra deals with the theory or science of music. Its theoretical vocabulary consisted of well defined terms and ideas. The terra is comprehensively used as Sangita or music, and includes Gayana (vocal music), Vadana (instru- mental music) and Nartana (the art of dancing). It seems the term was in vogue in this sense even before the days of Bharata. The term Gandharva has been defined by many ahcient •a musicologists.-' As per their definitions Gandharva consists of three elements viz, Svara (notation), Tala (time measure) and Pada (composition). Dattila has added one more element, »Avadhana' or concentration. Thus Giiidharva would mean the systematic presentation of a composition in the form of musical notes, duly regulated by a time measure. This is a very broad, com­ prehensive definition, intended to cover all aspects and all forms of music. Abhinavagupta in his commentary on Natyasastra 28.10, quotes the etymology of the term Gandharva, as given by Narada in his Siksa that 'Ga* indicates the vocal music or singing, Dha indicates the skilful playing of the lutist on the lute, Va indicates the Vakya or the composition, and the element of »Ra' indicates the other instruments. There is one more explanation of the term Gandharva, given by Abhinavagupta, as "that which maintains the language",'^ Here the term »Vacaffl» denotes the musical language, i.e. Giti, the 5^ verbal structure of the musical conposltion. Singing was the profession of a particular class of people in the Vedic days. They were called Gandharvas, Because music was their pro­ vince, it came to be termed as Gandharva. Bharata has stated that the origin of Gindharva, was in Gana (meaning Samagana), the lute, (the Vina) and the flute (Vamsa) (N.S. IV, 28.10). He has said that whatever he has stated about Gandharva has already been stated by Prapitamaha (i.e. Brahma), Bharata explained Gandharva in its relation to Natya. The main function of Gindharva in ancient theatre was in the Preliminaries and it had to perform a propitiatory role. Thus the term Gandharva used by Bharata denoted 'music' in general, its science and art. Its range of mean­ ing was almost the same as that of the English term 'music'. The term Sanglta, in its vast compass includes music in all its forms - vocal, instrumental, choral, together with the allied arts of dancing and gesticulating. Different authors like Narada, Sarngadeva, Damodara, Ahobala etc, have given definitions which agree in the meaning of the term as given above. Thus if music comprises of all the three art forms, why is it called only Sarigita? Ahobala says that vocal music being the primary form, other forms have to be taken as included therein, and the whole thing is known only by the term 'Sangita'. Religious fervour was the source of inspiration for ^5 all activities in man^s life, and more so with music. Music had tkus a higher status and belonged to the dignified society. It was regarded as a class music. Side by side, however, there existed music of the people at large. Their music was not connected in any way with rituals. Still that music was a part and parcel of their life. In this music were exposed their own sentiments, experiences in life, their professions etc. This music differed from the ritualistic music; but it was music and had its own rules of practice, though not perhaps as rigid as those of class music. Thus, at a time, there were two systems of music prevalent in the society, and they came to be distinguished from each other by their characteristics. Two distinctive terms came to be used to mention them. The first one, the class music, came to be termed as »fflarga», and the other one as Desi. The term 'M5:ga» sarigita covered all forms of Gandharva music. The word Marga is derived from the root 'Mrg*, meaning to find out, to search. This music was for the first time 'found out' by lord Brahma, and was demonstrated by Bharata (who learnt it from Brahma) and his disciples in the presence of lord Siva,'

This explanation of the term 'marga* was universally accepted and nobody seems to have raised any controversy about it at any stage. Marga means path, tradition. This type of music was handed down by tradition from times immemorial. Hence it is 'Mirga' music. Ahobala, too, has not gone beyond - 8 this trajditional explanation of Marga. The other type of music, i.e. Desi music, was lauklka, or mundane music. It was the music of the people, music of the masses. If Marga was divine, celestial, Desi was earthly- music, •Desi» means 'regional'. Desi music is the music belonging to people of different regions and having different tastes. This music differed according to the taste of the people of the particular region. It was not uniform, and did not follow any particular set of rules. Matariga was the first musicologist to give a rightful place to Desi music in his treatis:e, Brhaddesi,^ Desi music, according to him, belongs to all, right from the king to the cowherd; it is not, unlike the M^rga music, the property and privilege of a particular class of people (e.g. the priest class). Brhaddesi means a treatise on popular music - the music liked and sung by men, women, children, etc. of different regions. Different regions of the country had different types of Desi (regional, indigenous) music which was sung for the pleasure of the people in general, following the local styles and not any rigid rules of intervals, scales, or melody mould, Sarrigadeva who after Matariga laid down a clear cut distinc­ tion between Marga SangTta and Desi Sarigita, has defined DesT music as music capable of entertaining the masses. In his commentary on Ragaviveka chapter of Sangitaratnakara, Kallinatha has said that in Desi music, the artiste has more freedom for elaborations and improvisations according to will 51

IP 1^ and pleasure. In the chapter on 'Svara* he has equated Gandharva with Marga, and Gana with Desi. Sarngadeva has defined Gaha as a coDsposition in Desi Ragas, duly governed ill. ''- , /- by rules etc. By the time of Sarngadeva, Desi music had also developed into a systematic form of music, and had, like Maxga music, its own set of rules of presentation. Later, Marga Sarigita practically receded in background, and the whole field of music was taken over by the Desi music, which had developed both as a science and as a performing art, Ramamatya.like Sarngadeva regards Gana or Desi music as Laksyapradhaiiam - an art governed by rules of practice, and not by inflexible rules of theory, ^ Somanatha treats Desi music as modern music. Ahobala has defined Desi as •regional music'. He has further said that music, both Mstrga and Desf, when presented artistically, are the source of pleasure, ii) Sruti and Svara Whether it was Matga Saiiglta or Desi Sangita, it was governed by the fundamentals of Sruti and Svara. Any music had to be presented through the mediunj of notes, and the Svaras were built up by smaller micro-intervals or microtones called Srutis. The basic element of music is sound, which is manifested in the form of tones and microtones. Music finds an expression through the medium of sound, and the knowledge of the sound theory forms part of the knowledge of the ?8 physical laws of music. The physics of music comprises of the Svara (the tone structure), tila (rhythm structure) and Pada (composition or the word structure). I't is therefore essen­ tial to have thorough knowledge of all the three, and the study of the tone structure deserves first attention. Just as life is for body, so is sound for music, Nada (sound) is said to be containing two elements viz, 'Na' meaning air, and 'Da' meaning fire. Nada or sound is born 17 out of combination of the two, ' Nada is of two kinds - musical and non-musical, Sound or noise produced by irre­ gular motions of any kind with certain suddenness and energy, is non-musical. But when the motion is repeated regularly and at exact intervals of time, the effect is more uniform and agreeable, forming what is known as musical sound. All musical sounds are distinguished from each other by three qualities, viz. loudness (intensity, or strength, or volume) the pitch (particular place of any sound determined by the number of vibrations), and the timber (or quality or character, depending on the source of production of the sound). This

Nada permeates the entire field of music. It has been the soul 18 of the musical world. From the times of Samagana, certain sounds have been recognised in music. They are called notes or Svaras. The notes on which the Saman chants were based were called (i) Krusta, (ii) Prathaaa, (iii) Dvitiya, (iv) Trtlya, (v) Caturtha, (vi) Mandra and (vii) Atisvarya. These notes were 59 equated by Narada (N.S. 1,5,1 & 2) with the notes of Gahdharva. Froffl these seven Saraan notes are obtained the seven notes of the Gandharva, viz, Sadja, Rsabha, Gandhar a, Madhyaraa, Pancama, Dhaivata and Nisada (known by their respective signatures 3a, Ri, Ga, Ma, .., Dha, Ni). These seven notes form the Saptaka or the octave or the gamut of the Indian music. In Vedic music the notes were in descending order. In later music, the notes were in ascending order, Narada has explained how the seven notes of later music were derived from the seven notes of the Sama music. According to this explanation the relation between the two note systems as follows:

Saiiian notes Gsmdharva notes

1. Krusta Ma • • 2. Prathama Ga 3. Dvitiya Ri h. Trtiya Sa 5. Caturtha Dha 6. Mandra Ni 7. Atisvarya Pa

This correlationship has been laid down, taking Krusta as the first note (Prathamah) as stated by Narada, If Krusta is taken as the first note, we get the scale of 60

the present music as above, where there is an apparent dis­ crepancy, in the order of Dha and Ni. Bhattas'obhiikara has explained »Krusta' as the seventh note i.e. equivalent to Pancama of the current music. In later practice, the correlation of the two scales, appears as follows:

Sainan scale Current scale

Prathama * Madhyama Dvitiya Gandhara Trtiya Rsabha Caturtha Sadja Mandra Nisada Atisvairya Dha^ata Krusta Pancama

This showed a correct order of descent of notes in the scale. This was rearranged in ascending order after­ wards as Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, This scale has been the basis of the whole structure of music from the times of Bharata till to-day. In the process of evolution, music has undergone a lot of changes in order to keep pace with changed times and tastes; fundamentals however remained the same. In Indian music, the octave or Svarasaptaka used to be divided into twenty-two Srutis or microtonal intervals. 61

Matariga has stated that "The ^rutis form the basis of the Svaras. The notes, Sa, Ri, etc. are manifested through their ^rutis, just as a pitcher in darkness is tuamifested by a lanip,"^ s'ruti or microtonal interval is a division of the semitone, (not necessarily an equal division); it is a kind of half way house to a semitone. The relation of a note with another is expressed in terms of Srutis. These Srutis are fixed sounds, with the smallest possible intervals, capable of being heard as distinct from each other. A Sruti can be understood to be a unit of measurement of the relation between the notes in an octave. Even more important fact about Srutis is that they give rise to further intervening, modified notes by either lowering or raising the pitch of the concerned notes. In ancient music, there had been modifica­ tions in respect of Ga, Ni and Pa. Later, Sa and Pa have been regarded as immutable, and modifications take place in the remaining five notes.

The term Sruti is derived from the root '^u* to hear. There are various definitions of the term given by various 20 I authors which agree in their conception of the terra 'Sruti* - that it is a musical sound perceptible to the ear. There are two things about it. It must be a musical sound, and must have audibility. There cannot be any other sound beyond •sruti' that would fit itself in this definition. Because, it is the first sound of the kind, -^ Ahobala has not given separate definition of the term Sruti, Obviously, he has 62 accepted the traditional concept of the term. However, he goes a step further and says Srutis are not in any way different from Svaras. Audibility is the quality cotunjon to both, and if it is definitive, both are one and the same. The difference that is seen is like the difference between the snake and its coil, (S.P. 1,38). The number of Srutis has been accepted as twentytwo. Narada had mentioned five Srutis and had given their names as Dipta, Ayata, Karuna, Mrdu and Madhya. But these are not Srutis in the sense in which Bharata and others have used the terra. They are different expressions of notes in Saman music. The number twentytwo is not arbitrarily taken. It has been arrived after much thinking and experiments over it. Although modern methods were not obtainable then, our ancient musico­ logists carefully studied the sound theory, production of sound, interrelationship between two notes of an octave, and after having put all this into practice, they arrived at the twenty two basic musical sounds. The scientific correctness of this theory has been borne out by the experiments by the modern Western scientists in this regard. The modern scientists had at least modern up-to-date equipments for their experiments, which facility was denied to our ancient musico­ logists. The only instrument or apparatus available to them for this purpose, was the Vina, or the lute. This was however best availed of by them to arrive at their conclusions which have stood the test of time. For the first time in the 63 history of Indian rausic, Bharata njade an experiment on two Vinas tuned exactly alike, by keeping one undisturbed, and by shifting the notes of the other one in order to get the results he wanted. This process was called Srutinidari^ana, With the aid of four such experiments, he has established (i) the fundamental scale of the Marga music, and the dis- tances between notes in terms of Srutis and (ii) the total number of Srutis as 22 in a saptaka. Dattila speaks of 22 Srutis. Matariga, in his /- 22 Brhaddesi, quotes Kohala saying that "some hold the view that Srutis are 22; according to some they are 66; some opine that their number is infinite". Matanga instead of giving his own opinion clarifies all the views expressed by Kohala, About 22 S'rutls, he refers^harata-s experiment by wMoh the number 22 has been established, but does not mention Bharata»s name. About the number 66, he says there are three registers or Sthanas - Mandra, Madhya and Tara - of the musical scale, and if there are 22 Srutis (in the notes) in one Sthana, the number is 66, in all the three taken together. About ^antyam or infinite number, he refers to the infinite sounds (Dhvani- vis'esas) occurring in the vast expanse of air, and says, they are innumerable, as much as the ripples caused by wind on the surface of water are, -' Sarngadeva also, like Bharata, has laid down the process of four Saranas, to establish the twenty-two Srutis. The only difference was that the lutes or Vinas he used for 6^ this purpose had twenty two strings each, unlike Bharata's which had only seven strings. There is yet another difference between the experiments of Bharata and Sarrigadeva. Bharata took for granted the existence of basic scale of seven Suddha Svaras and proceeded to establish the Srutis. Sarngadeva on the other hand, has taken the existence of 22 Srutis for granted, and with the aid of the 22 strings of the Vina tuned in such a way as not to allow any intervening sound between the sounds of any two strings, he has located the seven notes, thereby indirectly proving that the total number of Srutis that span the intervals between the notes cannot be more than 22. Bharata's experiment was based on the concept of con- sonant relationship of the notes. Sarngadeva's concept was that there cannot exist any resonant sound that would possess the quality of pleasing, beyond the span of the nonresonant 22 sounds, Rana Kumbha in his Sarigitaraja follows the Sarana- vidhi of Sarngadeva, for establishing the Sruti number as 22, According to him, the prayojana of Saranavidhi is the deter­ mination of the number (lyatta) of ^utis, and the relative value of Svaras. He holds that Srutis are not ordinarily apprehensible i,e, not capable of ordinary sense perception. He fully endorsed what Narada had stated in his l^ikssT in ok this regard. Pandit Venkatamakhin, the author of Caturdandiprakas'ika admitted, as an exception to the tradition, 2^+ Srutis instead 6? of 22, However, his admission of two more Srutis is only technical and has not much significance, since he had based his raga system on 12 notes (Seven Suddha and five Vikrta), which are comprised in the traditionally admitted twentytwo Srutis, Ahobala says that, considered from the quality of audibility,^ s'rutis are innumerable. But considered from the point of consonant relationship of the musical notes, Srutis are only twentytwo. Srutis are sounds that are fix­ ed, useful in music, distinguishable (from each other) and in good concordant relationship with other notes. Judged by the above characteristics, the number of such sounds or Srutis useful in music is just twentytwo, Bharata, by his experiment of Srutinidarsana, deter­ mined the number of Srutis as 22, and also determined the number of Srutis in each note. He does not seem however, to have named them, (Earlier to Bharata, Narada had mentioned five Srutis, and had also given their names). It is not clear why Bharata did not find it necessary to name his Srutis which had such an important role to perform in the sphere of music. Perhaps he was more concerned with the establishment of consonant relationship between notes of the Saptaka, Dattila and Matanga also have not given the names of the Srutis although they have spoken of their function. The names of the Srutis have, however, been given by the medieval writers. The names of Srutis are apparently given 66 for the first time in Bharatabhisya by NSiyadeva, (later 11th century A.D.). They are: (i) Tivra, (ii) Kumudvatr, (iii) MandC, (iv) Chandovati, (v) Dayavati, (vi) Raiifjani, (vii) Raktika (Ratika?), (viii) Raudri, (ix) Krodha, (x) Vajrl, (xi) Pras'arinT, (xii) Priti, (xiii) Marjani, (xiv) Ksiti, (xv) Rakta,(xvi) Sandipani, (xvii) Alapinl, (xviii) Madanti, (xix) RohinT, (xx) Raiaya, (xxi) Ugra, (xxii) Ksobhini. Practically all the later musicologists have adopted these names. In Sangitasaroayasara of ParsVadeva, names of sixtysix Srutis have been given. Separate name has been allotted to each of the twentytwo Srutis in each of the three registers. Mandra, Madhya and Tara, ' Only Bh^vabhatta in his Anupa- sangitavilasa, has given different names of these 22 Srutis. They are: Nandana, Niskala, Gudha, Sakala, Madhura, Lalita, Ekaksara, Bhrrigajati, Hrasvagitika, Ranjika, Apara, Purna, • • • Alaakarini, Vainika, Valita, Tristhana, SusvaraT, Saumya, Bhasarigika, Vartika, Vyapaka, Prasanna (Subhaga?). No reason has been given by Bhavabhatta for changing the names of the Srutis, The twentytwo microtones or Srutis as devised by Bharata have been distributed among the seven notes constitut­ ing the scale, viz. Sad;)a, Rsabha, Gandhara, Madhyama, Pancama, Dhaivata and Nisada. These notes are the pillars on which the whole structure of Indian music is rested. A note means a sound plus expression. It is already pointed out that the seven notes of the Indian music have been obtained 67

from the seven notes of the Saiijan music. The difference between the two systems is that (i) In Saiuan music the scale was in descending order (Avarohakrama, from high to the low pitch); in later music it was adopted in ascending order (Arohakrama). (ii) In Saman music, there was only one Saptaka or register. In later music there are three registers - Mandra, Madhya and Tar a, Matariga has given the explanation of the terra, 'Svara'. He has stated that the term Svara is formed from the root 'HaJ* with the prefix 'Sva', According to him Svara is self-illu- 7S minating, self-expressing. It is a sound that pleases (the mind of the hearer). Raga here means pleasure. He has cited Kohala saying »sound that is melodious is Svara'. Nahyadeva has defin- ed Svara as a sound which makes itself melodious. Sarngadeva has given a broader and clearer idea of the terra. According to him, Svara is the note arising immediately after the Srutis, sweet and resonant, itself pleasing the mind of the listener. Resonance is the additional quality mentioned by Sarngadeva in respect of Svara,following Abhinava. When one strikes the string of a lute, the first sound produced, which has audibility but no resonance, is Sruti; continuity of the same sound in the form of resonance is Svara. Ramamatya has simply reproduced Sarngadeva's definition. Pandit Deunodara's definition also is not in any way different from that of Sarngadeva. In Sarigitasudha of Raja Raghunatha Svara is stated to be the form of Sruti which contains resonance and melodiousness, Ahobala, 68 too, has defined Svaras more or less on the same lines as Sarngadeva. He has accepted that a Svara is born after Srutis, it is sweet, it is of resonating character, and it has the capacity to please the hearts of the listeners. This defini- tion as well as that given by Sarngadeva seera to be quite comprehensive. Other definitions appear cryptic, and des- criptive of a particular quality of Svara, and not speaking of entire function thereof. The term 'Srutyanantarabhavi* or 'Srutyanantaramutpannah' has raised a point - whether Srutis are first or Svaras. In Vedic music, there is a mention of Svaras but not of Srutis. The Saiuan chants were sung in notes like, Krusta, Prathama, Dvitiya, Tritya, etc. It has not been laid down anywhere in Sainan music whether these notes were comprised of any i^utis. It has been stated that the seven notes of the later (Gandharva) music were der^.ved from the seven notes of the Saman music, NS*adi Siksa^has spoken of the five*fold distinction of the Svaras - Udatta, Anudatta, Svarita, Pracita and Nighata; but it does not indicate whether Svaras have appeared first or Srutis. The concept of the twenty-two Srutis has crept in music for the first time in Bharata's time. Bharata however appears to have given Srutis a position secondary to Svaras, Svaras according to him were self-revelatory, and Srutis were only secondary demarcations made within the Svaras. He has stated that the Sirutis were accomplished through the Svaras. He has taken for granted the existence of Svaras, and on that 69 presumption, he has, by his elaborate process established the existence of twentytwo Srutis, and also the number of Srutis contained in each of the Svaras. Abhinavagupta, in his commentary on the Natyasastra, has, in vindicating the stand of Bharata in this regard, laid down that it is on the basis of Svaras that the high or low positions of Srutis are re- 37 cognised. However, Abhinavagupta, at the same time also finds it difficult to justify the subservient position given to Srutis by Bharata. There seems to be a conflict in his mind about Bharata's view. Other commentators of Bharata also are not in agreement with Bharata in this regard. Dattila be­ lieves that Svaras arose from Srutis, and the Srutis hold a dominant position over Svaras. He regards Srutis as specific sound* in the octave which could be discriminated as dis­ tinct and separate. Thus Srutis are the first sounds - the musically significant micro-tones, from which the notes or Svaras derived their existence. Later musicologists do not appear to have entered into any controversy about this. They have taken for granted the •Srutyanantarabhavitva' of Svaras. They have accepted that, when the string of a VinaTis struck the first sound that is created immediately after the stroke is Sruti, and the one that follows in the form of resonance is Svara. That is why a Svara is supposed to rest on the last of its component Srutis,

Microtones as devised by Bharata, have been distribut­ ed among the seven notes as underT- 70

(^ruti) Microtone Svara (Sruti) Microtone Svara

1, Tivra 12. Priti 2, KuDJudvati 13, Ms&janl Madhyania 3, Manda" ll+. Ksiti U-, Chandovati Sadja 15. Rakta ^. Dayavati 16. Sandipani 6. RanjaniT 17. Alapini PaKcama 7. Ratika" Rsabha 18. Madantl 8. Raudri 19. RohinT 9. Krodha Gahdhara 20. RamyaT Dhaivata 10. Vajrika 21. UgrsT 11, Prasarini 22. Ksobhinr Nisada

Thus Adja is constituted of four srutis, Rsabha of three, Gandhara of two, Madhyaaa of four, Pancama of four, Dhaivata of three and Nisada of two. Every Svara rests on the last of its Srutis. Hence, Sadja is on fourth Sruti from Nisada, Rsabha on third Sruti from Sadja, Gahdhara on second Sruti from Rsabha, Madhyama on fourth Sruti from Gahdhara, Pancama on fourth ^uti from Madhyama, Dhaivata on third Sruti from Pancama, and Nisada on second Sruti from Dhaivata, These microtonal distinctions of the Svaras have been achiev­ ed by Bharata, by his scientific process, mentioned earlier. In the time when the Natya/aitra of Bharata was written two scales or Gramas were in vogue, viz, Sadjagrima beginning 71 with Sa, (Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni), and Madhyama Grama beginning with Ma, (Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga). To arrive at the definite nuiaber of Srutis in each Graxna as well as in each Svara, Bharata made four experiments. He had not named his experiment as Sarana, The name was given by the later musicologists. For this purpose, he took two Vinas exactly alike in all respects, with seven strings in each, similarly tuned in Sadja Grama, Out of these two Vinasf^one was kept undisturbed. From the other Vina, the string of Pancaraa was so lowered, that the string so tuned would form the consonant relationship of original fourth (Sadja-Madhyama Bhava) with the string of Rsabha. Now the difference between the Pancaraa of the undisturbed (Acala) Vina and that of the disturbed one (Gala) is of one Sruti, This one Sruti has been regarded as the standard or Pramana Sruti, so called because with the aid of this, the Sruti intervals of other notes could be easily determined. Having lowered the Pancama as said above, and treating the same as the Pancaraa of the Sadjagrajna, the other strings of the Gala Vina"would be so lowered as to form the Sadjagrama scale with the new Pancama, That is to say, the whole Vina should be lowered by one Sruti, It will be observed that none of the notes of the Gala Vina thus tuned will agree with the corresponding note in the Acala Vina, From the first Sarana only the Pramana Sruti with its dimension is obtained. There is no other benefit out of this Sarana. 72

Siirana 2;

By lowering the Gala Vina with one more sVuti, it was observed that the notes Gandhira and Nisada of the Gala Vina agreed with the notes Rsabha and DhaLvata of the Acala or Dhruva Vina. This process gives us the idea that Gandhira and NisSda are each two Srutis away from Rsabha and Dhaivata respectively; that is to say, Gandhara and Nisada are of two Srutis each. This gives an account of four Srutis.

Sarana 3:

Here again, the Gala Vina was to be lowered by one fflore Sruti. It would be then observed that the notes Rsabha and Dhaivata of the Gala Vina coincided with the notes Sadja and Pancaffla respectively, of the Acala Vina, Since the reduc­ tion is made by three Srutis by now, the two notes Rsabha and Dhaivata will be found to be of three Srutis each. This gives an account of six Srutis.

Sarana hi

In this fourth experiment, the notes in the Gala Vina were to be reduced by one more Sruti, It would be seen that the notes Sadja, Madhyama and Pancama of the Gala Vina, coin­ cided with the notes Nisada, Gandhara, and Madhyama, of the Acala Vina. This establishes that each of the notes Sadja, Madhyama and Pancama, is four Srutis away from each of the notes Nisada, Gandhara and Madhyama, respectively. In other words, the notes Sadja, Madhyama and Pancama are of four 73

^rutis each. This gives on account of twelve Srutis. The second and third Siranas have already given an account of h iS'rutis and 6 Srutis. In all these processes, the total number of 22 Srutis has been accounted for. Simultaneously the Sruti contents of each note also has been established, Bharata's four experiments in a tabular form will be as under.(.P"''^) From the following table it will be seen that the Svara arrangement of the Vina starts from Nisada and Sadja has a fourth position. From this Sadja Madhyama is at a distance of nine Srutis, and Pancama at a distance of thirteen Srutis. But actually the position of Madhyama is on 13th S'ruti. It would mean that this Madhyama is in relatiorit)f fifth to Ni note. This would go to prove that the relation of fifth (Sadja - Pancama Bhava) is the natural relationship of con­ sonance among the notes. Ahobala has said that all notes stand in relationship of consonance with some notes. The Ga-Ni relationship and Ma-Sa relationship spoken of here, are also relationships of fifth only. Srutis which go to con­ stitute Svaras, also stand in this relationship of fifth. While determining the number of Srutis, Ahobala has said that there may be limitless pitches of sounds; but those that can be utilised in music must have the relationship of consonance A\ amongst them, and such number is only twenty two. The notes Sadja, Rsabha, etc. seen above are the basic notes, called otherwise 'Suddha Svaras'. These basic notes form the basic scales. They are called GriDiias. Narada in his 7h

S, ^ruti £>hruya Gala vrna No, name Vina —:_ •;;;_— ^—-^ -^—-;;- Svara Sarana Sarana SaranaT Saxana 1 • 2 • 3 ' ^ '

0, Ksobhini Nisaiia - « - Sadja 1, Tivra - - - Sadja 2, Kumudvati - - Sadja 3, Manda - Sadja - - Rsabha h, Chandovati Sadja - - Rsabha 5, Dayavati - - Rsabha - Gahdhara 6, RaJijani - Rsabha - Gahdhara 7, Raktika Rsabha - Gahdhara 8, Raudri - Gandhara _ - - 9, Krodha Gahdhara - - _ Madhyama 10, Vajrika - - . Madhyama 11, Prasarini - - Madhyama 12, Priti - Madhyama - _ _ 13, Marjani Madhyama _ » - PaiTcama 1^, Ksiti - - - Pancama 15. Rakta - - Pancama 16. Sandipani - P^caraa - - Dhaivata 17. Alapini Pancama - - Dhaivata 18. Madanti - - Dhaivata - Nisada 19. Rohini - Dhaivata - Nisada * • 20. Ramya Dhaivata - Nisada 21. Ugra - Nisada - _ _ 22. Ksobhini Nisada - - - _ 75

Siksa, has defined GraJua as a collection of notes. He has further clarified that just as a collection of men forms a GraJua (a village, a community), similarly a group of notes forms a Graina in music. Matanga has also used a similar word for Grama (Samuhavacin). Sangitamakaranda has defined Graina as a group of notes. Nanyabhupala says Grama is made up of seven notes. Sarngadeva has stated that Grama is not an ordinary collection of notes, hut an orderly collection, since it has to give rise to Murchanas etc. In Sarigitasudha also the definition of Grama on the above pattern is given. Venkatamakhin's definition follows the pattern of Narada. Venkatamakhin has not specifically mentioned the Murchana- as'rayatva of Gramas. Perhaps he had taken it for granted and had not felt the necessity to mention it, Ahobala has men­ tioned that Graiias are collection of notes and are the basis - - A; _ of Murchanas, Narada's definition of Grama was basic but it was incomplete. The inner meaning of the term was made mani­ fest by Sarngadeva, In ancient Indian music three basic scales or Gramas were in use - (i) Sadja Grama, (ii) Madhyama GrSja, and (iii) Gindhara Grijua - each named after the note with which it started. Narada speaks of.these three Gramas, Bharata's Natyasastra speaks of two gremas only - Sadjagrama and Madhyama- grama. The reason for not mentioning Gandhara Grama in Natya- sastra may possibly be that by that time it had become obsolete. About these Grajaas Narada says Sadja Graxua is obtained on 76 earth, Madhyaraa Grama in mid-region and Gizidhara Grama in heaven, Gihdhara Grama existed only in terms of celestial music. Dattila says 'Gahdhara Gr^a existed only technically, not in practice'. In Matanga's Brhaddesi it is said that Gandhara Grama is not intended for mortals. Sarngadeva also 52- says that Gandhara Grama existed only in heaven. Why was Gandhara Grama sung only in Svargaloka? Nahyabhupala in his Bharatabhasya gives the reason for this, that owing to Atitara and Atimandra notes, it was beyond human capacity to present it. Sangitasudha ascribed to Raja Raghunatha says Gandhara ^ Si Grama is fit to be sung by Narada only. Later musicologists have coolly accepted that Gandhara Grsuna was intended for singing by Gandharvas and the like. They did not hasten to take shelter under either Dattila*s clarification or Nahya- deva's. The fact remained that Gandhara Grama existed only theoretically, and not in practice. Bharatabhasya speaks of its Atitaratva and Atimandratva. But since it was not at all in practice (even in the days of Bharata, more so in the days of Nanyadeva), who would vouch for the impracticability of Atitaratva and Atimandratva? It was therefore convenient to record the Grama in the name of Gandharvas or Svargaloka and finish with it. Why only Gandhara Grama, in later medieval period Madhyama Grasa also became obsolete, and the entire musical structure was pivoted on Sadja Grima alone. The note structure of the three Gramas according to Nanyadeva and Sarngadeva is as under.*^ 11 s'ruti Sadja Madhyama Gsmdhara No. GrIiDa Graba Graina

1. ^ ^ Ni

2. «• - - 3. - - - \. Sa Sa Sa 5. - - - 6. - - Ri 7. Ri Ri - 8. - - - 9. Ga Ga - 10, - - Ga 11. - - - 12. - - - 13. Ma Ma Ma llf. ~ - - 15. - - - 16. - Pa Pa 17. Pa - - 18. - - - 19. - - Dha 20. Dha Dha - 21. - - «« 22. Ni Ni Ni 78

Ahobala states that in MacLhyama Grama Nisada Is of three Srutis. That means, he understands Dhaivata in Madhyama Grama as having three Srutis viz. 17th, l8th & 19th Srutis, It is clear that this Dhaivata, although of three Srutis, is different from Dhaivata of the Sadjagrama which is on 20th Sruti. The Sruti distribution of his Gandhara Grama is also different. In his Gandhara Grama, all notes except Ni are of three Srutis and Ni alone is of four Srutis. Second line of the verses 101 and 102 in which Ahobala defines Gandhara GrajDa become clearer when we read them with the additional portion found in B.O.R.I. Ms. The Sruti strength of the notes in the different Gramas according to Ahobala is as follows:

Sadja Grama : h Sa, 3 Ri» 2 Ga, h Ma, h Pa, 3 Dha, 2 Ni Madhyama Grama : h Ma, 3 Pa, 3 Dha, 3 Ni, h Sa, 3 Ri, 2 Ga Gandhiira Grama : 3 Ga, 3 Ma, 3 Pa, 3 Dtia, M- Ni, 3 Sa, 3 Ri*

* Ga, Ri of three Srutis according to Ahobala, vide SP. 102,

The difference between the Sadja Grama and Madhyama Grama of Bharata is that in the former Pa is of if Srutis, and Dha of 3 Srutis; in the latter. Pa is of 3 Srutis, and Dha of h Srutis. It has been seen from Bharata's Sarana No.l « that Sadja Grama could be converted into Madhyama Graxna by reducing Pancama to three Srutis. The last ^ruti of Pancama is gained by Dhaivata, which then becomes of four Srutis. 79

The scale of Sadja Grama that is the Sruti strength of the notes of Sadja Grama has been determined by the Sarana Prayogas No, 2, 3 & ^ of Bharata. The principle of consonance is the soul of Grazoa arrangement of Bharata. In fact it is the very soul of the whole musical structure itself. All music is based upon relations between notes. The raga system to which practically the whole Indian music belongs is based on relations between the diverse successive sounds which form the notes thereof, on the one side, and on the other, a permanent, fixed, and invariable sound, the tonic. If, for example, out of two notes one is Sa, the relation of the other note with it determines its expression or Bhava. Likewise, with this fixed note 'Sa» which will be the tonic, the notes following sub­ sequently, viz. Ri, Ga, etc. will have some relationship with •Sa'. Out of these relationships, the relationship of Sadja - Madhyama and Sadja Pancama, will be found to be more melodious and sweet to the ears, than the relationship of any other note. The melodious relationship is called the phenomenon of con­ sonance, or Samvadi-bhava. This consonance gives to the listener a pleasing and restful sensation aj:id conveys to his mind distinct and definite impressions. To have the experience of this, it is necessary to listen constantly to the tonic while listening to Indian music. That is why a drone provid­ ing the tonic is constantly hummed up in the background in the vocal performance or repeated at frequent intervals while 80

playing on stringed instruments. The scale of Gaiidhara Grama as given by Sarngadeva is difficult to reconcile with this phenomenon of consonance. The ^ruti intervals of the Sadja Grama and Madhyama Grajua have been determined by scientific process; they are self-expressive, and fit themselves in the theory of consonance. The Sruti intervals of Gandhara Grama were deficient in regard to the principle of consonance. That may be a reason why Gandhara Grain a could not hold long in the field of music, and was extinct even before the advent of Bharata. Prof, E, Clements says about Gandhara Grama, "The Gimdhara Graina has always presented difficulties to students, and has always proved an attractive problem, in spite of the fact that it was obsolete in Sariigadeva's time ,., , The difficulty of the problem attaches to 'Cyuta Pa' which divides the six Sruti interval between Ma and Dha into two intervals of three Srutis. Now, two ojinor tones (10/9 x IO/9) are greater than a minor third 6/5 (or six Srutis), If Pa is taken to be a minor tone on 3 Srutis below Dha, the interval separating it from Ma will be 27/25, a difficult interval to sing. This may account for the disappearance of Gandhara Grama," The notes aadja, Rsabha, Gandhara, Madhyama and Nisoia of this Grama are different from those of either Sadja GrSna and Madhyama Grama. The ^ruti intervals between Sadja-Pancama, Pancama^SadJa, Madhyama- Nisada etc. do not suit the theory of consonance and are therefore unscientific. This could not perhaps be explained 81 in clear terQ?s by tDusicologists, Nanyabhupala also did not take pains to elaborately state the import of his terms • atitaratva' and »atiraandratva'. Whatever may be the reason, Gandhara Grima is not mentioned by Bharata as a scale of practical music. Then why was it taken notice of, at all? According to Srinivasa, it was only out of academic interest, ' He also clubs here Madhyama Grama, which had be­ come obsolete in his time- even earlier. According to Shri S. Ramanathan, the learned musico­ logist of South, Gandhara GrSna was Dhaivata Murcchana, It fell into disuse because of its being difficult for playing. The scale Vilarippalai is derived from Sempalai (the Tamil fundamental scale) which is identical with Dhaivata Murcchana of Sa Grama, It is described as the scale impossible for playing. This scale is derived by taking Gandhara of Sempalai as tonic. (J.M,A,M, XXXI, pp. 75-79). The Sruti arrangement in a Grama or basic scale was laid down by Bharata with the aid of the Vina, The Vina was tuned in such a way that the note produced from the lowest string was SadJa and other notes followed in order in accord­ ance with consonance based on sruti intervals. The tuning of the VinaT would be: ^ Sa, 3 Ri, 2 Ga, ^ Ma, h Pa, 3 Dha, 2 Ni in Sadja Grama and h Ma, 3 Pa, \ Dha, 2 Ni, h Sa, 3 Ri and 3 Ga in Madhyama Graina, The notes in the Grikas have been fixed on the principle of consonant relationship. This was the very basis of Bharata's musical system. He has said 82 that those notes which are at a distance of 9 or 13 Srutis from each other, are mutually consonant to each other. In Sad J a GrSna, for example, Madhyama is at a distance of 9 Srutis from Sadja. This is a 9 Sruti - consonant relationship, or Sadja Madhyama Bhava, Between SadJa and Pancama there is an interval of 13 Srutis. This is Sadja-Pancama-Bhava. In Sadja Grama, the pairs of notes which stand in Sadja-Pancama (i.e. 13 i^ruti) Samvada, are Sadja-Pancama, Rsabha^Dhaivata and Gajidhara-Nisada; and in Madhyama Griuaa Ga-Ni. Those notes which stand in 9 Sruti consonant relationship are Sadja and Madhyama, in Sadja-Graina, In Madhyama Grama they are Sadjsu Madhyama, Rsabha-Pancama, The notes that constitute the fundamental scales, are called Suddha Svaras, the basic or original notes. Apart from these seven basic notes, there are other modified or altered notes, which are called Vikrta Svaras, In Bharata's Natyasastra, only two such modifications have been mentioned. They are Antara Gandhara, a modification of Gandhara and Kakali Nisada, a modification of Nisada, In Natyas'astra it has been termed as Sadharana, It has been explained that the note that is formed in between two notes is called SB Sadharana, Antara Gandhara and Kikali Nisada were the two Sadharana Svaras, or intermediary or overlapping notes, in vogue in the music of Bharata's time, Antara Gandhara, a note intermediary between Gandhara and Madhyama, was formed by adding two Srutis of Madhyama to the Srutis of Gandhara. Thus 83 if Gandhara was on the 9th ^ruti, Antara Gmidhajca. was on the 11th Sruti, Similarly, Kakali Nisada was an intermediary note between Nisada and Sadja, formed by Nisada taXing two Srutis / — — of Sadja. Thus if Nisada was on 22nd Sruti, Kakali Nisada was on the second sruti. There were certain rules fixed regarding the use of the Sadharana or modified Svaras:- i) The Sadharana Svaras or intermediary notes have to be used only when it would be necessary, and that too in a very small proportion. ii) The use thereof should be restricted only to such Jatis wherein the use of Nisada and Gaiidhara is restricted, iii) It is to be made use of only in aiscending order and never in descending order. If it would be used in descent, it would mar the melodiousness of the Jati, It can be seen that the Sadharana Svaras are obtained in Bharata's Srutinidarssuia itself. In Sarana II, Sadja stand- ing on second (Kumudvati) Sruti, is the same as Kakali Nisada; Madhyama standing on 11th Sruti (Prasarini) is the same as Antara Gandh'ara. (Pancama standing on l^th (Rakta) is equivalent to Tivra Madhyama. Tivra Madhyama was however not in vogue in the days of Natyasastra, and it is a later innovation, when perhaps Raga Gayana came in vogue.) Dattila holds the view that the two intermediaries did not enjoy the status of full notes, since these notes would never become the Amsa or dominant note in any Jati. After Bharata, till perhaps Sarrigadeva, there seeras to have been no addition to the number of Vikrta notes, Abhinavagupta and Nanyabhupala have made a mention of Trisrutika Gandhara and Tri^rutika Nisada, calling them Kaiiika Ga and Kaisika Ni, It may be that these notes may have just come into use in the music of that time, and hence perhaps the composite Srutis may not have been determined till then, Sarngadeva has described twelve Vikrta notes on the basis of Abhinavagupta's explanation of Svara-Sadharana, During Sarngadeva's time, Raga music had come to stay, and the ragas in vogue in his time included Vikrta notes in their note structure. Sarngadeva's twelve Vikrta Svaras are: (i) Kaisika Nisada (3 Srutis); (ii) Kakali Nisada (^f sfrutis); (iii) Gyuta Sadja (2 Srutis, in relation to Kaisiki Nisada; resting on its own third Sruti); (iv) Acyuta ^'adja (2 Srutis, in relation to Kakali Nisada; resting on its ^th Sruti, hence Acyuta - undisturbed; but still Vikrta since it is of 2 Srutis); (v) h Sruti Rsabha (in relation to Gyuta Sadja); (vi) Sadharana Gandhara (3 Srutis), (vii) Antara Gandhara (•+ Srutis); (viii) Gyuta Madhyama (2 Srutis - resting on its 3rd Sruti); (ix) Acyuta Madhyama (2 Srutis, resting on its U-th s'ruti but still Vikrta in relation to Antara Gajidhara, being of 2 Srutis); (x) Gyuta Pancama (3 SVutis, being of Madhyama Grama resting on its 3rd sruti'^; (xi) Kaisika Pancama (^ Srutis, resting on its penultimate Sruti, Vikrta in relation to Gyuta Madhyama} and (xii) h Sruti Dhaivata of Madhyama Grama, In Sangltaraja of 85

Rana Kurabha, sifflilar Vikrta notes have been given, Svara-. melakalanldhi, a treatise on south Indian music by Pandit Ramamatya, admits of seven Vikrta notes, viz, Kaii^iki Ni, (Satsruti Dha, named by Rguoamatya), Kakali Ni, Cyuta Sadja (called by Ramamatya as Cyuta S^adja Ni), Sadharana Ga (Satsruti Ri), Antara Ga, Cyuta Ma (called as Cyuta Madhyama Ga), and Cyuta Pa, He eliminates ^arrigadeva's five Vikrta notes, as they correspond to existing notes otherwise indicat­ ed, as follows:

i) Acyuta Sadja does not differ from Suddha Sadja. ii) Acyuta Madhyama does not differ from Suddha Ma. iii) Vikrta Rsabha does not differ from Suddha Ri, • • • iv) Vikrta Dhaivata does not differ from Suddha Dha, v) Vikrta (Kaisika) Pancajua does not differ from the other Vikrta Pancama of 3 Srutis (of Madhyama Grama), ' Ramamatya's theory of Vikrta Svaras is based upon their usage in practical music (Laksya Sangita), Somanatha, another musicologist of south Indian music, admits of similar seven Vikrta notes as Ramamatya, The only difference is that he uses the term Mrdu in the place of Cyuta, in respect of Vikrta" Sa, Ma and Pa, Somanatha however has further improved on his theory of modified notes, and has added 8 more Vikrtas to his lists. These however are only different names for the existing notes or Vikrta notes. The terminology is more modern, (such as Tivra, Tivratara, Tivratama, etc.) and has come down as such to the present day 86

iBusic, otherwise there is no addition to his list of seven Vikrtas, Raja Raghunatha and Catura Diuoodara, admit of 12 Vikrta notes, more or less on the pattern of S&rigadeva. Pt, Verikatamakhin gives a still different theory of Vikrta notes. He has advocated his theory keeping in view the practical music (laksyeisangita). Having taken into accoLint Sarngadeva's theory of twelve Vikrtas and other theories of seven Vikrtas, he has come to the conclusion that the real Vikrta Svaras are only five. His five Vikrta notes are, (i) Sidharana Gandhara, (ii) Antara Gandhara, (iii) Varali Madhyama, (iv) Kais'iki Ni, and (v) Kakali Ni, His Varali Madhyama is formed by Madhyama taking three Srutis of Psmcama, Varali Madhyama stands on the third Sruti of Pa. It is the same as Mrdu Pa of Somanatha. Some of his Vikrta notes have different nomenclatures as they appear in different ragas. For example, his Suddha Gandhara is Gandhara in raga Mukhari, But it is Panca^ruti Rsabha in raga Sri. According as they take a single, dual, or triple nomenclatures, these Svaras are ekarupa, dvirupa or trirupa, Ahobala has accepted the existence of seven Suddha, and twentytwo Vikrta notes (twentynine in all). According to him, the modifications in the notes take place in two ways, viz. (i) by the note taking Srutis of its subsequent note and adding them to its own i^ruti strength, and (ii) by the note dropping some of its Srutis. When a note has a tendency in the upward direction, i.e, a tendency to enhance 87 its Sruti strength, it is termed as »Tivra» etc. He has given the details of how the Vikrta notes with the upward tendency are formed. If a note takes one Sruti of the note ahead, it is called Tivra. If it takes two such sVutis, it is Tivratara. If it takes three ^rutis, it is Tivratama. If it takes four S'rutis of the subsequent note, even then it is Tivratama. He has not used the term Atitivratama here while stating the forma­ tion of the modified notes, although at times he has used the terra in describing the note - structure of certain ragas. For example, while describing the raga Saudamini (VA61) he has stated that it contains Atitivratama Ga, This may however be an exceptional case. He has not mentioned any modifications in the upward direction, beyond the addition of four s'rutis, obviously for the reason that the maximum number of Srutis that are contained in a note are four. Let us take the example of Ga. Ga taking one SHruti of its subsequent note Ma, is Tivra Ga. When it takes two Srutis of Ma, it is Tivratara Ga. When it takes three Srutis of Ma, it is Tivratama. If it takes four Srutis of Ma, even then it is Tivratama Ga. There can­ not be any more modifications of Ga in the upward direction, for the reason that all the Srutis of Ma are now over. If it has to take any more Sruti, it will be from the Sruti field of Pa, and that would mean modification of Ma and not of Ga, It is therefore clear, that Ahobala has not contemplated any up­ ward modification of a note beyond the addition cf four sVutis at the most. 88

The other kind of modification of notes thought of by Ahobala is notes having downward trend by losing some of their Srutis. Such modified notes are termed as Komala etc. Accord­ ing to this theory, when a note loses its one Sruti, i.e. it stands on its penultimate Sruti, it becomes Komala, when it drops two of its Srutis, it rs termed as Purva. For example, Ri dropping its one ^ruti, that is, standing on sixth Sruti, is Komala Ri. Ri dropping two of its Srutis is Purva Ri. Ahobala has not contemplated downward modifications beyond Komala and Purva, i.e. beyond dropping of two Srutis, although he has not assigned any specific reasons for the saiBe, Ahobala has further stated that although a note may drop some of its Srutis or gain some Srutis from the note ahead and thus get modified, its nomenclature will not change, Ri dropping its one Sruti becomes Komala, but it is Komala Ri and does not get any other name. Similarly Ga gaining a Sruti from Ma is a modification of Ga only and not Ma. The only thing to be known about them is that this Komala Ri is an intermediary note between Sa & Ri and Tivra Ga is an intermediary note between Ga & Ma, Ahobala has then taken cognizance of some Vikrta notes accepted by other musicologists, and has tried to explain them in his terminology. He has referred to SadharanaRi, Sadharana Ga, Antara Ga, Mrdu Ma, Sadharana Ma, Antara Ma, Mrdu Pa, Sadharana Dha, Sadharana Ni, Kakali Ni, Kai^ika Ni, and Mrdu Sa. Sadharana Ri is Catussruti Ri, i.e. Ri having 89 gained a Srut/ i of Ga. This Ri according to his terminology, is Tlvra, since it has gained one Sruti of Ga. Catuss'ruti Ri is in existence in south Indian music. Sadharana and Antara Ga, the traditional Vikrta varieties of Ga, have been termed by him as Tlvra and Tivratara Ga. The note Mrdu Ma is formed by Ma dropping a Sruti of its own. Sarngadeva termed it as C3ruta Ma, i.e. Ma standing on its penultimate Sruti. Somanatha termed it as Mrdu Ma. According to Ahobala, that particular note is not a modification of Ma, but of Ga, and the note is termed by him as Tivratama Ga. In the latter half of the verse 1^ of Sangitaparijata (Hathras edition), two notes Sadharana Ma and Antara Ma have been mentioned. No such notes appear to have been mentioned by any musicologists. Obviously by Sadharana Ma Ahobala means Ma which has gained one Sruti of Pa, and by Antara Ma he means Ma having taken two Srutis of Pa. No other musicologist has contemplated any note standing on fourteenth (Ksiti) sruti which could be termed as Sadharana. The note has appeared only in Ahobala*s Vikrtas, and he hats termed it as Tivra Ma, i.e. Ma having taken one sruti of Pa. A note on the fifteenth ^ruti (Rakta) has been in existence as a modification of Ma, but no musicologist seems to have termed it as Antara Ma. In south Indian music it is known as Tivratara Ma, or Prati Ma or Varali Ma. In modern Hindustani music it is Tivra Ma. Ahobala has termed it as Tivratara Ma. Incidentally it may be stated that the latter half of the verse 1^ of Sangitaparijata is not found 90 in the B,O.R.I. Ms., and is apparently an interpolation; or it may also be a printing mistake or a scribal error, in reproducing here, through oversight, the latter part of the verse 7^ with the change of Ma in the place of Ga, The term Mrdu Pa, referred to by musicologists like Sonianatha, is according to Ahobala, not a modification of Pa. He has explained it as Tivratama Ma, i.e. Ma with the addi­ tion of three Srutis of Pa to its Sruti strength. As re­ gards Sadharana Dha, no such note seems to have been thought of by any other musicologist. It however finds a place in Ahobala»s Vikrtas, but as Tivra Dha and not as Sadharana Dha. About the modifications of Ni, Ahobala has taken into account Sadharana Ni (Ni taking one Sruti of Sa), Kakali Ni (Ni taking two Srutis of Sa), and Kaisika Ni (Ni taking three Srutis of Sa). Sadharana Ni mentioned here is the same as Kaisika Ni of other musicologists, but Ahobala's Kaisika Ni is different. The position of Kakali Ni is the same as traditionally accepted. According to Ahobala's theory the Sadharana, Kiikali and Kaisika varieties of Ni as mentioned by him, are Tivra, Tlvratara and Tivra-tama varieties of Ni. As regards Mrdu Sa, he has stated that the note which, when viewed as a variety of Sad^a is Mrdu Sa, is in fact Tivratama Ni only. In Ahobala's scheme of Suddha and Vikrta notes, Sa and Pa are always Suddha. They are immutable, and do not admit of 91 any modifications. Modifications in his theory are obtained in respect of other five notes viz, Bi, Ga, Ma, Dha, Ni, Out of these, he has not stated specifically which notes be­ come Komala etc., and which notes become Tivra etc. He has not also stated whether all these five notes get both ways modifications. But it would appear from the modified notes accepted by him that except Ma, the other four notes had downward as well as upweird modifications. Ma had only up­ ward modification. The Vikrta notes accepted by him were as follows: 1) Purva Ri - Ri dropping two of its Srutis and standing on the fifth Sruti (Dayavati). 2) Komala Ri - Ri dropping its one Sruti and standing on its penultimate Sruti, i.e. sixth Sruti (Ranjani). 3) Tfvra Ri - Ri taking the first S^'ruti of Ga, If) Tivratara Ri -Ri taking both the Srutis of Ga and resting on the ninth Sruti - the home Sruti of Ga. 5) Purva Ga - Ga dropping both of its Srutis and resting on the seventh Sruti (Raktika) which is the ^uti of Buddha Ri, 6) Komala Ga - Ga dropping its one Sruti and resting on its penultimate Sruti i.e. 8th Sruti (Raudri), 7) Tivra Ga - Ga taking one ^ruti of Ma. 8) Tivratara Ga - Ga taking two Srutis of Ma. 9) Tivratama Ga - Ga taking three Srutis of Ma, 92

10) Another Tivratama Ga - Ga taking all the four Srutls of Ma and resting on the honae Sruti of Ma i.e. 13th Sruti (Marjani). Ahobala does not call this note Atitivratama, for the reasons already Mentioned above, 11) Tivra Ma - Ma taking one Sruti of Pa, 12) Tivratara Ma - Ma taking two ^utis of Pa, 13) Tivratama Ma - Ma taking three Srutis of Pa, 11+) Purva Dha - Dha losing two of its Srutis and resting on I8th Sruti (Madanti), 15) Komala Dha - Dha losing one of its Srutis and rest­ ing on its penultimate Sruti i.e. 19th Sruti (Rohini). 16) Tivra Dha - Dha taking one Sruti of Ni, 17) Tivratara Dha - Dha taking both the Srutis of Ni and resting on the 22nd Sruti which is the home S'ruti of Ni, (Ksobhini). 18) Purva Ni - Ni dropping both of its Srutis and rest­ ing on the Sruti of Suddha Dha, 19) Komala Ni - Ni dropping its one Sruti and resting on its peniiltin?ate Sruti i.e. 21st ^ruti (Ugra), 20) Tivra Ni - Ni taking one ^ruti of Sa. 21) Tivratara Ni - Ni taking two Srutis of Sa, 22) Tivratama Ni - Ni taking three Srutis of Sa,

It will be seen from the above information that in Ahobala's system of Vikrta notes, there are four modifications of Ri, six modifications of Ga, three modifications of Ma, 93 four njodifications of Dha, and five modifications of Ni, mak­ ing a total of twenty-two modified notes. In his commentary on the verse 65 of Sangitaparijata (Hathras edition), Shri Kalinda has stated that the twenty-two Srutis have been shown in the form of modified notes. This statement is not correct. No modifications have been shown on the l+th Sruti (Chandovati) and the 17th Sruti (Alapini) which are the Srutis of the notes Sa & Pa respectively. These two notes are immutable in Ahobala's system, and therefore there are no modifications on their resting Srutis, The number of the modified notes is twenty-two for the reason that there are two modifications on two Srutis, On the Sruti No, 8 (Raudri) there are two modified notes viz, Komala Ga & Tivra Ri, Similarly on the Sruti No.21 (Ugra) there are two modified notes viz, Komala Ni & Tivra Dha, Out of the remaining 18 Srutis, there is a modified note on each and every Sruti. Although Ahobala has admitted the existence of twenty- two Vikrta notes, he has not used more than five Vikrta notes in the description of his ragas. He has himself dropped the following ten notes while describing his ragas, without giv­ ing any reason: (i) Purva Ri, (ii) Tivra Ri, (iii) Tivratara Ga, (iv) Tivratama Ga, (v) Tivra Ma, (vi) Tivratama Ma, (vii) Purva Dha, (viii) Tivra Dha, (ix) Tivratara Ni, (x) Tivratama Ni. In the verse ^99, he has stated that he has described his ragas in terms of the remaining twelve Vikrtas and seven Suddha notes. However, out of the twelve Vikrta notes, seven 9^ have in fact been dropped, for the reasons given against each:

i) Purva Ga - Since it is the same as Suddha Hi, ii) Komala Ga - It is the same as Tivra Ri which is already dropped, iii) Tivratara Ri - It is the same as Suddha Ga, iv) (Ati) Tivratama Ga - It is the same as Suddha Ma, v) Purva Ni - It is the same as Suddha Dha, vi) Komala Ni - It is the same as Tivra Dha which is already dropped, vii) Tivratara Dha - It is the same as Suddha Ni,

Thus the following five Vikrta notes only remained, which have been used in the description of ragas, (i) Komala Ri, (ii) Tivra Ga, (iii) Tivratara Ma, (iv) Komala Dha, and (v) Tivra Ni, In Ahobala»s Svara system, the Suddha Ga and Suddha Ni gire the Komala Ga & Komala Ni of the modern Hindustani music. Hence the twelve notes with which Ahobala described his ragas were (i) Sa, (ii) Komala Ri, (iii) l/uddha Ri, (iv) ^ddha Ga (i.e. Komala Ga), (v) Tivra Ga, (vi) Suddha Ma, (vii) Tivratara Ma (i.e. Tivra Ma of modern Hindustani music), (viii) Pa, (ix) Komala Dha, (x) Suddha Dha, (xi) s'uddha Ni (i.e, Komala Ni) and (xii) Tivra Ni, In the description of few ragas, however, Ahobala has used certain notes other than the twelve notes mentioned above. In such cases, the notes have to be interpreted in terms of their specific significance. Following are the examples of such cases: 95

i) Rag a Des'a (V,371): One of the notes employed in this raga is Tivratara Ri. This note has been dropped as it is the saflje as Suddha Ga (Konala Ga in terms of modern music). The raga also takes Tivra Ga. It would mean that this raga takes two forms of Ga - Komala and Tivra and no form of Ri.

ii) Raga Mukhirl (V.373): This raga is shown to have taken Purva Ga and Purva Ni, along with Komala Ri & Komala Dha. Purva Ga & Purva Ni are actually the same as Suddha Ri and Suddha Dha respectively. It would mean that the raga takes two forms of Ri and Dha and does not take Ga & Ni at all.

iii) Raga Saranga (V.^02): It is stated that a note Atitivratama Ga occurs in this raga. This note is the same as Suddha Ma. This raga also takes Tivratara Ma. That means, this raga takes both forms of Ma and no form of Ga at all. These examples that have been quoted are only illus­ trative and not exhaustive. Ahobala's Suddha & Vikrta notes in a tabular form, will be as under: (p.96)

There are two peculiarities about Ahobala»s Vikrta notes, viz,

i) Sa & Pa are immutable and have no modifications,

ii) In the accepted modifications, Ri, Dha, are Komala and Ga, Ma, Ni are tivra. 96 s. g'ruti guddha Vikrta I Vikrta II Remarks No. Svara Konala Tivfa 1 2 3 5 6

1. Tivra Tivra Ni^ 2. Kutnudvair Tivratara Ni Omitted in giving Raga Laksanas • > 01 3. Manda" Tivratama Ni n ^. Chandovati Sa 5. Dayavati Purva Ri It 6. Ranjani Komala Ri^ 2 7. Raktika Ri Purva Ga"^ 8. Raudri Komala Ga Tivra Ri n 2 KrodhaT Ga 9. Tivratara Ri 10. VaJrikaT Tivra Ga^ 11. Prasarini Tivratara Ga W' ' 12. Priti Tivratama Ga n 13. Marjani Ma Tivratama Ga lif. Ksiti Tivra Ma If

15. Rakta Tivratara Ma-^ 16. Sandipani Tivratama Ma ft 17. Alapinr Pa 18. Madanti Purva Dha r;

19. Rohini Komal?i Dha^ 20. Ranjya Dha Purva Ni2

21. Ugra Komala Ni-*- Tivra Dha ft 22. Ksobhini Ni Tivratara Dha

1 Omitted as they are the same as/^corresponding column. 2 Omitted as they are the same as notes in corresponding Suddhas. 3 Only remaining Vikrta notes (accepted). 97

The following is a table of notes given in the books of some important authors. C^ *^^-^ The comparative study of these tables brings out two facts.

i) The number of notes has gradually decreased. It was nineteen in the days of Sangitaratnakara and it is only 12, from the days of Sangitaparijata till the present day.

ii) Reduction in the number of the Vikrta notes appears to be due to the tendency of having only one Vikrta note between two Suddha notes. The nomenclature of Vikrta notes also has undergone a change. The ancient terminology like Kaisika, Kikali, Antara, Sadharana etc. has been complete^'set aside and its place has been taken by modern terminology, such as Komala, Tivra etc. As a result of the 12 note scale, the Suddha forms of Ri, Ga, Dha, Ni, are sharper now, than in the old music. Ri and Dha are sharper by one Sruti each, and Ga & Ni are sharper by two Srutis each. This is due to the first interval of four Srutis having been taken between Sa and Ri, instead of Ni and Sa, so that Suddha Ri is sharper by one Sruti, Ga by two, Dha by one, and Ni by two. The Vikrtas are Komala Ri, Ga, Dha, Ni, at two Srutis interval from the next lower Suddha Svaras, viz. Sa, Ri, Pa, Dha respectively. Ma is tivra, at two Sruti interval below Pa. This has been put in other form by Shri K. G. Mule and Shri B. G. Acharekar. According to their

99 view, if the Nisada of the Sadja GrSua of Bharata would be regarded as Sadja and the scale written accordingly, we get the modern scale,

Sad.ia Grama : Ni, h Sa, 3 Ri, 2 Ga, h Ma, h Pa, - • 3 Dha, 2 Ni Modern Scale : Sa, h Ri, 3 Ga, 2 Ma, h Pa, h Dha, 3 Ni, 2 Sa

From the comparison of the two scales it would be seen that with the shifting of the nomenclature of the notes, the notes of Sadja Grama of ancient music, and those of the modern music, agree even according to the ^ruti intervals. Bharata* s Svarasaptaka with its Sruti intervals, was established by a scientific process. The scale of the present day music which agrees with the above, though with the shifting of the notes, is equally scientific. The shifting of the notes has taken place at some later date. It had been the practice of ancient musicologists to attribute to each of the seven basic Svaras its family, caste, colour, continent, divinity, seer, chandas (metre), Rasa (sentiment), etc. Right from Narada (author of J^iksa) even upto Ahobala, this practice has continued. The attribution seems to be arbitrary, and no reason has been given by any musicologist at any stage for any particular attribute being given to a particular Svara. It has also been followed traditionally, practically blindly, and none of the authors at subsequent stage has felt the necessity of critically 100 examining the issue. The notes, Sadja, Rsabha etc, have been said to have their origins in the natural voices of certain animals/birds etc. Narada in his Siksa has attributed seven different voices to seven different notes, Matanga quotes Kohala to have said the same thing, but with slight difference. According to Kohala the Rsabha has been said to be the sound of the Cataka bird, and Dhaivata that of a frog. Later authors like Narada (Sangitamakaranda), Nanyadeva, Sarngadeva, \ etc. have practically followed what has been stated above. The concept of the seven notes being manifested in the natural voices of some birds/animals, seems quite primitive, and cannot stand any scientific test, since the pitch, inten­ sity, and quality of the natural voices of birds/animals are not always the same. The similarity of their voices with the notes is only imaginary and not a real phenomenon. It has to be understood on a very broad basis. The attributes of the notes, as per Sangitamakaranda in a tabular form, will be as followst'fi'^^^ Th CH\<^ Antara Gandhara and Kakali Nisafda were treated as Sudras or low castes and hence they had no attributes. With later musicologists, the practice of giving all these details in respect of the notes seems to have been waning out. As days advanced the concept gradually lost its importance, as different ideas or innovations crept in music. The idea in giving these details was perhaps to propitiate the Svaras. In the advanced stage of Ragagayana,Ragadhyanas

Th C^19

102 took the place of Svar€u-dhyanas. Indian music is of sacra­ mental temperament from the beginning, and it always began with the sense of worship. Svaras and Ragas also commanded similar devotion, and hence there was the attempt to find some divinity in them. With the influence of Mohamedan aggression in political and cultural fields and with the art of music having gone in the hands of illiterate practitioners, the significance of some old traditions dwindled, and ulti­ mately was completely lost sight of. In their relations on the basis of the phenomenon of consonance, and their use in ragas and tunes, the notes have been classified under four categories - Vadin (Sonant), Samvadin (Consonant), Vivadin (Dissonant) and Anuvadin (Assonant), This terminology has, for the first time, been used by Bharata and the same has been followed till the present day. The note which is frequently used in a melody or raga is the Vadin because it determines the character of the tune. Bharata has defined Vadin, as the Ams^a note of a melody. Subsequent authors such as Dattila, Matanga, Sarrigadeva, Ahobala,for example^have defined Vadin in a 70 similar way. The sum and substance of all the definitions is that Vadin is the note which dominates the tune and is frequently used in it. Vadin is the important note of the tune and is treated as the king. Two notes which have dis­ tance of nine or thirteen Srutis between them are Samvadins 71 to each other. Dattila, Matanga, etc. have, on the lines of 103

Bharata, spoken of the distance of nine and thirteen Srutis between two Samvadin notes. Sarngadeva has, however, stated that two notes which stand at a distance of eight or twelve Srutis from each other are Samvadins. Ahobala also has

/_ followed Sarngadeva in this respect. This apparent discre­ pancy can be explained this way. There is a Samvadin rela­ tionship between Sa and Pa. Sa is on the ^th Sruti and Pa on 17th. If the Sruti on which Sa rests is included in the counting, the distance between Sa and Pa is of 13 Srutis. If that (^th) ^rutl is excluded from counting, the distance is of 12 Srutis. There is no fundamental difference between the two statements, in regard to the concept of consonant relationship, Samvadin relationship is mutual, i.e. Pa stand­ ing at a distance of 13 Srutis from Sa is Samvadin to the latter, and Sa, standing at a distance of nine Srutis from Pa, is its Samvadin, Samvadin has second important position — .73 in the tune, next to Vadin, Matanga says that the job of the Samvadin note is to help the Vadin in the manifestation of the tune or Raga, It 'speaks' on behalf of Vadin and enjoys the position of a minister. Parsvadeva says that it is equally important as Vadin. Vivadin notes are those which stand at a distance of two Srutis from each other. They are dissonant - discordant notes; if used, they destroy the melody of the Raga, They form a sort of opposition, and hence they are treated as enemies. The above three having been established, the remaining are the Anuvadins, They have ich a very minor role and have therefore been treated as 'Servants' Matanga has stated that in addition to the Sruti distance rule, the notes between which the relationship of consonance is to be established should both have the sane number of ^rutis - they should be Sama/rutika, In Sadja GraJDa, Sa - Pa, Ri - Dha, Ga - Ni, are Safivadin of each other, as Pa, Dha, and Ni stand at 13 Srutis distance from Sa, Ri and Ga respectively. This is one reason. Another reason is that Sa and Pa are both of h Srutis, Ri & Dha of three Srutis each and Ga and Ni of two Srutis each. In other words, the pairs are of Samai^rutika notes. The same can be said of the Sa - Ma pair. In Madhyama Gvma pairs obtained on this principle are Sa - Ma, Ri - Pa, Ga - Ni, In Madhyama Grama, there is no consonance between Sa and Pa, as Sa is of ^ Srutis and Pa of 3 Srutis. In both Gramas, in the Ma - Ni pair, the distance is of 9 i^rutis. Still there is no 'Saivada' between the two, as they are not Samas'rutika. Similarly in Madhyama Grama, there is no 'Samvada' between Ri and Dha, although the two notes stand at a distance of thirteen Srutis, since Dha in Madhyama Grama is of four l^rutis (having taken aa?e ^ruti of Pa), and Ri is having only three Srutis. It is not therefore enough for the establishment of consonant relationship, that the notes should be at a distance of nine/ thirteen Srutis, but they should also be constituted of similar number of Srutis; and where the similarity of the number of Srutis is not observed, there is no "^Samvada', 105 although the other condition is fulfilled. This point has been further amplified by Abhinavagupta, by citing examples of some Jatis. In the Jati Gayana, the existence of both the Vadin (the Am/a note of the Jati) and the Samvadin notes is essen­ tial, because the Samvadin note has to help the Vadin note in the latter's job of manifestation of the Jati. In Sadja- madhya Jati of Sadja Grama, where Madhyaraa is the Am^a or Vadin, the hexatonic form of the Jati is obtained by dropping the note Nisada. Had Nisada been the Samvadin note, it could not have been so dropped. Similar is an example of the Kai^iki Jati of Madhyama GraJna. Here Dha is the Ams'a (or Vadin) note and its hexatonic form is obtained by dropping Ri from the scale. This proves that there is no consonant relationship between Ri and Dha in Madhyama GraJaa. The con­ cept of Sama/rutikatva in the case of consonance is not observed in the post medieval and modern period. The con­ sonance between Ma and Ni is accepted by the commentators of Sarigitaratnakara and later musicologists. Similar is the case in regard to the consonance between Ri & Dha. The Vadin and Samvadin notes have a real function in music, and as such they have still got the same value as they had in ancient days. The significance of the concept of Vivadin and Anuvidin notes, dwindled in post-Ratnakara period, particularly in the context of the present day music. According to whatever has been stated in the foregoing lines, the existence of consonant relationship amongst the 106 notes of the two Gramas will be found as under, (pp.107-08) It will be seen from the above charts that every fourth or fifth note from the original note is not in con­ sonant relationship with its original note. The above state­ ments have taken into account only Suddha Svaras. The rela­ tions will differ when Vikrta notes are also taken into account. In any case, the fundamentals do not differ. It should also be remembered that in every melody, tune or raga, both Va&in and Samvadin notes must be present. There cannot be any melody, tune or r5ga, without the two. Incidentally, it may be mentioned here that Shri B. Rajanikanta Rao has stated that the interval of seven Srutis between two notes also gave rise to consonance in ancient times. To support his statement he has quoted Matanga. But unfortunately the learned scholar has not correctly under­ stood the concerned passage in Brhaddesi. The word •Sapta' in the phrase 'Saptanavakatrayodasemtah* must be understood as related to the earlier phrase 'Madhyamadisvarah*. (J",M, A.M. XLVIII - 1977, pp. 151-16^). iii) Murchana

A Grsuna is the abode of Murchana. In NaradI ^iksa there is a mention of Murchana and Tima along with Grama. Bharata has defined Murchana as an orderly arrangement of 7 notes. The term Krama or order was both in ascent or descent (Aroha and Avaroha). The Murchana of note Sa, for 107

Notes ?ruti Whether Nature distance consonance exists

Sad..la Graffla

Sa - Ma 9 Yes Sa - Ma Samvada

Sa - Pa 13 Yes Sa - Pa Sainvada

Ri - Pa 10 No -

Ri - Dha 13 Yes Sa - Pa Samvada

Ga - Dha 11 No -

Ga - Ni 13 Yes Sa - Pa Samvida

Ma - Ni 9 No (Nptes not Sama- srutika)

Ma - Sa 13 Yes Sa - Pa Saravada

Pa - Sa 9 Yes Sa - Ma Saravada

Pa - Ri 12 No -

Dha - Ri 9 Yes Sa - Ma Samvada

Dha - Ga 11 No -

Ni - Ga 9 Yes Sa - Ma Saoivada

Ni - Ma 13 No (Notes not Sama- srutika)

Contd,.. 108

Motes Sruti Whether Nature di stance consonance exis ts

Madhyama Grama

Sa - Ma 9 Yes Sa - Ma Samvada

Sa - Pa 12 No mm

Ri - Pa 9 Yes Sa - Ma SaiBvada

Ri - Dha 13 No (Notes not Sama- ' s'rutika)

Ga - Dha 11 No -

Ga - Ni 13 Yes Sa - Pa.Samvada

Ma - Ni . 9 No (Notes not Sama- :^rutika)

Ma - Sa 13 Yes Sa - Pa Samv^a

Pa - Sa 10 No -

Pa - Ri 13 Yes Sa - Pa Samvada

Dha - Ri 9 No (Notes not Sama- i/rutika)

Dha - Ga 11 No -

Ni - Ga 9 Yes Sa - Ma Samvada

Ni - Ma 13 No (Notes not Saraa^ ^rutika) 109 example will be Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Dha, Pa, Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa, Mataiiga, in giving the etymological explanation of the terra Murchana", has stated that since the melody mode is established by a particular scale, that scale is called -,-77 - Murchana. The term is derived from the root 'Murch* to span^ to expand, and means the modulation i.e. raising and lowering of notes in order to form a melody. The term has been defin­ es ed by different authors in a bit different ways. Purport of all the definitions is however the same, i.e. a regular arrangement of notes in order of ascent and descent is Murchana. MurchaniTor the modal scale in Sadja Graiua begins with the Sadja of the middle octave. There being seven notes in each Grama, there are seven Murchanas in each Grama, per­ taining to each of the seven notes of the Grama. According to the ancient practice, the notes of the octave used to be counted in order of descent. Our ancient scale was based on S^an music, and sSuan notes were in descending order. Accordingly, the Murchanas of the Grajna would also be in descending order, that is, after the MurchanaT starting with Sa, the Murchana starting with Ni will follow, and so on. For the seven Murchanas of Sadja GrSa, and seven of Madhyaraa Grama, different names have been given. These names have been given by all authors - ancient and medieval - alike, except Narada who has given other names. However, his Murchanas are the same. The Murchanas of the two Gramas, with their names and scales, are as under: 110

Sadja Grama

1) Uttaramandra - Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ni, Dha, Pa, Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa. 2) Ra.1ani Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Dha, Pa, Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa, Ni. 3) Uttarayata Dha, Ni, Sa^ Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Pa, Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa, Ni, Dha. h) Suddhasadja Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa, Ni, Dha, Pa. 5) Matsarikrta Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa, Ni, Dha, Pa, Ma. 6) Asvakranta Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ri, Sa, Ni, Dha, Pa, Ma, Ga. 7) Abhirudgata Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Sa, Ni, Dha, Pa, Ma, Ga, Ri.

Madhyama Grama (begins with Murehana of Ma first)

1) Sauviri - Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa, Ni, Dha, Pa, Ma. 2) Harinasya - Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, " ^ Ri, Sa, Ni, Dha, Pa, Ma, Ga. 3) Kalopanata - Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Sa, Ni, Dha, Pa, Ma, Ga, Ri. h) ^uddhamadhya - Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ni, Dha, Pa, Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa. 5) Margi - Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Dha, Pa, Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa, Ni. 6) Pauravi - Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Pa, Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa, Ni, Dha.. 7) Hrsyaka - Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, '"''' Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa, Ni, Dha, Pa. Ill

N According to Bharata, Murchanas are of four types: (i) Purna, having all the seven notes, (ii) Sadava or hexatonic, with only six notes, (iii) Auduva, or pentatonic, with only five notes, and (iv) Sadharanikrta, i.e. using the intermediary notes, Antara Gandhara and Kakali Nisada. The Murchana of Antara Gandhara is called Antara'Sadharana, and that of Kakali Nisada is termed as Kakali-Sadharana. Ori- ginally there are fourteen Murchanas - seven in each of the two Grainas. Being four-fold, the total number of Murchanas becomes fifty six in both the Gramas together. In a MurchansT with all Buddha notes, Ga will be replaced by Antara Ga and Ni by Kakali Ni. This will give rise to four varieties in one Murchana , In fourteen Murchanas, the total number of varieties thus formed will be fifty six. The four varieties in one Murchana will be called by four appendages added to its name, viz, Suddha, Sakakali, Santara and Sakakalyantara. The terms are only descriptions of, or the qualifications added to, the Murchana, according to the note used in it. In Sadharanikrta Murchana the presence of Antara Ga and/or Kakali Ni is essential. Dattila, following Bharata has laid down two ways of obtaining Sadharanikrta Murchanas.^* The Suddha Gandhara of Sadja Grama, originally of two ^rutis, is to be raised by two more Srutis. This will be the Antara Gandhara of Sadja Grama. The d'ruti strength of the scale will be: k- Sa, 3 Ri, ^ Ga, 2 Ma, k Pa, 3 Dha, 2 Ni. This will also give the first MurchanaT of Madhyama Graaa - the 112

Murchana of Ma note, in this way. Sad.1a Grain a; h Sa, 3 Ri, ^ Ga, 2 Ma, h Pa, 3 Dha, ''"^ 2 Ni. Madhyama Grama; h Ma, 3 Pa, h Dha, 2 Ni, h Sa, 3 Ri, 2 Ga.

This is what is meant by Gahdharam Dhaivatikrtya - convert­ ing Gandhara (of the Sadja Grama) into Dhaivata (of Madhyama Grama). The note that forms the relationship of fifth (PajTcama Samvada) with this Gandhara (of h Srutis) and which stands at a distance of 13 Srutis from this Gandhara is Kakali Nisada. This is obtained by raising Nisada by two Srutis (by taking two Srutis of Sadja). With these two notes (Antara Gandhara and Kakali Nisada) the following Murchanas can be formed in the Sadja Grama;

Santara : Sa, 3 Ri, ^ Ga, 2 Ma, h Pa, 3 Dha, 2 Ni, h Sa. Sakakalf ; Sa, 3 Ri, 2 Ga, k- Ma, h Pa, 3 Dha, h Ni, 2 Sa. Sakikalyantara : Sa, 3 Ri, h Ga, 2 Ma, h Pa, 3 Dha, h Ni, 2 Sa.

Another process that Bharata and Dattila have talked of, is the converse of the above. In the first process the h Sruti Gandhara of Sadja Grama was converted into Dhaivata of Madhyama Grama. In the second process, the {U- Sruti) Dhaivata of Madhyama Grama is to be reduced by two Srutis, Thus, Dhaivata will be of two Srutis, and the two Srutis left by it will be gained by Nisada following it. The Sruti 113 strength of this scale will be h Ma, 3 Pa, SL^^^i ^ ^1» ^ Sa, 3 Ri, 2 Ga. This when converted into Sadja Grama, will give the first Murchana of that Graina thus:

Madhyama Grama : h- Ma, 3 Pa, 2 Dha, l+ Ni, if Sa, 3 Ri, 2 Ga.. Sad.ja Grama : h Sa, 3 Ri, 2 Ga, h Ma, h Pa, 3 Dha, 2 Ni.

It will be seen from the above that in the process of treating Gandhara (h ^uti) of Sadja Graaa as Dhaivata (If Sruti) of Madhyama Graina, the subsequent notes Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, will become Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, and in the process of treating Dhaivata (reduced to two ^rutis) of Madhyama Gr5na, as Gandhara of Sadja Grama, the subsequent notes, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, will become Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, In Bharata's Natyasastra, this has been described as the process of establishing the same Murchana in two different ways. Although the wording of Bharata is somewhat different from that of Dattila, the purport is the same. ' The fact that the Murchana of Sadja GraBa could also produce the Murchana of Madhyaina Grama, has helped the amalgamation of the latter GraiBa with the former. This has also made the note Sadja as the fixture. The treatment of the subject of Murchanas has been more or less similar, with Bharata, Dattila, Matanga, Sarngadeva, and also some post Sarngadeva musicologists, Matanga^in addi­ tion to Murchanas of seven notes has given Murchanas of twelve llif notes. They are as follows:

Sadja Graina » » Uttarmandra : Dha, Ni, Sa, Hi, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga. Raj^janr : Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa,Ri, Ga, Ma. Uttarayata : Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa. Suddhasad.ja : Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, ' • Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Matsarlkrta : Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, '' = Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni. Asvakranta' : Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa. Ahhirudgata : Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri.

Madhyama Grama

Sauviri : Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri,Ga, Ma, Pa. Harinasva : Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, ' Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Kalopanata : Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni. Suddhamadhya" : Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa. Margf : Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri. Pauravi : Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga. HrsyaKa : Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, ^ Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma. 11^

What is the purpose of giving the 12-Note Murcchanas? Matariga has quoted Nandikes'vara, saying that the 12-Note Murcchanas help in establishing^^aiid/the modal scales from which Jatis etc. have evolved/the three registers or Sthanas or octaves, Mandra (lower), Madhya (middle) and Tara (higher). Matanga has also quoted Kohala who requires that Murcchanas should be formed keeping in view the practical aspect of music. Ran if Kumbha has refuted the existence of such a (12- note) Murochana. The reason for this perhaps is that the necessity of Murcchanas for the purpose of evolution of Jatis and for the purpose of Sthanaprapti has been accepted even from Bharata's time. If the seven note Murcchanas propounded by Bharata and others could achieve this, where is the necessity of 12-note Murcchanas? Matanga's 12-note Murcchanas can at best be regarded as the elaboration of the existing seven-note Murcchanas. This would be obvious from the fact that he has retained the same names of the 7-note Murcchanas for his 12-note Murcchanas. However, the principle on which he has based the notation of his Murcchanas is not apparent. For example, the notes of Uttaramandra (seven note) MurcchanaT are Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni. Those of Matanga's (12 note) Uttaramandra are Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga. Here the first two notes appear to belong to Mandra Sthana and last three, to Tara Sthana. But the same principle does not appear to have been followed in respect of other Murcchanas. It will be seen from the following chart how 116 the seven note Murcchanas also give the knowledge of the three registers.

Majndra Madhya Tara 1 2 3 ^ 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1^ 15 16 17 18 19 20 2]

Sadja Grama Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni 1 r-"—•

Ni Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha

Dha Ni Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa

Pa Dha Ni Sa Ri Ga Ma

Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Ri Ga

Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Ri

Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa

Madhyama Grama Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Ri Ga

Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Ri

Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa

Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni

Ni Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha

Dha Ni Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa

Pa Dha Ni Sa Ri Ga Ma 117

The first and foreinost utility of Murcclianas is the sthina'prapti. Matariga seeks the evolution of jatis and ragas from them. The notations of Murcchanas have peculiar shades. They serve the purpose of nielas or thatas in the evolution of melodies. For this purpose he laid dovm the 12-Note Mur- cchanas. The objection of later musicologists (like Rana Kumbha) for Matanga's theory of 12 svara Murcchanas was mainly for the following reasons^ —

i) Kramabhanga - Order of notes was not definite. There was no uniformity in his method of prefixing and suffixing notes to the original Murcchana, ii) Obtaining of ragas from them was not very certain. iii) Difficulty was presented in the forming of hexatonic (sadava) and pentatonic (Aud^JLva) forms. Apart from the above controversy, the importance of the Murcchanas as accepted by musicologists of olden days cannot be denied. In Sangitaratnakara of Sarngadeva and Sangitamakaranda of Narada, the Murcchanas of Gahdharagrazua also have been given, According to Narada, they are as follows:

i) Nanda : if Ga, 3 Ma, 3 Pa, 3 Dha, h Ni, 3 Sa, 2 Ri. ii) Visala : 2 Ri, if Ga, 3 Ma, 3 Pa, 3 Dha, If Ni, 3 Sa. iii) Sufflukhi : 3 Sa, 2 Ri, h Ga, 3 Ma, 3 Pa, 3 Dha, k Ni. 118

iv) Citra : h Ni, 3 Sa, 2 Ri, h Ga, 3 Ma, 3 Pa, 3 Dha. v) Cltravati : 3 Dha, if Ni, 3 Sa, 2 Ri, h Ga, 3 Ma, 3 Pa. vi) ^ubha : 3 Pa, 3 Dha, k Ni, 3 Sa, 2 Ri, (Sukha?) If Ga, 3 Ma. vii) Alapa : 3 Ma, 3 Pa, 3 Dtia, h Ni, 3 Sa, 2 Ri, If Ga.

/_ , - - Sarngadeva has only given the names of the Murcchanas of Gsmdharagriaia, but has not given any details of them, for the reason that these Murcchanas are practised in heaven and not on earth, Ahobala has given Murcchanas only of Sadjagrarna. That is why he has given their number as seven only. 87 Further he has not mentioned Murcchanas formed with Antara Ga & Kakali Ni. On the other hand, he has mentioned Murcchanas formed with Vikrta (Komala, Tivra etc.) notes. . By the time^ of Ahobala, Madhyama Grama did not exist in practical music. All the music of his day was confined to Sadja GrSia only. His mention of Madhyaraa Grama and Gsmdhara Grama was only theore­ tical. Since Madhyama GrSua did not exist at all, there was no necessity of giving the Murcchanas of that Grama. Similarly, the notes Antara Gahdhara and Kakali Nisada had long become nonentities and the theory of Vikrta (modified) notes had permeated the field of music. Hence he was justified in giv­ ing the Murcchanas with the use of these notes. Nanyabhupala has given the deities governing the Murcchanas of both Sadjagrarna and Madhyamagrama as follows: 119

Sadjagrima Divinity M adhy am agr ajn a Divinity

UttarmandrsT Yaks a Sauviri Brahma m Rajani Harinasva Indra Raksasa • Uttarayata Maruts Narada Kalopanata Suddhasadja Gandharva Brahma S uddh am aJ(dhy a Mats arikrt iT Mrgendra Naga Margi Asvakranta Prajapati Asvins Pauravi Abhirudgata Arka (Sun) Varuna Hrsyaka

The idea in assigning a deity to each Murcchana is that by singing the Murcchana, the particular deity is pleased, Murcchana" means an orderly ascent and descent of seven notes. Na)|[nyabhupala says that the Murcchana should end with the same svara with which it begins. Thus his Murcchana would be of eight notes and not of seven notes, Narada in his Sangitamakaranda, has given different nomenclatures of the Murcchanas. According to him the Sadjagraraa Murcchanas are: Utta^arna, Abhirudgata, Asvakrinta, Sauviri, Hrsyaka, Uttarayata and Rajani. These are Rsi-Murcchanas, Those of Madhyamagraiia are: Apyayani, Vi^vahrta, Candra", Hera a, KapardinT, Maitri and Candravati, These are 'Pitr* - Murcchanas. Bharata has stated that owing to the indispens- ability of the Madhyama note, Murcchanas should be indicated by that note. The exact implication of this is not clear. If 120

Murcchana of each note begins independently, how can it be indicated by a fixed note? The term 'Madhyaina' may indicate the middle octave. In that case the intention of Bharata's statement would appear to be that a Murcchana should always begin with the note in the middle octave. Matanga also has stated similarly. Ahobala has stated likewise in this connection. Since the purpose of Murcchana is to arrive at the limits in the Mandra (lower) and Tara (higher) octaves, it would be reasonable to take that a MurcchanaT should begin with a note in the middle octave. Abhinavagupta, Nanyadeva and Sarngadeva have given similar interpretation, Murcchanas of both Grainas are similar on their face. There is a Murcchana Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa (Uttaramandra) in Sadjagr^ia, and a similar Murcchana (Suddhamadhya) in Madhyamagrama, These are to be differ­ entiated from each other by taking into consideration the srutis of notes Pa and Dha, In the Murcchanas of Sadja- grama, Pa and Dha will have four and three Srutis respect­ ively, and in Madhyamagrama, they will be of 3 and \ ^utis respectively. This will be the factor deciding whether a particular Murcchana is of ^adjagraina or Madhyamagrama. Further whether a particular Murcchana" of a Grama is the first or second etc, of that Grs&a is to be decided with reference to the position of the Graiiiasvara in that parti­ cular Murcchana, In Sadjagrama, in the Murcchana Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, the position of the Gramasvara i,e . 121

Sadja is first. Hence this is the first Murcchana of the Grama. In the Murcchana Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, the position of Sadja is second. Hence the number of the Murcchana of Sadja Grahja is second. Likewise it should be understood in other Murcchanas of the Sadja Grama. In Madhyaraagrama, in the Murcchana Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, the position of Ma is the first. Hence this is the first Murcchana of Madhyama Grama. In the Murcchana Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ma is in the second place. Hence this is the second Murcchana of the Grama; and so on. In the definitions of Murcchana given by different musicologists, both Aroha and Avaroha of the notes have been contemplated. This seems to be a coraproraise of the Arohi- krama or ascending order of the Gandharva and the Avarohi- krama or descending order of the Samagana from which the former has originated. The Murcchana rises from the note and goes to the notes ahead such as Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa and again it returns in the reverse order to the original note. This is one interpretation of Aroha and Avaroha of Murcchana, and has been followed by many rausico- legists. It is however, observed that in actual practice, the Murcchanas have always been given only in the ascending order. The terms Aroha and Avaroha have, in the light of this, to be explained as follows. A Murcchana is formed in the ascending order. The first Murcchana will start from Sa, as Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni. Next Murcchana that will 122 follow will be of the note lower to Sa, that is Ni, then Dha, and so on. This is the descending order of the starting notes of the Murcchanas. This is another interpretation. While the earlier interpretation appears more reasonable, the latter one indicates the practice. Matariga, while explaining the difference between a Murcchana and a Taiia, has said that the ascending order of notes is the Murcchana, and the descending order of the notes is Tana. This supports the latter view that Murcchana is only in the ascending order, Bharata has luentioned the complete, hexatonic, and - '^k — pentatonic varieties of Murcchanas. In Sadja Grama the hexatonic varieties have to be formed by dropping any one of the notes Sa, Ri, Pa, Ni from the scale. The pentatonic varieties have to be formed by dropping any one of the pairs of notes Sa-Pa, Ri-Pa, Ga-Ni. In Madhyamagrama the notes to be dropped are Sa, Ri, Ga for hexatonic, and either of the pairs Ga-Ni, and Ri-Dha for pentatonic varieties. The hexa^ tonic and pentatonic forms of Murcchanas are called tanas, Narada in his i^iksa mentions tana, and gives their number as fortynine, but does not give their form, Bharata is more explicit on this point. According to him a consecutive (ascending) order of seven notes is Murcchana, Whatever contains six notes or five notes is tana. In the same strain however Bharata says that a tan a is not segregated from the family of Murcchana - it is Murcchana initially, Bharata has given the number of Sadava tanas as fortynine, and that 123 of Auduva tanas as thirtyfive = eightyfour in all. Out of ^9 Sadava tail as 28 belong to the Mure ch an as of Sadjagrama and 21 to those of Madhyafflagraaa. Out of 35 Auduva varieties 21 he- long to Sadjagrama Murcchanas and 1^ to Madhyama grama Murcchanas. Dattila also holds the same view. The treat­ ment of the subject of tana given by Dattila and Matanga is exactly similar to that of Bharata. Sarngadeva holds the view that Tanas are Suddha Murcchanas with five and six notes. The method of forming the Sadava and the Auduva Tanas as given by Bharata has been followed practically by all later musico­ logists. The etymological meaning of the word Tana has been given by Rana Kumbha, He has followed Nanyadeva in this respect, who has stated that the word is derived from the root 'Tan* to expand, spread. Out of the musicologists of south Indian music, Ramajuatya has not dealt with the subject of Tana. Somanatha has dealt with it in the same way as that of ancient musicologists. Verikatamakhin defines Tina as a form of note expansion. He has not given the form of Tana in terms of six notes or five notes. Ahobala has dealt with the subject quite differently. He has not accepted tana as an independent entity. According to him tanas are the Prastaras (spread out note series) of Murcchanas. He has given T&ias or prastaras with reference to Vikrta or modified notes also and has said they are abundant in such a fantastic number as 1, 3^, 29, 59. (S,P.151). 12^

If Tanas are Murcchanas initially, what is the differ­ ence between the two? Musicologists have tried to explain in their own ways. Matanga has quoted Visakhila saying that there is no difference between Murcchana and Tana. He has however given his own explanation that Murcchanas occur in ascending order and Tanas in descending order, as stated earlier, Sitijhabhupala, in his comtnentary on Saiigitaratnakara, has clarified that an arrangement of notes in order of ascent and descent is Murcchana. A TaJia has got an order of ascent only. According to Matanga, Murcchana has a atility in rela­ tion to Jatis, Ragas etc. A Tana is useful in the differentia- tion between the Jatis/Ragas of the two Gramas. Another purpose of Tana given by Matanga is to find out the Nasta and Uddista - to find out the number of the note series when the note series is given, and to find out the note series when its number is given, Bharata has stated that the use of Murcchana and Tana is for the satisfaction of the artists as well as the audience. This however appears to be the function of Tanas. Murcchanas are fundamental note series and serve as foundation for JatlsAagas. Tanas are meant for the pleasure of both the artists and the listeners. Sarrigadeva has stated that in Gandharva music Murcchaiias and Tanas are useful in earning the worldly as well as heavenly (Aihika as well as Paralaukika) benefits. In Gana that is Desi music, they are useful in earn­ ing the pleasure of the artists/listeners. Since our music has basically a religious temperament, it has been the practice of 125 explaining the entire musical practice in terras of worldly and heavenly benefits. The following chart will gi-^e an illustration how Sadava tanas with Sa dropoed, will be formed:

12 3 h 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 .1^ 15 16 X Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Ni X Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Dha Ni X Ri Ga Ma Pa Pa Dha Ni X Ri Ga Ma Ma Pa Dha Ni X Ri Ga Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni X Ri Gi Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni X

Sadava tanas with the omission of other notes will be formed likewise. The following is an illustration of an Auduva Tana, with the omission of the two notes Sa-Pa

12 3 h 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1^ 15 16 X Ri Ga Ma X Dha Ni Ni X Ri Ga Ma X Dha Dha Ni X Ri Ga Ma X X Dha Ni X Ri Ga Ma Ma X Dha Ni X Ri Ga Ga Ma X Dha Ni X Ri Ri Ga Ma X Dha Ni X 126

Similar Auduva T^as can be formed with the omission of other pairs (Ri-Pa, Ga-Ni) of notes. These illustrations pertain to Sadjagrama. The same process can be followed in forming the Tanas (Sadava/Auduva) of MadhyamagraJna, Bharata, Dattila and Matanga have laid down two ways of producing a tana on the string of the Vina - Pravesa and Nigraha. The act of stretching the string of the Vina tuned to the note to be dropped, so that it gives the next higher note,or the act of loosening that string so that it gives the next lower note, is called Praves''a, Nigraha involves the act of not touching the string/strings of the note/notes required to be dropped in the Sadava/Auduva Tanas, • • • It will be observed that in the formation of Sadava/ Auduva Murcchanas (that is Tanas), dropping of notes has been ordained, except Ma, The note Madhyama has been regarded in ancient music as the principal note - an eternal note and could never be foregone in any scale. Importance of Madhyama was due to two reasons. Firstly, it was the starting note of Ma-scale, Secondly if it was dropped, there was no possibility of Pancama of three ^rutis, that was necessary for the Ma»- scale. Madhyama is not to be dropped in any scale. In ancient days even there was no modification of Madhyama. Later the position changed. In late medieval period, there were Vikrtas of Ma, and Ma was not also regarded as ' avinasin'. Finally, Sad J a attained the importance that had accrued to Madhyama in ancient days. Sad3a became the principal note. It was in- 127 convertible. All music started from that note. Madhyama Graraa became obsolete, and only 3adjagrai:ia remained in practice. While forming the auduva varieties, the pairs of notes Sa-Pa, Ri-Pa, Ga-Ni are to be omitted in SadjagraiDa, and Ri-Dha, Ga-Ni, in Madhyamagrama. Out of these, the pairs Sa-Pa, Ga-Ni in Sadjagraiija and Ga-Ni in Madhyamagrama, are the pairs QC Samvadln notes. The other remaining, pairs are not so related. It would therefore appear that in the pairs to be omitted in the Auduva varieties, the notes need not necessarily be in Seoiivadi-relationship to each other, they may have even the Anuvadi relationship as stated by Matanga, By dropping Sa from Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, the first Murcchana of Sadjagraraa, the tana Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni is formed. Similarly, by dropping Sa from Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, the seventh Murcchana of Sadjagrama, the tana Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni is formed. Both these tanas are apparently exactly similar. How are they to be differentiated from each other? The difference is seen in the registers or Sthanas of the tanas. The first tana, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni has all its notes in the Madhya Saptaka, or the middle octave. The second tana has all its notes in the Mandra Saptaka, or the lower octave. So, the position of the notes of the tajaa in the lower or higher octave will decide whether it is the seventh or the first tana. T5ias are of two kinds - Suddha and Kuta. Suddha or pure tana belongs to one mode only. The notes follow in 128 consecutive order, and the order is not disturbed. Kutatahas (intricate tanas) belong to several modes. They are permuta- tional note series. Notes do not follow in any particula* order. The order or the Krama is disturbed, Dattila defines Kutatanas as tanas that follow in series, without having any order etc. Sarngadeva too has given a similar definition, saying that Sampurna and Asarapurna Murcchanas, not following any order, are Kutatahas. Sampurna is one which contains all the seven notes, Asaapurna would ordinarily mean incomplete - having less number of notes. Kallinatha in his commentary on the relevant portion of Sangitaratnakara, has stated that in an Asampurna Kutatana, the Isist note of each Murcchana is to be dropped and in this way we have to come down to a single note. Vyutkramoccaritasvara that is, to take the notes in a disturbed order, is the characteristic feature of this kind of tana - whether it is sampurna or asampurna. Dattila and Matanga, have given the number of Kutatanas as 5033 in each Murcchana. Sarngadeva has stated that in each plagal scale or Murcchani there are five thousand and forty Kutatanas. The difference of seven between the figures of Dattila and Sarriga^ deva is due to the inclusion of Kramas by Sarngadeva. In the expansion of the note series of each MurcchanaT seven orders or Kramas take place. Earlier musicologists had given the figure of the Kutatanas without including these Kramas. Sarngadeva has included them while giving the number of Kutatanas (Sahakraraaih). He has given the total number of 129 possible Kutat§has in further elaborate manner, as follows;

i) Complete Kutatanas of all 56 Murcchanas (50^0 x 56) 2822ifO 11) Kutatanas of hexatonic formation (720 X lf8) 3^560 iii) Kut^atanas of pent atonic formation (120 X ^0) ^800 iv) Kutatanas of four notes (SvarSntara) (2^ X 32) 768 v) Kutatanas of three notes (Samika) (6*x 26) 156 vi) Kutatanas of two notes (Gathika) (2*x 22) kh vii) Kutatana of a single note (Arcika) (1 X Ik) Ik

The method of arriving at the figure of complete and incomplete Kutatanas is given as follows: m

i) Seven notes: 720 x 7 « 50^0 50^0 (1x2x3x^x5x6x7) ii) Six notes : 120 x 6 = 720 720 (lx2x3xJ+x5x6) iii) Five notes : 2^ x 5 = 120 120 (Ix2x3xlfx5) iv) Four notes : 6 x ^ = 2^ 2h (1 X 2 X 3 X »+) v) Three notes : 2 x 3 = 6 6 (1x2x3) vi) Two notes :lx2=2(lx2) 2 vii) One note : 1 x 1 = 1 1 130

As an illustration, Kallinatha has taken the four-note order Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, from the Uttarmandra (the first of the Sadjagrama) Murcchana, The possible permutations of this four note series will be twenty four, as follows:

(1) Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma; (2) Ri, Sa, Ga, Ma; (3) Sa, Ga, Ri, Ma; {h) Ga, Sa, Ri, Ma; (5) Ri, Ga, Sa, Ma; (6) Ga, Ri, Sa, Ma; (7) Sa, Ri, Ma, Ga; (8) Ri, Sa, Ma, Ga; (9) Sa, Ma, Ri, Ga; (10) Ma, Sa, Ri, Ga; (11) Ri, Ma, Sa, Ga; (12) Ma, Ri, Sa, Ga; (13) Sa, Ga, Ma, Ri; (lU-) Ga, Sa, Ma, Ri; (l5) Sa, Ma, Ga, Ri; (16) Ma, Sa, Ga, Ri; (17) Ga, Ma, Sa, Ri; (18) Ma, Ga, Sa, Ri; (19) Ri, Ga, Ma, Sa; (20) Ga, Ri, Ma, Sa; (21) Ri, Ma, Ga, Sa; (22) Ma, Ri, Ga, Sa; (23) Ga, Ma, Ri, Sa; (2^) Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa.

Venkatamakhin has interpreted Suddhatana and Kutatana in a different way. According to him Suddhatana is that through which the form of one raga would only appear. He defines Kutatana as one through which forms of two or more different ragas would appear because it is common to several (ragas). Ahobala has not mentioned Kutatanas, just as he has not mentioned tanas. Tanas or Kutatanas are merely various note series of Murcchanas, according to him. He has however dealt with the subject of varieties of Murcchanas very elaborately. He has taken into account the modified or Vikrta notes also in connection with the subject of Murcchanas, 131

His treatment of Murcchanas forffls a matter for separate study. It will be observed from the above discussion that there are numerous varieties of note series coming into be­ ing from Murcchanas. The variety ranges from one note for­ mations to seven note formations. There is a system behind these formations; they come out in particular order. Naturally, some difficulty is bound to be experienced in finding out a particular type of variety, and also the number of such variety. To overcome this difficulty, and to faci­ litate the locating of a particular variety and its number, the musicologists of the ancient days have provided a table called Khandameru containing certain horizontal and vertical columns. Khandameru is given by Sarngadeva in detail. The art and science of music had developed quite considerably by the time of Sarngadeva, The scope of musical improvisations had widened. The skill and intelligence of the artist had given birth to so many new varieties. It was, therefore, likely that some musicologists must have felt the necessity of systematising the whole thing by putting it into proper channel. The vast expanse of the musical improvisations needed some machinery to locate a particiilar variety and Khandameru met with the need. Sarngadeva has given elaborate details of the working of Khandameru with illustrations. Ahobala has also given Khandameru in his book but in brief. Obviously, it was so scientifically and accurately designed that even at the later medieval period, it had proved its utility. 132 iv) Sadharana

In ancient Indian music, the subject of Sadharana was also a topic of discussion. Sadharana is interniediary posi­ tion of notes. Sadharana is of two kinds - Svara Sadharana and Jati Sadharana. Svara Sadharana also has four varieties.

Sadharana

Svara Sadharana Jati Sadharana

1 T T r 1 Kakall Antara Sadja Madhyama Suddha Vikrta S adha- Sadhsu. Sadha­ Sadha­ JatiCS) J"ati(S) rana rana rana rana

The Svarasadharana is so called because the position of the particular note is 'Common* to the two notes between which it exists. Sadjasadharana is fonaed when Sadja yields its first Sruti to Nisada and the ultimate (fourth) Sruti to Rsabha, and becomes itself of two Srutis (2 and 3). Madhyama Sadharana is similarly formed by Madhyama yielding its first (10th) Sruti to Gandhara and last (13th) to Pancama, thus reducing itself to two i^rutis (11 and 12). Here, the Nisada and Gandhara become Trisrutika, i.e. they possess three Srutis each. These common notes are to be used in a per­ formance very skilfully and their appearance is also very 133 subtle, there being a very little difference between theoi and the adjacent notes. The following points are required to be noted in connection with these Sadharanas: 1) Sadharanas occur only in respect of those Svaras having four ^rutis, viz, Sa, Ma (Pa is an exception; it is of 3 ^rutis in Madhyamagrama), 2) Sadja Sadharana will always occur in Sadjagrama, and Madhyama Sadharana in Madhyaraagrama. Consequently the Nisada with three Srutis - called Kaisika Nisada will appear in Sadjagrama, and the Gahdhara with three Srutis - called Sadharana Gandhara - will appear in MadhyaraagrSBa, Abhinavagupta has explained Sadja Sadharana and Madhyama Sadharana in the light of the view of his Parama Guru Utpaldeva, that in the first i.e. Sadja Sadharana, Sadja becomes of two Srutis as Nisada takes its first ^ruti and Rsabha its Isist Sruti, This Vikrta Ni is Kaisika Ni. Similarly, in Madhyama Sadharana, Madhyama becomes of two S'rutis when Gandhara takes its first sVuti and Pancama its last ^ruti. This Gandhara is called Kaisika Ga. Jati Sadharana has been defined by Bharata, Dattila and others. It occurs when there is similar singing of two or more Jatis of the same Grama having Ams''a note common. Jatis are i^uddha as well as Vikrta, So the Sadharana may occur in both types of Jatis, The theory of Svara Sadharana is the theory of Vikrta or modified notes of ancient music. With advance of time, 13^

many changes took place in the theory and practice of music. Old concepts receded in background - or remained only in the annals of the history of musical development - and yielded place to new concepts. The theory of modifications has similarly undergone change. The concepts of the Sadharana or Vikrta in the days of Bharata did not remain the same in the days of Sarrigadeva, There has been a gradual improvement in the concept of Vikrta, In Post-Ratnakara period there have been still further changes. Modifications in later days were contemplated not only in respect of Ni and Ga, but also in other notes except Sa and Pa which were regarded as in­ convertible. The terms Antara, Kakali, Sadharana etc, had been obsolete and their place wgis taken by terms such as Komala, Tivra etc. Later musicologists, particularly those belonging to the late medieval period have not dealt with the Sadharana subject at all in their books, for the obvious reason that modifications in the form of Sadharanas had be­ come obsolete and new concept of modifications had been in vogue. The music was based on ragagayana, and ragas had relationship with modern Vikrtas, Even Sirngadeva himself has said - some scholars, called Jatisadharana itself as lo7 ragas. That means in 13th century itself Jatigayana was gradually losing its place in favour of Ragagayana, Con­ sequently the concept of Sadharanas which was related to Jatigayana also gradually receded in background. 135 v) Varnas - Alankaras # ' " Music is a performing art, and the art is developed through various processes. These processes are called Varnas. Narada or Bharata has not given any definition of Varna. Dattila also has not given any definition as such, but has stated that Varnas should be understood by the meaning con- veyed by their names. Matanga has explained that Varna denotes Gana - the act of singing. Abhinava says that the word Varna denotes the expansion of the act (of singing) (N.S. IV p.79). Varna has been defined by Sarrigadeva as the lo8""») act of singing. Varnas are different forms of employing notes while singing. In Sarigitaraja of Rana Kumbha Varnas have been defined as those which expand the song or which attain brillance in the v/ords of the song. Other musico­ logists e.g. Panditv Damodara, Raja Raghunatha and Somanatha have also given similar meaning of the term. These Ganakriyas are of four types - Sthayi (stable- static), Arohi (ascending), Avarohi (descending), and Sancari (moving in all directions). In Sthayi Varna, the vocalisa­ tion rests on a single note. The note may be extended or repeated. The action must however create melody. Extension of a note at times creates such an atmosphere that the listener is enchanted even with the singing of one single note. Repetition of the note twice, or thrice, creates ornamentations. Aroha is the ascending of the notes in 136 orderly manner. The ascending may be by a couple of notes, like Sa-Ri, Ri-Ga, Ga-Ma, etc. or in more number of notes. Similarly, Avaroha is the descending of notes in an orderly manner. This also may be by a couple of notes, such as Sa-Ni, Ni-Dha, Dha-Pa, etc. or by more number of notes. Sancari Varna involves a mixture of Sthayi,ArohI, and Avarohi Varnas. Notes move in both directions in this Varna, such as Sa, Ri, Ri, Sa, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ri, Sa, etc. Minimum three notes are required to form a Sancari Varna. One note may come under Sthayi, two notes may come under ascent (Sa,Ri) or descent (Ri, Sa). So the smallest formation in Sancari llo Varna will be Sa, Ri, Sa. Varnas are the basis from which Alankaras (embellish- ments of music) are derived. Alankaras are combinations of several melodic movements. They are groups of notes used to adorn the melody. In the act of singing, the artiste exhibits his skill and goes on improvising the music, and from his imagination, different forms and note structures spring out which add beauty to the melody. The factors beautifying the melody or serving as ornamentation to it, are called Alankarsis, Matai5ga has said that just as golden ornaments add to the beauty of a woman, so the musical embellishments add to the beauty of the melody or Gita. Bharata too, has stressed the importance of Alankaras by giving further illustrations of night without moonlight, river without water, creeper without a flower, etc. The 137 first systematic definition of »Alankara» appears to have been given by Sarrigadeva. Beyond ornamenting the melody, Ssa*rigadeva has given further objectives of Alankaras viz, obtainment of melodiousness, knowledge of notes and variety of note patterns. Raja Raghunatha too, has given the proyojana or object of Alankaras in similar words, Ahobala has said that Ragas cannot be expanded without the aid of Alankaras. On the use of Alankaras depends the skill of the singer. Ahobala defines Alahk'ara as an orderly employment of notes. This definition differs somewhat from that of Sarngadeva. Ahobala* s definition has relevance with Svaras, whereas that of Sarngadeva, with Varnas. Ahobala* s definition has been criticised by Bhavabhatta, who seems to have accepted Sarngadeva's definition. Like "Vamas from which they are derived, Alankaras are also of four kinds, 1) Sthayi Alankaras - Simple vocalisations which come back to the note from which they start. They are single note Alankaras, 2) Arohi Alankaras - Ascending ornaments - They start from one note and rise to the next above, consequently or alternately, 3) Avarohi Alankaras - Descending ornaments - Lead­ ing from one note to the next below - consecutively or alternately. 138

h) Sancari Alankaras - Elaborate vocalisings, involv­ ing combination of the three above. About the number of such Alankaras, there has been always a difference among the musicologists. The following chart will show the number of Alankaras accepted by some of them:

Sthayi Arohi Av arohi Samcari Total

Bharata 7 13 5 1^ 39 Dattila h 2 2 5 13 Matafiga 8 6 5 Ih 33 Sarngadeva 7 12 12 25+7* 63

Nanyadeva - Ih ^ 11+ 33 Kumbha 7 12 12 25+7 63 Raghunatha 7 12 12 25+7 63 Ahobala 7 12 12 25+7+5* 68

* Additional

It will be observed from the above that the number of Alankaras - particularly Sancari Alankaras is gradually on the increase. In Sarfcari type, there is a wide scope for permutation and combination of different arrangements of notes, and owing to the freedom with which the artiste can swing his imagination, the Alankaras would in fact be 139

innumerable. Even in the ancient days, the number of Alankaras may be very big, but only few have been codified with names and characteristics given, being perhaps of representative character. In modern days, the method of codifying Alankaras has practically become obsolete. Even then, a skilful and talented artiste creates an array of Alankaras and beautifies his art. Music is ever in the process of evolution and many more new varieties will come up, according to the need of the time. Terminologies will change. New terminologies will come forward and old ones will be lost in the flow of time; but the idea of beautifying and ornamenting the music will persist, as it would accelerate its entertaining power, by enhancing the melodiousness of the music. Alankaras were thus, and have still been, considered a necessity for good music. Although the musicologists of India differ amongst themselves about the number and characteristics of Alankaras and also about the Varnas from which they are derived, they admit their importance for clear manifestation of Gitis. The music of India has always been enriched by the precious contribution of Alankaras.

Bharata has admitted 39 Alankaras to be employed in the Gandharva. However, from the point of view of the Dhruvagana he has admitted only 10 of them as significant. The meaning of the Dhruva was important for the dramatic purpose. Hence the Alankaras to be used in Dhruvagana were such that would not hamper the understanding of the Dhruva. This accounts for the less number of Alarikaras given for Dhruvagana. Dhruvas appeared on specific occasions, and had to express different sentiments at different times, and there­ fore emhellishoients had a particular significance with them,

Alankaras dealt with by Ahobala

Ahobala's treatment of Alankaras is more or less on the same lines as that of Sarrigadeva, with slight difference. Sarhgadeva has given sixtythree Alankaras, whereas Ahobala has given sixtyeight. Some names of Alankaras given by Ahobala, differ from those of Sarngadeva. In case of some Alankaras, the explanations given by Ahobala are different from those given by Sarngadeva. For example, the Alankara •Prasannadi' has been defined by Ahobala as 'beginning with Mandra note', whereas it has been defined by Sarngadeva as 'having a Tara note after first two Mandra notes' , Names of the seven additional Alankaras of Ahobala are different from those given by s'arhgadeva. Over and above those, Ahobala has given five more Alankaras which have relationship with Tala (time measure).

Ahobala has given seven Alankaras coming under Sthayivarna, They are as follows:

i) Prasannadi; This he has been defined, as the one having a Mandra note at its beginning. The term 'Prasanna' means 'Mancira'. The Alankara Prasannadi begins with a Mandra note; but what would follov; next has not been given. Nor has any illustration also been given under the Alankara. In fact, Ahobala has not given illustrations under any of the seven Sthayi-alarikaras. ii) Prasannanta: In this Alankara, the Mandra note comes in the end. iii) Prasannadyanta: Here the Mandra note comes in the beginning as well as at the end. iv) Prasannamadhya; Here the Mandra note comes in the middle. No mention is made of other notes that come before and after this Mandra note in this Alankara, nor of those involved in the Alahkaras mentioned earlier. Since Ahobala follows generally the pattern of Sarngadeva who in describing his Alankaras has made a specific mention of Tara notes along with Mandra notes, it may well be presumed that in the description of all these Alankaras, Ahobala has presupposed the existence of Tara notes along side the Mandra notes, although he has not made any specific mention thereof, v) Kramarecita; This has not been properly explain­ ed by Ahobala. The term 'Kramat» (in regular order), does not convey the correct idea of the Alankara. Sarngadeva has however explained the Alankara in detail. According to him, this Alankara has been explained in terras of three Kalas or stages. In the first stage, the first note of the Ilf2

Murcchani. will be in the beginning and the end, and the second note in the middle. In the second stage, the third and fourth notes will be in the middle, with the first note at the beginning and the end. In the third stage, the fifth," sixth and seventh notes will be in the middle. The illustra- tion given by Sarngadeva is as follows: Sa, Ri, Sa; Sa, Ga, Ma, Sa; Sa, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa. This gives a very clear idea of the Alankara, vi) Pr as tar a; This has been defined as 'Anvar- thanaraan' - self-explanatory'. Prastara means expansion. Any spread over of notes, that would add to the beauty of the tune would corae under this Alankara, vii) Prasad a: Definition of this Alankara is not clear. Prasada is stated to be Prasaunnata (pleasure, satis­ faction). The meaning would be, it is that Alankara, the listening to which is pleasing. This definition is im­ perfect. The quality of pleasingness is common with each and every Alankara; it is the very function of embellish- ments. Sarngadeva has explained the two Alankaras Prastara and Pras"ada differently and more clearly. In his Prastara, the last note of each stage of the Kraraarecita is from the higher octave, as for example, Sa, Ri, Sa; Sa, Ga, Ma, Sa; Sa, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa. In his Prasada Alankara, the first note of each stage of Kramarecita is from the higher octave, such as 3a, Ri, Sa; Sa, Ga, Ma, Sa; Sa, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ahobala has given alternative names for these 1^3

Sthayi-alankaras which, according to hira, have been stated by some respectable musicologists. The terra 'Munayah* i.e. Seers, used by hitn perhaps indicates Hanutnat of whom he was a follower. The plural is intended perhaps to show respect. In the verse 229 describing the Bhadra Alankara, he has made a mention of Anjaneya i.e. Hanumat. The new names for the Sthayi-alankaras were thus taken by Ahobala from him. While giving the alternative names, Ahobala has explained the Alankaras in detail and has also given illustration under them. The Alankaras are: i) Bhadra, an alternative name for Prasannadi; In this Alankara, having started from one note, there is a going to the next note and again returning to the previous note,! In this way the Alankara proceeds ahead, dropping one note feach time (i.e. dropping the note from which the start has been made, and beginning the same process from the next note. The illustration of the Bhadra Alank~ara is: Sa, Ri, Sa; Ri, Ga, Ri; Ga, iMa, Ga^ Ma, Pa, Ma; Pa, Dha, Pa; Dha, Ni, Dha; Ni, SI, Ni, This is in the ascending order. / Similar arrangement has to be followed in the case of des­ cending order. ii) Nanda (i.e, Prasannanta): In this Alankara the same process as in the case of Bhadra has to be followed, with the difference that the notes involved at every stage will be repeated twice. The illustration is: SaSa, RiRi, SaSa; RtRi, GaGa, RiRi; GaGa, MaMa, GaGa; MaMa, PaPa, MaMa; PaPa, DhaDha, PaPa; DhaDha, NiNi, DhaDha; NiNi, SaSa, NiNi, iii) Jita - Prasannadyanta: In this Alankara, two things have been mentioned, viz. the order and the time of each note. The order is like Sa, Ga, Ri, Sa, etc. and the time taken by each note is laghu. The Alankara will proceed like this: Sa, Ga, Ri, Sa; Ri, Ma, Ga, Ri; Ga, Pa, Ma, Ga; Ma, Dha, Pa, Ma; Pa, Ni, Dha, Pa; Dha, Sa, Ni, Dha. In Avaroha reverse order of this has to be followed, iv) Soma - Prasannaraadhya : The order in the Alankara is the saae as in the above. The only difference is that the note at each stage is taken twice, and the titue required is Guru. The illustration is like this: SaSa, GaGa, RiRi, SaSa; RiRi, MaMa, GaGa, RiRi; GaGa, PaPa, MaMa, GaGa; MaMa, DhaDha, PaPa, Mal>4a; PaPa, NiNi, DhaQha, PaPa; DhaDha, SaSa, NiNi, DfeaDha. The descending order of this AlaJikara will be formed by following the reverse of the above process. v) Griva - Kraraarecita: Here the order is Sa, Ga, Ri, Ga, Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa and the like, and the tirae measure is two Laghus. The order is Sa, Ga, Ri, Ga, Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa; Ri, Ma, Ga, Ma, Pa, Ma, Ga, Ri; Ga, Pa, Ma, Pa, Dha, Pa, Ma, Ga; Ma, Dha, Pa, Dha, Ni, Dha, Pa, Ma; Pa, Ni, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ni, Dha, Pa. vi) Bhala - Prastara: In this Alankara the order of the notes is: Sa Ga Ri Ma Ma Ga Ri Sa; Ri Ma Ga Pa Pa Ma Ga Ri; Ga Pa Ma Dha Dha Pa Ma Ga; Ma Dha Pa Ni Ni Dha Pa Ma; Pa Ni Dha Sa Sa Ni Dha Pa. The Alankara will proceed with 1^5 two Drutas and one Laghu. That is, out of the eight words coming under the eight notes of each stage, 1st and 2nd and 3rd and ^-th will form two Drutas and the remaining will fortu one Laghu,

vii) Praka^a - Prasada: In this Alankara the order of the notes is: Sa Sa Ri Ri Ga Ga Ma Ga Ri Ga Ri Sa; Ri Ri Ga Ga Ma Ma Pa Ma Ga Ma Ga Ri; Ga Ga Ma Ma Pa Pa Dha Pa Ma Pa Ma Ga; Ma Ma Pa Pa Dha Dha Ni Dha Pa Dha Pa Ma; Pa Pa Dha Dha Ni Ni Sa Ni Dha Ni Dha Pa, The movement of this Alankara is in Addatala (Attatala) which contains two Laghus and two Drutas, These Alankaras have been given as alternative names for the earlier Sthayi-alankaras, which Ahobala says, are in consonance with the theory of Hanumat. None, hov;ever, of these has any semblance with the Sthayi Alankara given earlier for which it stands. Ahobala could have included these as separate Alankaras in addition to the Alankaras of the four Varnas described in the book. He has already given twelve additional Alankaras at the end of the chapter on Alankaras, over and above the Alankaras of the Varnas. Out of these, seven Alankaras have been described in terms of Tala (Talayuktah.), Since the abovementioned seven Alankaras have been described as having some relevance with the Tala concept, they could have very well been included along with the Talayukta Alankaras. Ahobala has not laid down any basis on which he has taken thera as alternatives for Sthayi- Iif6 alankaras, except quoting Hanumat off and on. After having dealt with the Alankaras of Sthayi- varna, Ahobala next takes up the Alankaras of Arohi-varna, The note arrangement in these Alankaras is in the ascending order. These are: 1) Vistirna: In this Alaiikara, there is a simple m ascent of the notes of the Murcchana, starting froiH its first note, with a pause on each note making it of longer duration. The movement will be like this: Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa. 2) Niskarsa: This Alankara contains short notes repeated twice consecutively. The measure of each note will be one Matra. The notes move as: SaSa, RiRi, GaGa, MaMa, PaPa, DhaDha, NiNi, SaSa, Repeating the notes thrice or four times, like SaSaSa or SaSaSaSa, etc, will form Gatravarna Alankara, which is a variety of the abovementioned Alankara, viz, Niskarsa. 3) Bindu: Here the first three notes will be long, followed by the next note which will be short. Example: SaSaSaRi, RiRiRi Ga, and so on. h) Hasita; In this Alankara, the notes will go on gradually increasing, that is, the first note will be one, the second will be repeated twice and so on. The measure of all notes will be the same. Example: Sa, RiRi, GaGaGa, MaMaMar-Ia, PaPaPaPaPa, DhaDhaDhaDhaDhaDha and NiNiNiNiNiNifJi. 1^7

5) Abhyucchraya; Literally this means 'upgrading, upraising'. Here start is made from one note, the next note is skipped, and third note is taken. The expansion of the Alankara is made in this way. No illustration of this Alankara has been given in Sangitap'arioata. In Sangita- ratnSkara, however, the example is given, just as Sa, Ga, Pa, Ni, Ri, Ma, Dha, Sa. Sangitaratn'akara has named the Alankara as 'Abhyuccaya'. Import of the two terras is prac­ tically the same. 6) Prenkhita; In this Alankara, first two consecutive notes are to be taken;, then, from the second of the two notes a swing is made to the next note, and so on. This will be the order of the movement of the notes in this Alankara, The example of this Alankara will be: SaRi, RiGa, GaMa, MaPa, PaDha, DhaNi, NiSa. 7) Aksipta; In this Alankara, the notes are arranged in the ascending order, taking the first note, dropping the next note, taking the third note, and then beginning with second note and continuing in the same way. Each note has to be taken twice. The illustration is: SaSaGaGa, RiRiMaMa, GaGaPaPa, MaMaDhaDha, PaPaNiNi, DhaDhaSaSa. 8) Sandhipracchadana; This Alankara proceeds with the combination of three consecutive notes. The first two are short and the third one is long. It begins with the first note and the same process is carried on with the second note, 3rd note etc. The illustration: SaRiGa, RiGaMa, llfS

GaMaPa, MaPaDha, PaDhaNi, DhaNiSa. Sarrigadeva has given this Alankara differently. His Alankara begins with the combination of the first three notes in the first stage. In the second stage the combination begins with the third note of the first combination and takes up two subsequent notes, and so on. His example is SaRiGa, GaMaPa, PaDhaNi. Obviously, the two Alankaras mentioned here differ fundamentally, although they have the same name S andhi pr ac ch'ad an a. 9) Udgita; Here the first note, repeated twice, is followed by the second and the third, the last one being long. Similar will be the combination at each stage. Example: SaSaRiGa, RiRiGaMa, GaGaMaPa, MaMaPaDha, PaPaDhaNi, DhaDhaNiSa, Udgita too, like the earlier Alankara, has been given by Sarngadeva differently. According to him, in the com­ bination of the three notes, the first note is repeated thrice in the first stage, and in the next stage, similar arrangement is made starting with the subsequent note. He has given the example as follows: SaSaSaRiGa, MaMaMaPaDha. 10) Udvahita: Here the first note is repeated four times, second one is repeated twice and the third and the fourth one are taken once. The same arrangement is followed in subsequent combinations. Example: SaSaSaSaRiRiGaMa, RiRiRiRiGaGal^IaPa, GaGaGaGaMaMaPaDha and so on. Sarngadeva's description of Udvahita is different. 1^9

11) Trlvarna; In this Alankara in a combination of three notes, the last one is repeated thrice. Example* SaRiGaGaGa, RiGaMaMaMa, GaMaPaPaPa, and so on. Sarrigadeva's definition of this Alankara is just similar, but he has given the illustration as SaRiGaGaGa, MaPaDhaDhaDha. There is a slight difference. 12) Veni; When in the combination of three notes all the notes are repeated thrice, it becomes Veni Alankara, Example: SaSaSa RiRiRi GaGaGa, RiRiRi GaGaGa MaMaMa, GaGaGa MaMaMa PaPaPa and so on. Sarngadeva, whose description of the Alankara is identical gives the illustration as SaSaSa, RiRiRi, GaGaGa, MaMaMa, PaPaPa, DhaDhaDha, NiNiNi. But this is similar to the Alankara Gatravarna Niskarsa describ­ ed earlier. Ahobala's illustration seems to be more apt. At the end of the description of this Alankara, Ahobala has given the name as Prthagveni (Iti Prthagveni 12 ). While commenting on the description of this Alankara in Sangitaratnakara, Simhabhup'ala has given the name of this Alankara as 'Prthagveni' and Ahobala has perhaps blind­ ly copied it. This is however incorrect. Although in the verse the ward 'Prthag' has occurred along with 'Veni', it has relationship with the earlier phrase in the verse and not with Veni, which is the correct name of the Alankara. These are the twelve Alankaras of the Arohi-varna, In the Hathras edition, the descending-order formations of certain Alankaras of Arohi-varna, are given. For example, in 150

Sandhipracchadana Alankara, the descending order of the Alankara as SaNiDha, NiDhaPa, etc. is given. This is how­ ever not correct. In the verse 2l+7, Ahobala has mentioned Alankaras of the Avarohi-varna separately and has stated that the twelve Arohi-alankaras, taken in descending order, formed the twelve Alankaras of the Avarohi-varna. In view of the separate mention of the Alankaras of the Avarohi- varna, giving the descending order of the Alankaras along with those of Arohi-varna is not called for,

Alankaras of SafTcari-varna have been given as twenty- five. They are as follows: 1) Mandradi; The order of notes in this Alaiikara has been given as follows: SaRiGaMa, MaGaRiSa, SaRiGaRi, SaRiGaf^a; RiGaMaPa, PaMaGaRi, RiGaMaGa, RiGaMaPa and so on. It starts with Mandra notes, and moves in all the three registers,

I"- . . _ Sarngadeva has given this Alankara differently. In his Alankara the stage is of three notes. The first stage begins with the first note, then takes third and second notes. In this way subsequent stages are developed. His example is, SagaRi, RiMaGa, GaPaMa, MaDhaPa, etc. Ahobala has laid down the descent of this Alankara in the same manner as the ascent, 2) Mandramadhya; Here the order of the notes is as follows: SaGaRiGa, MaGaRiGa, RiGaRiSa, SaRiGaMa, RiMaGaMa, PaMaGaMa, GaMaGaRi, RiGaMaPa and so on. Ahobala lays down that this is regulated in the syllabic foot 'Ja' of the 151

Prosody, 'Ja* takes Laghu-Guru-Laghu. In each of the above stages, the first and the fourth notes will be Laghu and the middle two notes will stand for one Guru, i.e. one long syllable. 3) Prastara; In this Alankara, a combination of notes has to be taken, wherein two intermediary notes have to be dropped; the next stage will begin with the dropped note, and combination of two notes will be formed as above. His illustration goes as follows;"Sa Ma, Ri Pa, Ga Dha, MaNi, Pa Sa. The descent will be in the reverse order.Sarngadeva's wording of the definition of this Alankara is just similar, but the import seems to be different. 'Tyaktantaram Svaradvandvara' , has been interpreted differently by the two musicologists. Ahobala takes it to mean 'dropping two intermediary notes, whereas Sarngadeva means, taking a pair of notes dropping the intermediary note. Hence his example of this Alankara reads as Sa Ga, Ri Ma, Ga Pa, Ma Dha, Pa Ni, Dha Sa, Sarngadeva has given this Alankara by ascending order only, h) Mandranta; In this Alankara the notes come in the following order: SaSa RiRi GaGa MaGa RiGa RiSa; RiRi GaGa MaMa PaMa GaMa GaRi; GaGa MaMa PaPa DhaPa MaPa MaGa; and so on. The note that comes in the end will be Mandra. Ahobala has stated that this Alankara is regulated in the syllabic foot »Na' of the prosody, which has all short (Laghu) syllabfe. 152

5) Prasada: Here, the first two notes, repeated thrice, will be followed by a combination of third and second. In subsequent stages the same process will be repeated. Illustration: SaRi SaRi SaRi GaRi; RiGa RiGa RiGa MaGa; GaMa GaMa GaMa PaMa; MaPa MaPa MaPa DhaPa; PaDha PaDha PaDha NiDha; DhaNi DhaNi DhaNi SaNi. Prastara axid Prasada have occurred earlier as Alarikaras of Sthayi-varna. But they are different than those given here under Saticari-varna. 6) Vyavrtta: The order of notes in this Alankara is m as follows: SaGaRiMa SaRiGaMa; RiMaGaPa RiGai^aPa; GaPai^aDha GaMaPaDha; MaDhaPaNi MaPaDhaNi; PaNiDhaSa PaDhaNiSa. In the Vyavrtta of Sarngadeva, the order is SaGaRiMaSa; RiMaGaPaRi; GaPaMaDhaGa; and so on. 7) Calita; Here the notes come in the following order: SaGaRiMa MaRiGaSa SaRiGaMa; RiMaGaPa PaGal^IaRi RiGaMaPa; GaPaMaDha DhaMaPaGa GaMaPaDha; MaDhaPaNi NiPaDhaMa MaPaDhaNi; PaNiDhaSa SaDhaNiPa PaDhaNiSa. Sarngadeva has named this Alankara 'Skhalita' . The order in which the notes appear in Skhalita is the same as in Calita of Ahobala, except that the last lap of each stage (SaRiGaMa; RiGaMaPa etc.) is absent. 8) Parivarta; Here the notes come in the order of first, third, fourth and second in the first stage. The same order is to be continued in the subsequent stages. The illustration is: SaGaMaRi; RiMaPaGa; GaPaDhaMa; MaDhaNiPa; 153

PaNiskoha. Ahobala has stated that this Alankara is p-overned by 'Yati Tala' . The time measure 'Yati» is explained in 'Talamauijari as constituted of one Laghu and one Druta i.e. three raatras. Since there are four notes in each stage in this Alankara, each of equal duration, it is difficult to reconcile how a time measure having three Matras could be set in for this Alajnkara, 9) Aksepa: In this Alankara the notes proceed in the * following order: SaRiGa, RiGal^a, Gal^aPa, MaPaDha, PaDhaNi, DhaNiSa. Sarrigadeva's Aksepa is also exactly similar, 10) Bindu; Here the first note is long and thrice repeated. It is followed by the second note which will be short, and then again followed by the first and the third, both long. The same order will be repeated in subsequent stages. The illustration is as follows: SaSaSa RiSaGa; RiRiRi GaRiMa; GaGaGa MaGaPa and so on. The Alankara Bindu of Sarrigadeva is different. The first note is in Pluta, the next is just touched and return is made to the first note; as for example, Sa3RiSa, Ri3GaRi etc. 11) Udvahita: Notes in this Alankara occur in the following order: SaRiGaRi; RiGaMaGa; GaMaPaMa; MaPaDhaPa; PaDhaNiDha; DhaNiSaNi. Sarrigadeva's Udvahita is also similar. This 'Udvahita* is different from 'Udvahita' given by Ahobala under Arohi-alarikaras, 12) Urmi: Here the first note is taken once and it is followed by the fourth note taken thrice and then again 15V by the first and the fourth. The subsequent stages will be formed accordingly. The illustration is thus: SaI^al4aMaSaMa; RiPaPaPaRiPa; GaDhaDhaDhaGaDha; MaNiNiNiMaNi; PaSaSaSaPaSa, Although Sarngadeva has worded the description of this Alankara a bit differently, the purport is the same and the illustration given by him also is exactly similar, 13) Sam a; In this Alankara there will be an ascent of the first four notes, followed by their descent, and again ascent. In this same way subsequent stages will follov/. The illustration is as follows: SaP.iGaMa MaGaRiSa SaRiGaMa; RiGaiMaPa PaMaGaRi RiGaMaPa; and so on. In Sarngadeva's Sama Alankara, the third part (ascent repeated) is not laid down. Otherwise it is similar. lU-) Prenkha: Here the first note is to be taken twice, followed by the fourth also taken twice. The next stage will begin with the second note and so on. The illustration is SaSaMai-^a, RiRiPaPa, GaGaDhaDha, MaMaMiNi, PaPaSaSa. The descent will be in the reverse order. In this Alankara as described by Sarn'gadeva, each stage will be of two consecutive notes in ascent and descent, such as SaRiRiSa, RiGaGaRi, Gal^al^aGa, etc. l5) Niskujita: In this Alankara the first note and the fourth note will occur first and will be repeated; it will be then followed by the combination of the first four consecutive notes. The same order will be follov^ed in the subsequent stages. Illustration: SaMaSal^aSaRiGaMa; 155

RiPaRiPaRiGaMaPa; GaDhaGaDhaGaMaPaDha; MaNiMaNiMaPaDhaNi; PaSaPaSa PaDhaNiSa. Sarrigadeva's description of this Alahkara is altogether different. It goes as SaRiSaGaSa RiGaRiMaRi etc. 16) Syena: Here the first note will take each of the subsequent notes and go ahead, upto the end. Similar process will take place in the case of the second and subsequent notes. Illustration: SaRi, SaGa, Sai4a, SaPa, SaDha, Sat^i, SaSa, RiGa, RiMa, RiPa, RiDha, RiNi, RiSa and so on. In the description of this Alankara by Sarngadeva, each of the notes SaRiGaiMa will form a pair with its res­ pective Samvadi-note, such as, SaPa, RiDha, GaNi, MaSa. 17) Krama; The order of notes in this Alahkara is SaRi RiGa GaMa, RiGa Gai4a MaPa, GaMa MaPa PaDha and so on. Sarngadeva's Kraraa goes like SaRi SaRiGa SaRiGaMa, RiGa RiGaHa RiGal-IaPa etc. 18) Udghatita; Here the order of the notes is: SaGaSaGa SaRiGaMa; RiMa RiMa RiGaMaPa; GaPaGaPa GaMa PaDha; MaDha MaDha MaPa DhaNi; PaNi PaNi PaDha NiSa. These note arrangements are to be taken in a manner of swing. Sarngadeva has given an Alankara by name IJdghattita, whose structure is different from this Alafikara. 19) Ranjita: Notes in this Alankara will occur in the following order: SaGa RiGa SaRi GaMa; RiMa GaMa RiGa MaPa; GaPa MaPa Gal^a PaDha; MaDha PaDha MaPa DhaMi; PaNi DhaNi PaDha NiSa. This is similar to Udghatita with little change. 156

20) Sannivrtta; The notes in this Alankara come in the following order: SaRiGa RiGaMa GaRiSa RiGaMa; RiGaMa GaMaPa MaGaRi Gal^aPa; GaMaPa MaPaDha PaMaGa MaPaDha; MaPaDha PaDhaNi DhaPaMa PaDhaNi; Pa Dha Ni Dha Ni Sa Ni Dha Pa Dha Ni Sa. 21) Pravrtta; This is the sarae as Sannivrtta, with the only difference that the notes are reduplicated, such as SaSaRiRiGaGa RiRiGaGaMaMa GaGa RiRi SaSa RiRi GaGa MaI4a, etc, Sarngadeva has taken Sannivrttapravrttaka as one Alankara. It is also quite different from any of the above two Alankaras of Ahobala. It goes like Sa Pa Ma Ga Ri, RiDha Pa Ma Ga and so on. Since Ahobala has taken these two as separate Alankaras, the actual total number of his Alankaras of Sarfcari-varna work upto twentysix, although he has earlier stated that they are only twentyfive. Inadvertently the same number 13 is given to both 'Sama' and »Prenkha' and thus the number of the Alankaras of this Varna is shovm as twentyfive.

22) Verm: Here the order of the notes is: SaMaGaMa SaRiGaMa; RlPaMaPa RiGaMaPa; GaDhaPaDha GaiMaPaDha; MaNiDhaMi MaPaDhaNi; PaSaMiSa PaDhaMiSa. Sarngadeva's Venu is different, 23) Lalitasvara: The first, the fourth, the third, each repeated twice, will be follov/ed by pairs of second 157 and first, first and second, third and second, first and second and third and fourth, notes. The same order will be continued in subsequent stages. Illustration: SaSa Ma^a GaGa RiSa SaRi GaRi SaRi Gal^a; RiRi PaPa MaMa GaRi RiGa MaGa RiGa MaPa; and so on, 2^) Hunkara (Hunkrti): Here the notes will proceed in the order of pairs of Samvadin and each note will be re­ duplicated. Illustration: SaSa PaPa; RiRi DhaDha; GaGa NiNi; MaMa SaSa. 25) HIadamana; Here the notes come in the following order: Sai4a GaRi, RiPaMaGa, GaDhaPaMa, MaJ^IiDhaPa, PaSaNiDha* /- . _ - Sarngadeva's Hladamana is slightly different, inasmuch as it goes like SaGaRiSa RiMaGaRi etc. which is similar to Ahobala's 'Jita' of Sthayi Varna, 26) Avalokita: In this Alankara there is a combination of the first and the fourth note - each repeated thrice - in the first stage. Subsequent stages follow accordingly. Illustration: SaSaSa MaMaMa; RiRlRi PaPaPa; GaGaGa DhaDhaDha; MaMaMa NiNiNi; PaPaPa SaSaSa, In addition to these Alankaras of the four Varnas, Ahobala has given further seven Alankaras which he has stated as useful in Gitas and as regulated in time measures, and five more as useful in Ragas (V.287). Sarrigadeva, too has given seven more Alankaras in addition to Varna Alankaras, But none of his additional Alankaras agrees with any of those given by Ahobala. 158

In the description of the first seven Alankaras Ahobala has given the time measure with which they are to be sung. The Alankaras are as follows: 1) Inciranila: SaRi GaMa GaRi SaRi GaRi SaRi GaMa; RiGa MaPa MaGa RiGa MaGa RiGa MaPa; Gal^a PaDha PaMa GaMa PaMa Gai4a PaDha and so on. This is said to be regulated in Dhruva Tala. Dhruva Tala has Laghu, Druta, Laghu and Laghu i.e. in all 3 1/2 Matras. In each of the above stages, each pair of notes denotes 1/2 Matra. 2) Mahava.jra: SaRiGaRi SaRi SaRiGaMa; RiGaMaGa RiGa RiGaMaPa; Gal^laPaMa GaMa Gaf4aPaDha; and so on. This is governed by Manthatala, which takes a Laghu, a Druta and a Laghu, This makes in all 2 1/2 Matras. In each stage of the Alankara, the first four pairs of notes will cover a Laghu, the next two pairs a Druta and the last four pairs a Laghu. 3) Nirdosa; SaRi SaRiGaMa; RiGa RiGaMaPa; GaMa GaMaPaDha; MaPa MaPaDhaNi; PaDha PaDhaNiSa. This is governed by Rupakatala, having a Druta and a Laghu. The first two pairs in a stage will cover a Druta, and the next four pairs a Laghu. h-) Sira; SaRi SaRiGa SaRiGaMa; RiGa RiGaMa RiGaMaPa; GaMa GaMaPa Gal'^aPaDha; MaPa MaPaDha MaPaDhaNi; PaDha PaDhaNi PaDhaNiSa. This is governed by Jharapa Tala, which takes an Anu-druta, a Druta and a Laghu, 5) Kokila; SaRiGa SaRiGaI4a; RiGai^a RiGai-IaPa; Gal^aPa 159

GaMaPaDha; MaPaDha MaPaDhaNi; PaDhaNi PaDhaNiSa. This takes Triputa Tala which contains a Laghu, Druta, and Druta, 6) Avarta; SaRi GaRi SaRi SaRi SaRiGai^a; RiGa MaGa RiGa RiGa RiGai'4aPa; GaMa PaMa GaMa GaMa Gat>laPaDha; and so on. This is regulated in Adda (Atta?) Tala which takes two Laghus and two Drutas, 7) Sadananda; SaRiGaMa; RiGal^aPa; Gal4aPaDha; MaPaDhaNi; PaDhaNiSa. This is regulated by Laghu Tala which takes a Laghu, and contains one Matra, Apart from the aboveraentioned seven Alankaras which have been explained in terws of the time measures governing thenj, Ahobala has further stated five ajore Alankaras which according to him are useful in R^gas. Alankaras are era- bellishraent^of Gita; Gitas are compositions tuned in Ragas. All Alankaras are formed with the notes of Ragas, and have thus a relationship with the ragas. The point in maintaining particularly these five Alankaras as useful in ragas is not clear. Perhaps Ahobala means to indicate that these Alankaras are to be used in connection with Sarapurna ragas, as would appear from their note structure. The five Alankaras men­ tioned are as follows:

1) Cakr'akara; This Alankara has a revolutionary motion, like awheel. Its first stage begins with four 'Ris, takes one 'Sa' in the middle, and ends with three 'Ris. Subsequent stages will be formed accordingly. The reason for beginning this Alankara with 'Ri' is perhaps that the 160

Alankara should belong to the middle octave, and if it would begin with 'Sa', 'Ni' note of the lower octave would have to be taken in the middle. To avoid this, the Alankara began with •Ri». Illustration: RiRiRiRi SaRiRiRi; GaGaGaGa RiGaGaGa; MaMaMaMa GaMaMaMa; PaPaPaPa MaPaPaPa; DhaDhaDhaDha PaDhaDhaDha; NiNiNiNi DhaNiNiNi; SaSaSaSa NiSaSaSa. 2) Java: Here, in the first stage all the notes have to be taken, in ascent, as well as in descent. In each of subsequent stages, the last note in the ascending order is to be dropped and the stage to be completed. Ahobala states this Alankara in accordance with the theory of Hanumat, The movement of the Alankara will be as follows:

Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Ni Dha Pa Ma Ga Ri Sa Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Dha Pa Ma Ga Ri Sa Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Pa Ma Ga Ri Sa Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Ma Ga Ri Sa Sa Ri Ga Ma Ga Ri Sa Sa Ri Ga Ri Sa Sa Ri Sa Sa

The other part of this Alankara has to be written in the reverse order of the above. 3) Sarikha: In this Alankara, the last note has to be taken long and repeated twice, and will be followed by two lower consecutive notes which will be short. Remaining stages will be formed accordingly. The last note of the 161 octave is Sa of the higher octave. Hence this Alankara pro- ceeds in a descending order, as follows: SaSa NiDha; NiNi DhaPa; DhaDha PaMa; PaPa MaGa, MaMa GaRi; GaGa Ri Sa. Shri Kalinda has stated that the ascending order of this Alankara is SaSa RiGa, RiRi GaMa etc. This however is not correct. According to the description of the Alankara as given in the book, it has a descending order only and ascending order of it is not contemplated, h) Padmakara; Here the order of the notes is as follows: SaRi SaSaSa RiGaGa; RiGa RiRiRi GaMaPa; GaMa GaGa Ga MaPaPa and so on. 5) V arid a; In this Alankara, in the first stage the first note has to be taken, and it will be followed by the seventh note thrice repeated. In subsequent stages, the first note will be followed by the sixth, fifth, fourth, third and second notes, each thrice repeated. The illustra­ tion is as follows: Sa NiNiNi; Sa DhaDhaDha; Sa PaPaPa; Sa MaMaMa; Sa GaGaGa; Sa RiRiRi; Sa SaSaSa. In this way, Ahobala has dealt with sixty eight Alankaras. According to him Alarikaras will be innumerable, depending upon the ragas in different melas, and also depend­ ing upon the skill of the artiste to improvise and mani­ pulate. The use of Alarikaras in singing or playing instru­ ments will be the indicator of the versatility of the artiste in the matter of Svara and Tala. Ahobala says that without the use of Alankaras, there cannot be proper manifestation 162 of the Ragas, and the Alankaras therefore provide an oppor­ tunity to the artiste to exhibit his skill in that regard, Sarngadeva has given threefold purpose of the use oif Alankaras - (i) adding melodiousness to the tune, (ii) proper knowledge of the Svara and also (iii) of the varieties of the Varnas. (Sr.1.6,6^) Ahobala has practically said the satne thing, but in different words. Two terms, Mandra and Tara, always occur in connec­ tion with the description of Alankaras; but they are not to be understood in their usual meaning. The first note of the Milrcchana is regarded as Mandra in connection with Alankaras. The same note having a double pitch is called Tara. If the note is from the lower register, the sar/e note with a double pitch, even though actually in middle register, will be treated as Tara. If the socalled Mandra note occurs in the middle register, its corresponding Tara will be actually in the higher octave. In short, in relation to Alankaras, the Tara note is the note having a pitch double of its corresponding Mandra, vi) Gamakas

A melody is also adorned by the use of Gamakas, Gamaka is an ornament of notes which produces the colour of Srutis other than its own. When a note, in singing, rises from its own pitch and moves towards another so that some­ thing of the expression of the second sound passes like a shadow over it, this is called 'Grace' or Gamaka, Gamaka 163 has been defined by many musicologists in their own ways. The sum & substance of all these definitions is one and the saiue. The vibration of the note, which is pleasing to the mind of the listener is Gamaka or Grace. In Indian music - ancient as v;ell as modern, southern as well as northern - Gamakas have an important place and have to perform a very important function, viz. pleasing the ears of the listeners, by way of adding adornment to the notes utilised in any musical piece that is presented - vocal or instrumental. Ultimately it depends on the skill of the artiste. Just as in the case of Alaiikaras, in the case of Gamakas also the number has been given differently by different musicologists. Nanyadeva gives the number of Gamakas as seven. Pars^'vadeva gives seven Gamakas. Sarngadeva has given the following fifteen Gamakas or graces:

1) Tiripa = Flurry (Hillola) 2) Sphurita = Throb (Gitkari) 3) Kampita = Shake (Khatka) h) Lina = Melting away 5) Andolita = Swing (Andolana) 6) Vali = Ripple (Minda) 7) Tribhinna = Threefold 8) Kurala = Curl (Ghasita) 9) Ahata = Struck 10) Ullasita = Rising 11) Plavita = Overflow 16^

12) Gumphita = Tied (Alternatively, Huraphita = Consisting of 'Hum') 13) Mudrita = Sealed 1^) Namita = Obeisance 15) Mi^rita = Mixture of any of the above Note; Names given in brackets are modern names,

Sangitamakaranda has given twentyone Gafflakas ; Somanatha has given nineteen Garaakas, In modern music too, Gamakas as adornments of music still have their importance. The names have however been changed. Some new Gamakas also have been created. The Gamakas given in the books are just few, and are of illus­ trative type. In fact, a skilful artiste, in his freedom of improvisation can create a lot of Garaakas in his per­ formance, which may not have names, but still pleasing to the thousands of listeners around him, Ahobala has not given any definition as such of 'Gamaka'. He has however mentioned certain Gamakas and has explained their characteristics. The Gamakas dealt with by him are as under: I Cyavita; The word literally means 'fallen'. The note that is caused (let loose, fallen) by striking the string of the Vina once only, is called 'Cyavita'. Ahobala has explained that such notes are so called since they are fallen from the strings of the Vina. Such notes add sweet­ ness to the melody and hence they are included under graces. 165

Arira: This grace is formed v/hen a note leaves its own place - that is when the note sounds as though different and not the same, i Kampita; The word literally means 'shaken'. The grace Kampita is formed when two notes are struck simul­ taneously on the Vina", on one and the same string. Pratyahata: Literally roeaning 'distracted, repell­ ed' . When two strings of a Vina are struck simultaneously in one stroke so as to produce two notes, the grace is call­ ed 'Ahata' or Pratyahata. Dvirahata; Striking the same note twice, gives rise to this Garoaka. The repetition of the note on the same wire of Vina, is done in such a way as to add to melodiousness of the tune. Sphurita; Literally it means 'trembling, throbbing'. When the same two notes are struck continuously on the strings of the Vina, it is Sphurita. Santa; Resonance that is left behind after striking the strings of Vina, which is of the nature of Anahata (non- struck) Nada, is regarded as the 'Santa' Gamaka, Ahobala says that this was the view of some theorists. But there were others who did not regard any Gamaka by the name 'Santa'. A Gamaka of this variety, according to them, was called Tiripa (flurry). According to Ahobala, the measure of a note in this grace is one fourth of .Druta. The Gamakas described above were, according to 166

Ahobala, caused by striking the notes individually. Later be has dealt with Gamakas involving the covering of all notes, Gharsana and Avagharsana: This means taking all the notes in one stroke, that is gliding over the notes. If it is in upward direction, it is Gharsana and if it is in down­ ward direction, it is Avagharsana, Vikarsana: When another note is dragged in the posi- tion of one note, that is, in the position of that note another note is created, the Gafflaka is Vikarsana, Sva^thana: A Gamaka involving action of going to the next note ahead and coming back to the original note, is called Svasthana. When the same action is in the case of a note below, the Gamaka is Agrasvasthana, Sudh"alu; In this Gamaka, the action of starting from one note, covering next two notes - either ahead or below and again returning to the original note, is involved. / - _ According to Srinivasa, not two but three notes are to be covered. Hum phi t a: Meaning 'resonating'. In this Gamaka there is a continuous resonance of the same note. Ahobala has mentioned Mudra. But this, according to him, is exactly like 'Humphita' . Hence he has not separately dealt with it. Sarngadeva has defined Humphita as imitating the sound 'Hum'. He has defined 'Mudra' as a note produced with closed mouth, Ahobala says Gamakas are innumerable, but to des­ cribe them all was not within the scope of his book. 167

It will be seen that many of his Garaakas differ from those described by other musicologists. His number also differs. It may be that, for the reason stated above, he might have made his own choice of Gamakas to be included in his book, Bharata has shown a clear perception of certain musical intervals such as 22 Srutis (octave), 13 Srutis (fifth), 9 Srutis (^th), four Srutis, three Srutis and two Srutis. The last three are known as major tone,minor tone, and semi-tone respectively. These intervals are measured by modern musicologists in terms of cents as follows: Octave 22 Srutis i.e. 1200 cents Fifth 13 S'rutis i.e. 702 cents Fourth 9 Srutis i.e. ^98 cents Tone or U- Srutis i.e. 20^ cents Major tone Minor tone 3 Srutis i.e. 182 cents / Semi-tone 2 Srutis i.e. 112 cents

In terms of the above explanation, the distance from Sa to Sa will be 1200 Cents. That between the Samvadin notes Sa-Pa, Ga-Ni, Ri-Dha etc. will be 702 cents. That between the notes having the Sa-Ma Samvada (i.e. 9 Sruti distance) is ^98 cents. The distance between Ni and Sa, Ga and Ma, Ma and Pa will be 20^ cents in each case. That between Sa-Ri, Pa-Dha, etc. (of Sadja Grama) is 182 cents. The distance of notes of two Sruti interval is 112 cents. 168

In terms of ratio, the four Sruti interval or major tone is 9/8, the three-Sruti interval or a minor tone is 10/9; the two-Sruti interval or semitone is 16/15. The major tone and the minor tone differ by an interval called comma 81/80 (9/8 - 10/9 = 81/80), v/hich is Pramana Sruti. This Pramana Sruti, or comma, was considered by Indian as well as Greek musicians of past as the logicEil unit for any practical division of the scale. The ancient Greek music was of melody type, Indian music is also basically melody type. The following table given by Shri K. G, Mulay will show the Srutis of Bharata in terms of their mathematical values - (Bharatiya Sangita, p.29, 19^0 Ed.), (p.169) Relative values of other notes can be worked out on the basis of the above data. For example, the value of Antara Gandhara can be found out this way. Antara Ga (h Srutis) is a major tone above Buddha Ri (3 Srutis); 10/9 x 9/8 = 5/^» Antara Gandhara's interval ratio is 5/^. Vibrations of Antara Ga are 300. Assuming that vibrations of Sa = ZhO per second, the frequencies of other notes in Raga Satikarabharana, for example, will be as follows, (p.170) Bharata* s method of measuring the intervals was based on the use of a Vina with seven strings. Sarngadeva had used, for this purpose, a Vina of twentytwo strings, each tuned to a Sruti. In his time the notes were defined in terms of their expression in their Srutis which were demonstrated on these separate strings. With the introduction 170

Name of the ' Relative frequencies of Svaras Raga Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa

Saikara- 1 9/8 ?A V3 3/2 27/16 1^/8 2 bharana 2^0 270 300 320 360 h05 h^O ifSO

of fretted Vinas in later medieval period, further advance was made in the matter of defining the note system. Ahobala has given an illustration of this advance by taking a further step in the matver of demonstration of notes. He was perhaps the first musicologist to give the relation between the pitches of the different degrees of the scale in terms of the length of speaking wire of the Vina under constant ten­ sion. There are certain theories expounded by him in his Sangitaparijata which have a modern touch, and the theory of locating notes on the length of the speaking wire of the Vina is one of them. The system is so perfect that it would be reasonable to say that the places of the notes on the Vina as indicated by him will remain quite unaffected, so long as there is no change in their accepted values. The basis of his system was his acceptance of the principle of relation of fifth (Sadja-pan'cama-bhava) between notes. The octave Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa is divided in two tetra-chords, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma and Pa, Dha, Mi, Sa, and the notes in the two tetrachords are related by the interval of fifth, as stated 171 above. Places for the notes are described on the Vina which produces thera. For this purpose he selected a Vina with a measured length between the top (Meru) and the lower bridge on the trunk. The node for the upper Sa or the octave was fixed on the midpoint of the open wire fixed between the two points, and the places of other notes including Vikrta or modified notes were fixed in accordance with the place of Tara Sa.

It must be understood that the placing of the notes as above is a method of 17th century. The method is alto­ gether different from that of earlier scholars, and has a touch of modernness. It has paved the way for future scholars for further research. One such effort would be found made by Shri V. N. Bhatkhande in modern days. Some of the notes used by him have undergone slight modifications, but they are the notes of the present day music. Shri Bhatkhande selected a Vina with the length of 36 inches for the purpose of experiment. With this basis, and taking Ahobala's system as the guide for his experiment, Shri Bhatkhande has tried to fix the places of notes in terms of the length of the Vina string. A comparative statement of the locations of notes on Vina string, according to Ahobala and according to Shri Bhatkhande is given below:- 172

Note Ahobala Bhatkhande

Sa 36" 36

Kofflala Ri 33 1/2" ^

Hi 32" 32 Koffiala Ga 30" 30 Tivra Ga 28 2/3^ 28 2/3 Ma 27" 27 Tivra Ma 2^ 1/3" 2^ 1/2 Pa 2h» 2k KoBiala Dha 22 2/9" 22 3A Dha 21 i/3 21 2/3 Kofflala Ni 20" 20 Tivra Ni 19 1/9" 19 1/9 Sa 18 18 173

^^^^^=^ ^v-2,C ^,^ oxv^ c^<^ cV^V ;\ >

:^^^ ^ 17^

cs^/>- 'S.a ^- \ ^ ^.

^^ 0> c^^ ^^ -^rt^-t \ ^^-^^ -^v^^ W^,-,

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