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Lc ,2 APR 1979

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR ASIA AND THEc PACIFIC Bangkok, Thailand

TRANSPORT\- AND COMMUNICATIONSBULLETIN "

for Asia and the P aeiIie No. 52

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-..~~~ ;; UNrrED NATIONS New York, 1978 ,The Bulletin, a semiannualpublication, origin~tedin 1950, and servesto dissemmateinformation on transport and commu- nication techniquesand developmentsof interest to the region. It is preparedby the ESCAPsecretariat with the help of special correspondentsappointed for this purpose by member and associatemember countries of ESCAP..

The designationsemployed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expressionof any opinion whatsoeveron the part of the Secretariatof the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory city or area, or of its authorities, or concerningthe delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. I

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC Bangkok, Thailand

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS BULLETIN for Asia and the Pacific

No. 52

;'1~f{"",,;

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-~~~ UNITED NATIONS New York, 1978 UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION

SalesNo. E.79.II.F.2

Price: $US 5.00 or equivalentin other currencies CONTENTS

Page I. ARTICLES

Economic evaluationof completedtransport projects. 1/ Developmentof containertraffic and a~ociatedequipment in the USSR, 1976-1980 """"""'" 4 Highway fmancingin developingcountries 14/ Energyand railways: comparisons,components, specific values and savings. I9~ Urban transport planningin developingcountries. 29 ,/

The formulation of basic conceptsand guidelines for preparation of tourism sub-regionalmaster plans ~ in the ESCAPregion. 33

ThedevelopmentofrailwaysintheUSSR, 41 Containerizedhaulage between Europeand Japanalong the Trans-Siberianroute. 45 .,/

H. NEWS ON RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Air transportin Australia. 48 Australia's "last link"paved 49

High-speedtoll road to easetraffic congestionin Bangkok. 50 Industry and tourism in the Republic of Korea spurredby expresswayprogramme. 50 PakistanRailways prepares for a new five.yearinvestment plan 51 Calcutta'srapidtransitsystem 52 Running test of the levitation railway car by JapaneseNational Railways. 52 International Transport Exhibition ("IV A '79"), Hamburg,Federal Republic of Germany-8 June-I July 1979 52

HI. CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN TRANSPORT CO.oRDINA~ON PROGRAMMESAND poucms IN MEMBER COUNTRIES OF THE ESCAP REGION

Transport coordinationpolicies in NewZealand 54 Strategyfor co-ordinatedtransport developmentin Bangladesh. 57

IV. DOCUMENTATION

Recenttransport publications 60 I. ARTICLES

ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF COMPLETED tion of a transport project very necessaryand, at the TRANSPORTPROJECTS. sametime, an extremely complexone. This task is very important for all countriesand especiallyfor developing Transport is one of the major parts of the pro- ones where the acceleratedgrowth of the economyis ductive infrastructure of the country. By integrating often being held down by backwardnessand deficiencies separatesectors of the economy and linking economic in some transport facilities or in the transport system regions it createsa big potential for broad spatial and as a whole. For these countries with limited amounts sectoral division of labour and for deepeningspecializa- of immediately availableresources and with high prio- tion of production in regionsand particular enterprises. rities in other sectors,it is of vital importance tp ela- Therefore,the scale,capacity and technologicallevel of borate well groundedpolicies of transport development the transport network and of the rolling stock, as well as well as careful economic analysis of completed as their performance,are significantindicators reflecting transportprojects. technical and economicadvances of the country. Trans- port's impact on the efficiency of the economy cannot A very specialproblem in a numberof developing be overestimated. countries is the absence or incompletness of basic The growth of production, the rise of the mone- transport statistics; this is frequently decisive for the tary sector'sshare of production and the broadeningof degree of accuracy and refinement possible in the foreign trade relations lead to the steadyincrease of the evaluation analysis. Most of these countries have, for over-allcargo volume neededto be moved. On the other instance,initiated only very recently the collection of hand, the complexity of sectoral structure and the highway traffic data. Where highway statistics are processesof specializationand concentrationsof pro- available, they are usually limited to simple traffic duction are causingan increasein the distanceof deli- counts. Therefore, a transport study or survey needs very from the point of production to the consumer. fIrst of all a specialarrangement to collect information Owing to this quantitative and qualitative growth and on origin and destinationof traffic or on the types of change of the economy, freight transport output ex- commodities carried on highways information which pressedin ton-kilometres is rapidly growing. Passenger is hardly ever available.little is usually known about transport demandtoo is growing significantly. vehicle operating costs on different types of surfaces.

Another important feature of the transport The concept of project evaluation includes fIrst industry is its ability to acceleratethe turn-overof goods of all the determination of a criterion of economic by reducing delivery time and providing a regularity of efficiency as a guide to assessand selectamong projects.. service which allows a reduction in the necessaryraw Such a criterion is social labour productivity, that is, materialreserves of enterprises. the labour spent to produce a unit of product. But it Finally, transport is distinctive by the fact that should be taken into account that the developmen~ its output is inseparablefrom the consumption of its funds within eachsector are limited and proper distribu- production -which meansthe conveyanceof passengers tion of funds therefore needs economic justification and goods. Since transportation output cannot be based,among others, on evaluationof alreadycompleted ~tored, its reservesmay be created only in the form of projects. It is clear that all economicallyviable projects spare capacity to meet the peaks and rapid growth of in the aggregatewill not necessarilygive a maximum traffic. economicbenefit for a sectoras awhole. The specific featules mentioned above help So, for purposes of current and prospective determine the role of trattsport in the whole economy. planning, the recently completed projects should be But transport development needs large investments. compared among themselvesand with the proposed In the USSR, the total post-war sum of capital invest- ones to det.erminetheir relative economic efficiency. ment in the transportation sector has exceeded10 per cent of total investmentin the economy. The relative economic efficiency of projectscould be determinedfrom the following formula: The high capital-intensity of most transport projects as well as the multiplicity of economicbenefits induced by them, make the task of the economicevalua- * Contributed by the SpecialCorrespondent of the Union of SovietSocialist Republics to ESCAP. Kland~ -capitaljects beinginvestments compared; in two--- pro- So, after the first year hasexpired, the savingfrom - the standpoint of our project will exceedthe sum A Cl and C2 -annualprojects. costs-~ induced by- the by AE and will be equalto A (I + E). Subsequently, after t y~rs the saving of A today will increaseto The results from the above calculationshould be A(I + E)t. This means,that if a certain sumK could be comparedwith the standard co-efficient for capital in- spent, not JlOWbut afteI: t yearsit's presentvalue would vestment. For the USSR economy such an over-all be (I + E)t timesK. coefficient is establishedat presentat the level of 0.12 The_~dexr =, ~t canbe defmedas postp<:>ne- (12 per cent). In the course of economic development me~t co-efficientan~the inverseindex rd =~= (1 + Er such a co.efficient needs to be revisedwithin certain. time periods. Projects with an efficiency co-effient less as the discountingrate. So; to measurethe differencein- than 0.12 are regardedas economicallynon-viable. economic value, future costscan be expressed!n terms To compare a number of projects a criterion of of presentvalues by adjustingat a discountingrate based minimum annualized expensesis u~d. This measure on the co-e~ficientof investmente(ficiency. The prope! consists of annual recurrent (operational) costs and tnethods of comparingbenefits and costswith different annualized total capital cost adjusted to an annual time streamsis, therefore, to discount all future costs amount by using the standard co-efficient for capital and benefitsas of the time a cost is first incurred. investment: Consideringa road as an example of transport CI + EKI = minimum project, the specific features of the cost time streams. Where: KI -total capital cost of the project; should be taken into account. As a-rule the capital investmentis ~preadin time and the project itself has CI -annual recurrent cost of the same a number of implementationp~ses! This can consider- project; ably bias the resultsof economicevaluation; The opera- E -standard co-efficient for capital invest. tional expensesconcerning the road project are also variable owing to the steady growth of traffic density. ment efficiency. Thereforeit would be misleadingto calculatethe average. To assessthe efficiency of investmentin a sector efficiency co-efficient based only on the initial per- of the economy, a ratio of national income increaseto formance of the transport project. As distinct from the respective amount of capital investment inducing industrial projects where the capital investmentsstart this increase could be used (co-efficient of absolute to be recovered almost immediately after the com- efficiency). Here only that part of national income pletion of construction work, in the case-of transport increasewhich is induced by these investmentsshould projects commencementof returns could be much later. be counted. As far as separateprojects are concerned On roads, for instance,inte.nsive traffic can occur after the absolute efficiency could be expressedas net income the IO-year period of construction. In .this casethe (for non-revenueprojects cost saving)to the respective co-efficientsof efficiency for eachparticular year would capitalinvestments ratio. have a variable but increasingvalue and need to be averaged taking into account the discounting rate. Since the benefits of the project do not begin until some time after the project has been started and In the processof transport projel:t evaluationa costs have already been incurred, it becomesnecessary number of factors and indices has to be taken into to compare costs and benefits beginning in different consideration:the total sum of capital investmentsand years and having different time streams.The necessity their year-by-yearspread; changesin operational ex- to adjust the capital costs relative to time occurs if we pensesof the cargo and passengerroad transport con- are dealing with projects being implemented in two or tributing to the commissioningof the transport project more phases. under examination; time of transit during which the Regardlessof the financing method, the timing of freight is tied up; annuallos.sesin non-transportsectors costs is an important feature of economic evaluation of the economyto be eliminated by commissioningof techniquessince a cost incurred this yearhas a different the road; effect of opening up unemployed natural economic value than the samecost incurred sometime resources;effect of introducing new transport liIikS-etc: in the future. Each monetary unit spent today is not To measurea project's economicco~s and bene- equal to that spent after a number of years. Here the fits the whole systemof the abovemeasures should be following is considered: if a certain sum is not imme- brought to the indices of capital investmentsand opera- diately investedin our project (i.e. saved),it caninduce tional expenses. some benefit if investedsomewhere else. Let us assume that a sum A instead of being spent now can be spent The over-all criterion of economic efficiency of t yearslater. Beingpostponed this sumcould be invested transport projects is the reduction in costsexperienced in a more viable project and the benefit incurred should by transport (say, road) users. Taken as an example, be determined as being at least equalto AE (where E - the economicbenefits from a road project in all their Standardco-efficient of efficiency). numerousforms canbe divided in four groups:

2 (a) The economic benefits being gained by demand for capital investmentsin railway and water improving the transportation links in the affected area transport, generates time ~vings and consequently on account of the improved standardof road transport reducesthe amountof freight tied in the transit process. operation and reducingthe length of haulageof passen- There might be no connexion between the de- gers and goods by diversionof traffic from other roads creasein transport costsand the reduction of expenses or from railways or waterways. in non-transportsectors. But without the giventransport (b) The economic benefit for the non-transport facility the resourcesin other sectorswould be used enterprisesin the affected area becauseof the elimina- less productively. Here the ~vings should be assessed. tion of lossescaused by non-deliveryof goodsin time These ~vings will accrue by eliminating a number of and the reduced size of inventories of productive re- lossescaused in agriculture,for instance,by non-delivery serves because of increased regularity and speed of (due to poor road conditions)of fertilizers, spareparts goodsdelivery. and fuel as well as by quantitive and qualitative losses (c) The economicimpact on the developmentof of cropsbeing harvested. new industries and agricultural production in the area. Wherethe transport project is intended to contri. (d) The economic benefit of providing new pas- bute to the opening of new natural resourcesit will sengertransport servicesas result of road construction. provide a reduction of raw material costs for the con- sumer due to the following factors: lower production The proper standard for the quantitative assess- cost of this product in the new area, establishingof ment of each form of the economicbenefits is provided more rational systemof transport links and reduction by considering what the cost will be with the new of the deliverycost of this product. The openingof new facility and what it would have been without it. The resourcescan also lead to the reduction of transport benefit for diverted traffic is measuredby the difference capital cost requirements in comparison with that in transport costs on the old route and on the new needed for further developmentof this product de- facility. Where a new or reconstructedroad does lead livered from old sources. to increased output the net value of this additional output is the proper measureof the economicbenefit. This raisesthe problem of allocating the benefit To judge the likely effects of road improvement on since in many situations the transport facility is not industrial or agricultural production it is important to the only new investmentneeded to open new natural resources.Here the benefit should be allocated in the isolate the extent to which increased production is ~me ratio as the transport investment (in roads and necessarilydependent on road building or improvement. vehiclesneeded) to the other investments. Let us examine the direct and indirect benefits of the road. The economic effect of creating new passenger transport demand by commissioninga new transport The most direct benefit from a new or improved project could be assessedby calculating the rate of road as a transport facility, and frequently aloo the return on the investment in, for example, new bus most important and the one most readily measurable lines. The benefit of the road will reflect the part of in monetary terms, is the reductions of unit transport the net income of the bus line in the sameratio as the costs as result of reduction of variable costs(expenses investment in the road to other capital costs required on fuel, repairs, amortization of vehicles, wear and toper open vehicle.kilometre a bus line. Hereshould as abe cost used. measure . the unit cost tear of tires) related to vehicle performance(per km of annual distance travelled) as well as a result of the reduction of oome invariable costs related to vehicle- It should be mentioned that a new road induces hours of work. The improvement of road conditions an over-aIl effect by contributing to the development leads aloo to reduction of lossesand damageof goods, of productive powers of the regionof influence and to to an increase in the productivity and utilization of the increaseof living and cultural standardsof the facilities and equipment and a respectiveshrinking of population. capital investment in motor transport neededto meet future demand. As alreadymentioned, among all the abovefactors and indices being used for transport project evaluation, The shortened length of haul of goods and pas- the reduction of transport costsis the main one which sengershaulage as result of traffic diversionfrom other indicates the benefit of the road project for the routes brings a reduction in annual transport expenses economy. and a decreasein the size of vehicle fleets since the ton-kin or passenger-kmtraffic w9uld go down, thus By evaluating the economic efficiency of the allowing for the same number of tons or passengersto completed transport project and its contribution to the be carried by fewer vehicles. over-all economy,the alteration of somefactors should be assessed.Among them the following ones should be Cargo shifting from railway or waterwaysto the considered:the labour-intensity, material-intensityand road transport generatesa cut in the ton-km unit cost, capital-intensityof sectoralperformance, as well as some reduces the losses of perishable goods, reduces the other monetaryand non-monetaryindicators.

3 DEVELOPMENT OF CONTAINER TRAFFIC AND ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT IN THE USSR, 1976-1980*

1. Developmentof freight transportation in This leads to an increasein the length of haul universaland specializedcontainers and, as a result, to a more rapid growth in the ton- kilometres than in the number of tons handled, es- The intensive development of container traffic pecially on the railways. While the amount of freight that has been occurring during the past 15 years has loaded into universalcontainers on the railwaysduring resulted in traffic volume increasing200 times by 1975 the period in question (1971-1975) grew by 35 per in comparisonwith the prewar year 1940. cent, the ton-kilo metres during the sameperiod grew In 1975, more freight wastransported in universal by 61 per cent. and specializedcontainers in the Soviet Union than in Container traffic in the USSR relates to traffic the same year in the United Statesof America,Japan, without trans-shipment,when the transportation of the United Kingdom,the FederalRepublic of Germany, products and articles from the sphereof production to or in all the other countriesof the world combined. the sphereof consumptionis performed with the mini- The rates of growth of containertraffic in 1971- mum transportation costs and the maximum accelera- 1975 were from 1.5 to 2 times higher than in the pre- tion of the transportation process itself and of the ceding five years. This is explained by the successful freight handlingoperations. carrying out of the directives of the twenty-fourth The main merits of container traffic as a way of Congressof the Communist Party of the Soviet Union transporting and consolidating piece consignmentsto (CPSU) for developing such traffic by all kinds of the dimensionsor lifting capacityof containersare the transportand introducing large-sizecontainers. possibilities it provides for cutting the cost of packing Container traffic has developedmost rapidly in for transportation and increasinglabour productivity, motor and sea transport. With a general growth of especiallyin trans-shippingwork at ports. In the USSR container traffic during the five-yearperiod from 1971 about two-thirds of all piece consignmentsshipped in to 1975 by 65 per cent, including 44 per cent on the containersare in light packing or completely without railways and 80 per cent on river vessels,its growth on packing. It is illustrative that one five-ton container motor vehiclesand seashipping lines was 440 per cent having a capacityof only 10.4m3 is capableof replacing and 540 per cent respectively. 240 boxes or crates whose fabrication requires the use of 4 m3 of wood and 117 kg of metal (nails, strips Container traffic increased mainly owing to and wire). The load-carrying capacity of such a set of extension of the sphere of application of univer&il crates during their servicelife is five tons, and of a containers. Of the total volume of container traffic, container of the size indicated above -320 times 88 per cent falls to univer&ilcontainers and only 12 per greater. As a result every containerused for the delivery cent to specializedones. of freight without packing,if this freight was previously shipped in wooden crates, savesduring its service life The decisivepart in the developmentof container about 1,300 m3 of lumber and 38 tons of metal, where- traffic is continuing to be played by the railways. h1 as the manufacture of such a container requires the 1975 they handled 75 per cent of the total traffic in useof one ton of metal and 03 m3 of wood. universal and specializedcontainers: three times more than was handled by all the other kinds of transport The experience accumulated in the USSR also taken together. shows that when freight is shipped in containers on the railways, the productivity of labour in loading and A feature of the developmentof containertraffic unloading operationsgrows on an averagefrom four to is its spread to all the main branchesof industry, in. five times, while the handling capacity of the loading cluding state enterprises, commercial organizations, and unloading areasincreases at least two times. On sea stores and the like in the regions of Siberia,the Far transport the growth of labour productivity is twice East,and the Far North. The extensionof theseservices that on the railways, and as a result the detention of to outlying regions, and to the needs of foreign trade vesselsfor loading and unloading operatioM reduces organizations involved in the export and import of to aslittle as one.tenthof the previ~usdelay. variouscommodities is continually growing. In the USSR, unlike foreign ceuntries, first of all small consignmt.ntsare switched over to transporta- * Contributedby L.A. Kogan. tion in containers,and then carload consignmentsof

4 piece commodities that have to be trans-shippeden The sphere of application of specializedcon- route. When medium-sizecontainers with a gross mass tainers intended mainly for the transportationof sepa- of 2.5 (3) and 5 tons are used for the transportation rate kinds of loose,bulk and liquid consignments,which of LCL (less-than-<:arload)freight, a great economy is are customarilytransported in packing,cans or carboys, achievedas a result of improving the utilization of the or where there is risk of lossesbecause of pulverization, lifting capacity of railway cars and mechanicalequip- breaking (glass and the like), or leakage(breaking of ment at the freight sorting areas.The load of a car with glasscarboys), depends on whetherthey reducethe level LCL freight (needing trans-shipment)almost doubles, of damage to the freight and lower transportation while the time required for sorting freight at the relevant costs,including the packingcosts. areasis reducedto one-tenth. Table 1. Structureof containertraffic by branches Researchperformed by the All-Union Scientific of industry andthe national economy Researchmstitute of Railway Transporthas established that capital investmentin the developmentof container Dr h.1' .--1 Percentage tra ffi lCw ill b e Just. ifi Ied .ancm one or two years. OJ 'rlUustry 0 f tota1

m connexion with the great effectivenessof Metallurgical(metals) 4,8 containerSS traffic, its accelerated development in the ild. ( tal art, 1 .. d d f h . d..f Machin e-uu1. mg me lC es, compo- URIS conSl ere one 0 t e mam lfectlons 0 nents units and spare parts of machines) 32.5 technical progress on all kinds of land and water ' transport. Chemical(packed goods) 8.4 At t th USSR t all d t S light (fabrics, foot-wear, knitted wear, presen .m e no commo .lie. ha 1 d h 1 ... b .er hab da sherye tc. ) 19.7 t t en t emseves to contaInerIzation are elng switched over to transportation in containers,but only Food (packednon-perishable goods) 6.2 those commodities whose transportation makes it pos- Perfumery 2.2 SlDleto achievethe greatesteconomical effect. Matters Wood-working(furniture) 1.9 will change quite radically in the next few years in connexion with the expected further great expansion Paperand printing 4.3 of containertraffic. It is therefore very urgentto deter- Building (glassetc.) 1.6 mine the optimal level of switching freight over to Miscellaneousbranches of industry 139 container services, especially for piece commodities, whose structure changes depending on the rate of Total 95.5 growth of industry and of the welfare of the people. Agricultural products 1.0 As a result of researchin which the container Householdremovals 3.5 method was comparedwith the packet and other me- thods of freight transportation, it was establishedthat Grandtotal 100.0 the optimal level of switching over packagedand piece consignmentsto container servicessh~uld be consi- Researchconducted in the USSR allows us to dered from 85 to 90 per cent for LCL freight (at present considerthat in the next 15 to 20 yearsthe volume of the figure is 75 per cent) and about 12 per cent for tr ffic in universal containers will grow at least three carload freight. Among the l~tter .it is m~st expedient ti~es, and in specializedones from four to five times. to switch over to transportation m contamersfirst all freight that is to be handled in mixed railway-water During the period from 1976 to 1980 it is ex- transport and internationalservices. pected that container traffic will grow by 44 per cent, When packagedand piece consignmentsare being including ,48 per. c~nt in universalcontainers and 14.5 switched over to container servicespreference should ~er cent ~ spe~lallZedones. The part play.ed~y large- be given to commodities that otherwise require costly size contamersm the total volume of traffic will reach packing when transported in box cars. At presentthe 23 per cent. proportion of such commoditieshandled in containers is 84.4 per cent of haberdashery,86.6 per cent of 2. Developmentof containerequipment knitted wear, 78 per cent of clothing and underwear, 78.1 per cent of carpets and rugs, 66.3 per cent of 2.1. General aluminium utensils, 62.2 per cent of foot-wear, 899 The developmentof containertraffic in the USSR per cent of books and polygraphic materials,53.5 per is attended by a growth in the amount of equipment cent of radio goods and television sets, 46 per cent of flabl ~ ha dlin this t ffi th . .ava e lor n g ra lC, e lmprovemen t 0f

fabrics and 46 per cent of apparatusand mstruments. . st.. t d th d 1 t f f . eXl mg equlpmen an e eve opmen 0 new aCl- As can be seenin table 1, containerservices in the lities: containers,specialized rolling stock and specia- USSR cater to virtually all branchesof industry and lized equipment for loading,unloading and moving the agricultureand to the needsof the population. containers.

5 The USSR has the greatest fleet of medium-size progress.At presentin the USSR virtually all the basic containers (fIgure 1) in the world and a large fleet of State Standards(GOST) relating to the containertrans- large-sizecontainers (figure 2). Recentyears have seen portation system have been worked out within the the modernization of eight-wheelhigh-sided and low- scopeneeded for systemstandardization. sided open-topcars, and the beginningof the production of eight-wheel long-base container cars. Semi-trailers Containers with tractor units are used for road transport of con- tainers while multipurpose vessels,specialized ocean. Containers are manufactured in the USSR ac- going container vessels, river vesselsand container corint to GOST 18477-73, 19417-74 and 21045-75. bargesare used for watertransport. Eachtype and sizeof containeris givena specialdesigna- tion containing information on the purposeand gross In 1971-1975 the radical reconstruction of the weight of the relevant container. The samestandards equipment needed for container serviceswas started. establishthe external, internal and connecting dimen- In addition to reconstructing the Jargest container sionsfor all typesand sizesof containers. terminals including the mechanized ones dealing with all kinds of transport and open mainly for handling Universal containers are divided into motor medium-size containers having a gross-weightof 2.5 vehicle (AUK) and unified (according to their para- (3) and 5 tons, there is also a relatively large amount meters and the requirementswhich they must meet) of construction being carried out for the erection of for all kinds of land and water transport (UUK). The new container terminals, mainly for trans-shipping parametersof containers UUK are establishedwith a Jarge-sizecontainers having a gross weight up to 30 view to the possibility of using them without hindrance tons. in both internal and internationalservices. At the sametime work is in hand for organizing To indicate the sizeof a containerin addition to the production of new kinds of medium- and large-size its type, figures showing its grossweight are used after containers, container craneswith automatic grips, elec- the designatiQnAUK_or UUK. trical container loaders with displaceableforks, side In addition to the eight types and sizesof con- truck loaders with telescopic load lifters having auto- tainers in cluded in GO~ 18477-73(AUK-O.625, AUK- matic grips, self-loading truck trains, portal stackers 1.25_,~2.5(3),UUK-5, UUK.5U,UUK.I0, UUK-20, and loadersetc. Industrial enterprisesare alreadymanu- and UUK-30), conditions have appearedin the USSR facturing new kinds of containers and mechanical for the construction of six more types and sizesin the handling equipment, new long-base low-sided open- next two or three years, namely, UUKB-20, UKO-20, top container cars, semi-trailers for road transport of UUKT-30, UUKBT-30, UUKTY-30, and UUKBTY-30. containers,cubicle containervessels etc. The development of container traffic and the It is expected that containers of the above six equipment needed for handling it is being closely co- additional types and sizes,as well as the containers ordinated, with account being taken of the interaction UUK.IO will find limited application in the USSR of all kinds of transport with the aim of creating a unlike the greatly favoured containersincluding AUK- single container transportation system in the country. 0.625 and AUK-I.25 in motor transport and UUK. Its foundation will involve the standardizationof all its 2.5(3), UUK-5, UUK-20, and UUK.30 in all kinds of complex elements.The aim of this measureis to ensure transport. the delivery of freight in direct and mixed services The small-sizecontainers AUK-O.625and AUK- without trans-shipment en route from the shippers' 1.25 have the following basic dimensions: external- stores to the consignees'stores using equipment that 1150 x 1000 x 1700 and 1800 x 1050 x 2000 mm, and correspondsto the present level of science and en- internal -1070 x 910 x 1500 and 1710 x 960 x 1775 gineering. mm, respectively. The parametersand dimensionsof The standardizationof container equipment has the other 12 types and sizesof containersare given in as its economicbasis the combinationof the interestsof table2. the separatebranches of the national economy with Modern Soviet medium-sizecontainers (figure 1) those of the state as a whole while observinginterna- are manufactured of "bent shapes",corrugated sheets national standardsand conventionsin force relating to and other progressivematerials in complete accordance containers. with GOST's 18477-73, 20259-74, and 20260-74,and The technical basis of standardization is the with the standardsand technical requirementsfor the unification of parameters, technical requirements, separatetypes and sizesof containers. acceptancerules and testing methods. A high quality of manufactureof large-sizecon- Here account is taken of the clearancegauges in tainers (figure 2) is ensured by organizingthe special force on all kinds of transport, the present level of production of glued floors, shaped packing rubber, science and engineeringand the trends of technical hermetics,and a numberof other materials.

6

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9 All newly manufactured containersare intended are locked. The door leavesof the containersare coun. for mechanizedhandling by fork trucks with movable tersunk in the door frame and overlap each other so forks and for trans-shipmentby cranes,lift trucks, and that they are sealedwith one sealand protected from other machinesfitted with automatic grips. damage especially when trans-shippingand intrastore operations are being performed. The door locks are The useof containersof the new designsimproves bars with tightening heads that pressthe leavesagainst working conditions. Their main merits are the absence the door frame along the entire perimeter of contact. of protruding componentsinside and outside the con- This is necessaryto prevent sparks,atmospheric pre- tainer, the absenceof sharp corners outside, the ab- cipitation and Wdter from getting into the containers. senceof piers at the end doors, and the useof identical The designof the locks preventsthe self-openingof a internal dimensionsin a lateral direction and identical locked door when it is acted upon by vibrations and door openings in the large-sizecontainers. The con- loads occuring during transportation, loading and tainers are outfitted with standardized devices for unloading. In the closed position the bars of the locks, automation of handling operations (the medium-size by means of their upper and lower tightening heads, containers with eye units, and the large-sizeones with join together the lower and upper lateral beamsof the corner fittings) and are always ready for service. In door frame, thus increasingthe rigidity of its design. addition, all containers with a gross weight up to 20 tons inclusive (except for the planned large-sizecon- Whenusing newly developeddesigns of containers, tainers with side doors) have grooves in their lower it is possibleto transport them in vesselswith medium- frame for the forks of lift trucks. size containersstacked in three tiers and large-sizeones in from six to nine tiers. The containersare stablewhen Stacked,and are Sife and reliable in service.Their non- In general the containers of various types have sectional designmakes it impossibleto dismantle the the Slme design if no accountis taken of the presence container or to remove separatecomponents without of different gripping devices on them. The containers, leavingvisible tracesof damageor destruction. regardlessof their dimensionsand grossweight, consist of the same elements:a lower frame (assembledwith The gradesof steel and other materialsused for grooves and the lower corner fittings, if they are to manufacture of the containers ensure no chemical be provided), two side walls (with a grossweight up to reactionswith the freight carried in them and resistance five tons inclusive assembledwith the eye units), an to temperaturesfrom -50 (-60) to +700C at the loads end wall (assembledwith the upper corner fittings, acting on the containers. if they are to be provided),a door frame assembledwith two door leaves outfitted with bar locks having a The masticsused for sealingalong the perimeter tightening action, a floor, lateral beams,beams of the of the floors, and also the materialsused for the prime upper frame, and the roof. When side doors are pro- coats and surfacefinishes are not toxic, are waterproof vided, the side walls are manufactured with the doors and stable to the action of seawater, detergents,disin- included. fectants and degassingsubstances. They do not absorb odours or dirt and have no negative effect on one The main trend in the manufactureof containers another. is the standardization of their members.This relates especially to the large-sizecontainers. In the latter, The shaped elastic oil. and petrol-proof rubber regardlessof their gross weight, the door frames,door employed for packing the doors withstands the same leaves,door hinges,bar locks, end walls, cornerfittings, temperaturesas the steel without losing its elasticity. side wall sheathing,and the devices for fasteningthe The leaves of the doors of medium-sizecontainers freight inside the containers are identical. Although (without rubber packing) are provided with double containers have a different length and, therefore, folds for keepingout atmosphericprecipitation. different volume and lifting capacities their design, The quality of container manufacture is con. and the materials used for their manufacture, are trolled by rules for their acceptanceand for the testing uniform. methods. At enterprises manufacturing containers, In the design of containers in the USSR, con- continuous operational and acceptance control is siderable attention is given to their door units because achievedby the conducting of periodicaltests. Medium- the amount of damageto the freight dependson them size containersare lifted by their eyes with a load of in many respects. 2R .T (R is the grossweight and T is the light or tare weight), are placed on three support pads with one of The adopted design of the door frame and the the corners under the door frame being left without doors in containers of all types and sizesensures (a) a support and loaded with IP..-T, and are also placed tight fitting of the leavesto each other and aJongthe with the same load on on, of the longitudinal ribs. entire perimeter of the door frame, (b) the possibility of opening the door leavesof end doors through 270 large-size coI}tainersare subjectedto the action degreesand of side doors through 180 degreesand of loads appearingwhen ~hey are lifted by their upper (c) the impossibility of removingthe doors when they and lower corner fittings with a load of 2R, when they

10 are stacked in six tiers with each container having a capacity) with means for self-loadingand unloading load of 1.8R, and when they are subjectedto longi- of the containers. tudinal compressionof the lower frame of the con- tainer loaded up to R (the load at eachside is Rg). The The S.ton semitrailersare used for hauling small. size and medium-size containers. They have a low- end walls (end door frames with the doors) are loaded with 0.4 (R -T), the sidewalls with a load of 0.6(R .T), frame design. and the bottom frame and the floor with a concentrated The 10-ton semitrailerscan be used for the trans- force of 27 kN transmitted from eachof the two wheels portation of medium-sizecontainers of all types and of the front axle of a loader (the wheelsare each180 sizes and of large-sizeones with a grossweight of 10 mm wide, the distancebetween their centresis 960 mm) tons. They can also be used for the delivery of empty at two places. containersof the 20-ton types. The other semitrailers can be used only for the transportation of large-size In addition, the large-sizecontainers during the containerswith a grossweight of 20 and 30 tons. tests are subjectedto the action of shearforces (175 kN) in a longitudinal direction. To ensure the safe transportation of large-size containers,the semitrailers,like railway flat cars, are Containersthat withstand all the loads indicated equipped with means for fastening the containers by above are tested for waterproofness.After they have their lower cornerfittings. successfullypassed these tests, they are acknowledged fit for service. The specifications of the semitrailers used for carryingcontainers are given in table 3. 2.3 Rolling stod<.for the transportationof containers Apart from tractor-trailer combinations,general. Medium-sizecontainers are mainly carried on the purposevehicles with a lifting capacityof 4, 5 and 7.5 USSR railways in eight-wheelconverted open-top cars tons are used for delivering medium-sizecontainers. with a lifting capacity of 63 tons. The length of the The total weight of the containersthey carry (or tow) frame of these cars is 12,700 rom, and the length over is 4, 8 and 12tons, respectively. couplersis 13,870 mm. Their floor areais 35.53 m2, and the inside height of their enclosingwalls is 1,880 mm. In sea transport special container vessels of a cubicle design are used for carrying large-sizecontainers. Up to 1976 large-sizecontainers were carried in On the rivers special barges are used in addition to eight-wheelconverted low-sided open-top cars with a special vessels. lifting capacity of 63 tons. The length of the frame of these cars is 12,974 mm and the length over couplers Two kinds of special. vesselsare being built:loading is 14, 974 rnm. In these cars the side walls, end walls with a vertical system of and unloading,and and the flooring have been removed,and specialdevices with a horizontal system (r,all on roll off: Ro-Ro). The have been fastened on the side girders of their frame latter vessels are used for the transportation of con- for securinglarge-size containers by their lower corner tamers, motor vehicles, semitrailers and packaged fittings. piece freight. Beginningfrom 1976, new flat cars are also being At first, container vessels with vertical loading used for the transportation of large-sizecontainers. having a small capacity were placed into service in the These cars, speciallybuilt for this purpose,have a lifting USSR. capacity of 60 tons, a long wheel base with a frame It is also planned to use container vesselswith a length of 18,400 and a length over couplersof 19,620 greater capacity of models SK.700, SK.1800 and SK- rnm. The wheelbaseof these cars is 14,720 mm instead 2500 for carrying 700, 1800, and 2500 20-ton con. of 9,294 mm for the convertedcars. The new flat cars are provided with devicesfor fasteningthe containers tainers,respectively. by their lower corner fittings. These devices are on The type Ro.Ro vesselswith a capacityof 11,820, hinge-fastenedplates. They are placed in their working 11,300, and 12,600 m3 according to the classification psotiion by turning their plates abqut their longitudinal in force relate to low-capacity vessels.fu the current axis through an angle of 180 degrees.Both the con- five-yearperiod it is plannedto place into servicetype verted and the new long-wheel-baseflat cars can be Ro-Rovessels with a greatercapacity. used to carry large-sizecontainers of all types and sizes. 2.4. Mechanizationof containertrans-shipment Rolling stock of two kinds is used for the trans- Container yards (terminals) of two kinds are portation of containers by road transport: specialized used in the USSR for the mechanizedhandling of (the main kind) and general-purposevehicles. The containers, the fIrst for handling medium-size con- former include semitrailershaving a lifting capacity of tainers, and the second for large-sizeones. Container 5, 10, 20 and 30 tones without meansfor self.loading, yards of the fIrst kind, which are at railway yards, and the latter -individual vehicles (5 and 20 tons employ electrical double-cantilevergantry craneswith

11 ized a lifting capacity on the automatic grip of 5 or 10tons. the balancingunit and 23 m with it, a depthof lo.wering Yards of the secondkind employ similar craneshaving of the hook below the top of the cranerails of 15 m, a lifting capacity on the grip .of 20 or 30.5 .to 32 tons a width of the portal crane track of 10.5 m, working (figure 3).' speedsof 70 m/min in lifting, 60 m/min in horizontal motion with a changein the boom radius(level luffmg), The modern cranesused at containeryards of the 35 m/min in crane travelling, and 1.75 rpm in boom fIrst kind have the following specifications: span -turning. 16 m, effective length of each cantilever -4.5 m, lifting speed -20 m/min, crab speed -50 m/min, .The best mod~ls of the .cranesused for the tra~s- crane speed -100 m/min. The spotting speedswhen ship~ent of large:S1zecontainers at ports ha~e high lowering a container are 25 per cent of the above workI~g speeds,increased accuracy of spott~ the working speedsand 10 per cent when the crab or crane containers on a vesselor the wharf, and minImUm is moving. The height to which the grip rises from the swinging or displacement. Cranes of this kind also top of the cranerails is 9 m. allow inclination of a containerthrough 4 or 5 degrees. These cranes include wharf trans-shippershaving the The cranes used for trans-shipping large-size following specifications: lifting capacity on the grip containershave a span of 25 m and working speedsof -30.5 tons, length of the outer cantilever from the 12 m/min when lifting a container and 80 m/min when seawardrail to the centre of the grip with the crab in the crab or crane is travelling. The height to which the its extremeposition over a vessel-343 m, lengthof the grip rises from the top of the crane rails is from 8.5 to liner cantileverfrom the axis of the landwardrail to the 11 ffi.. The spotting speeds are 20 per cent of the centre of the grip with the crab in its extreme position working speedswhen lowering a container and 10 per over the wharf -7.5 m, width of the portal crane cent whenthe crab or craneis moving. track -15.3 m. Medium-sizecontainers are handled at ports with The maximum height of lifting the grip from the the aid of portal craneswith a lifting capacityof 5 and top of the crane rails is 24.8 m, the depth of lowering 6 tons having a straight balanced boom mounted on a of the grip from the top of the crane rails is at most rotating column installed on a four-support portal. The 11.5 m, the working speedsare 40 m/min in load lifting, use of such cranesensures the horizontal movementof 120 to 150 m/min in crab travelling,and 45 m/min in the load whenthe boom radius changes. cranetravelling. Cranesof this type havea maximum boom radius The time needed for lifting a cantileveris 5 se. of 30 m and a minimum one of 8 m, a height of hook conds,and for a complete revolution or inclination of lifting from the top of the cranerails of 32.5 m without the grip is from 10 to 15 seconds.

Table3. Specificationsof containersemintrilers

Model of semitrailer Item TSBNA-402 OdAZ-885 ChMZAP-9985 ChMZAP-9991

lifting capacity(tons) 5 10 20 30

Over-alldimension (rom)

length 6950 6640 6250 12485

width 2480 2445 2500 2435

Loading height (rom) 795 1399 1500 1565

Numberof axles 1 1 2 2

Net weight (tons) 1.90 2.74 4.01 4.70

12 ,i) i,

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13 f' HIGHWAY FINANCING IN DEVELOPING COUTRIES*

Economic history tells us quite clearly that trans- major transport investigationsare also part of general portation plays a key role in determiningthe scopeand country economic work and the Bank has recently direction of economic development. It is therefore not organized a systematic program of comprehensive surprising that the World Bank since opening its doors in-depth transport sector missions to many member in 1946, has lent more for transportationprojects than countries. Third, technical assistancein one form or for any other singlepurpose. another is also usually part of every project financed by the Bank Group. Almost all 90 member countries currently bor- rowing from the World Bank Group havebeen receiving To illustrate the attention that the Bank givesto loans or credits for roads development,about half of the strengtheningof local institutions and their capa- these for railways and one-third for ports. It is many bilities, let me give a few brief examplesfrom casesin years since Japan, our host country, was borrowing different partsof the world. from the Bank, but out of the total of nearly $US900 million that was lent to Japan, some 60 per cent or In Brazil, 5 loanssince 1968 ($US376 million) $US510 million, went for transportation projects, in support of $US1 ,000 million of trunk highway namely, the Tokyo-Kobe Expressway,the Tokaido building based on integrated transport planning high speedline, and expresswayswithin the city limits originated with World Bank assistance.Planning of Tokyo and Kobe. and contracting procedures connected with the loans, as well as conditions attached to them, The Bank Group has loaned in total, upwards of $USI2,OOOmillion for transportation projects - have contributed substantially to strengthening the institutional structure of the transport sector. about half for highways, one-third for railways and Highway freight traffic, already greaterthan that the remainderfor ports, shipping,pipelines and aviation. of France and Germany combined, has been Since the bank Group finances on the averageabout growing at 10 per cent per annum,and a recent 40 per cent of total project costs, total expenditure check of some of the earliest completed works on Bank-assistedtransportation projects may therefore showed investment returns in terms of vehicle be estimated at about $US30,000 million. Currently operatingcost savingsof some25 per cent. the Bank is committing about $USI,OOOto 1,s00 million each year in support of some 30 to 40 trans- In Ethiopia, 6 loans ($US104 million) to a portation projects. In addition, severalhundred million Road Authority establishedin 1951 in connec- dollars are lent for transportation componentsof some tion with the first World Bank assistance.Steadily 20 to 30 projects which are primarily oriented to other strengthened through efforts under successive purposes, such as rural or urban development,mining loans, it now plans, contracts and supervises and tourism. works, and maintains and operates them with little outside help. Initial concentration was on The World Bank has been the leading source of creating a basic network linking main centers; foreign financing for development of highways in travel times were cut from a week or more to developing countries. However, before going further hours; freight rates reducedto fractions of their into the financial aspects,let me just briefly point out former levels; and traffic growth has averaged that in addition to financing the construction and 10-12 per cent per annum, or more. Since 1970 maintenance of transport infrastructure, the Bank is attention has swung increasinglyto secondaryand also heavily involved in technical assistancein the feeder roads, of which more than 10,000 km are transportation field. This takes severalforms. First, now under construction under vario.usprograms the Bank acts as the executing agency for the United with World Bank assistance. Nations Development Programme(UNDP) in most of their transport-oriented pre.inves~mentwork. Since In Thailand, 5 loans ($US152 million). The 1960, the Bank has supervisedover 100 major studies first loan in the early sixtieshelped reorganize the carried out by consulting firms or individual experts Department of Highwaysand provided funds for in more than itfty developing countries. These studies training of Thai staff abroad.In later loans,funds ranged from broad surveysof entire transport systems have been provided for a transport sector study, with a view to devising investmentplans and transport a highway maintenancestudy, and the setting up policies to specific project feasibility work. Second, of a Transport Policy Committee as well as a * Paper presented at 8th World Meeting of the International Transport Planning Unit. These efforts have Road Federation (Tokyo, 1977) by C.S. Carnernark, Transporta- resulted in better transport coordination, sector tion Department, World Bank. planning and investment decisions,as well as a

14 considerablecapacity in the Highway Department like the OverseasEconomic CooperationFund in Japan, for implementing a sizeable construction and the United States Agency for International Develop- maintenanceprogram. ment, and the Fondsd.aide et de Cooperationof France. Our clients -most of the developingworld - The multiplicity of lending agenciesand countries are some 90 countries with a population of about 2 involved in international developmenton the one hand billion people. More than half or close to 1.2 billion and the diversity of projects as well as policies in the of these people live in very poor countries, mainly in developing countries on the other, have created the Asia or Africa, with per capita annualincomes averaging need for coordination. Lenders must be careful to $USI50. The rest, or close to 800 million, live in avoid duplicating projects or jeopardizing eachother's middle-income developing countries with per capita efforts, especiallywith regardto designstandards and annual incomes averaging$US800. To increasethese conditions of institution building. This coordination low per capita incomes,substantial investments per job takes the form of generaldiscussions between lenders are required not only in the directly productive sectors in consultative group meetings or otherwise,as well like agriculture but also in the supportive ones like as in co-fInancingarrangements. The Bank has entered transport. into co.fInancing one or more times with most other aid agencies,and this fmancial cooperation has sub. To illustrate the present difference in investment stantially increasedin the last few years. As a matter capabilities between the poorer nations and the de- of fact, during the 1976 fInancial year, some 66 Bank veloped world, let us look at the transport investments projects were co-financed.The total amount fInanced in relation to the number of people enteringthe labor in those projects by other agenciesthan the Bank, market and requiring a job eachyear. fu the affluent amountedto about $US2,200million. developed societies we have been able to invest in transportation -each year during the mid-1970s -an To increasethe shareof foreign fInancing,some averageof some $US40,OOOto 50,000 for each new developing countries resort at times to short-term entrant to the labor force in those years. The corres- fInancing of highwayprojects!- for example,contractor ponding figure for the middle income countries is fInancing. Such fInancing is usually carried out on a about one.flfteenth of this, or $US3,000. And for the supplier's credit or package deal basis, whereby the very poor countries! the most numerous group, it is contractor provides not only short-term finance, but under $US500, or one-hundredthof that in the rich sometimesalso designsthe project and supervisesthe countries. work. Highway construction under such circumstances can easily prove wastefulto the borrower, sincehe has Annual expenditures on highways (including little control over quality and cost. In the Bank's opi- construction, maintenance and administration) in the nion, engineering,construction and financing of pro- developing world are now of the order of $USlO,OOO jects arebest kept separate. million. As a comparison, highway expenditures in Europe, USA, Canadaand Japan,amounted to about ut me now turn to the useof domesticresources. $US70,OOOmillion in 1974. The developing world The most commonly used schemeto finance highways spendsin effect, less than the amount spent annually is that using generaltax funds, allocating a portion of on roadsin Japan. total revenues collected from a variety of taxes to highway building and maintenanceprograms. With no Still, due to the scarcity of resources,those eannarking or rule governingthe amount to be chan- $USIO,OOOmillion are hard to come by. In the govern- nelled into highway projects,the authorities can freely ments' budgets where they typically account for some determinethe amountto be investedfrom year to year 15 to 30 per cent, they have to compete with many basedon establishedpriorities. From experiencein both other needsdemanding a substantialslice of the national developedas well as in lessdeveloped countries, it can cake -for example, education, health, defenseetc. be concluded that general tax funding of highway developmentis advisable since it offers the greatest Foreign assistance-short a~d long-term -only flexibility in determining the amount of highway ex- coversa minor part of total road expenditures,maybe penditures in accordancewith public policy objectives. 10 to 20 per cent. Besidesthe World Bank Group, Of course,the provision of such a flexibility can also there are a number of financing institutions from which be misused,resulting in a situation where long-term the developingcountries may obtain assistance.Among highway programs are at the stop-go mercy of legisla- other multilateral channels,there are the regionalbanks tive bodies. This is also true for short-term programs -the Mrican DevelopmentBank, the Asian Develop- where the budget cycle and the construction cycle ment Bank and the mter-AmericanDevelopment Bank. divergesubstantially. The European Economic Community has its Fonds Europeende Developpement.m the last few yearsthere Another major fmancing scheme is that using have also emergedin the OPECcountries severalfinan- road trust funds. Here,the principal philosophy is one cial agencieslike the Arab Fund, the Kuwait Fund and of non-competitiveness.Funds going into highway the Saudi Fund. There are also many bilateral agencies programs should not compete with other forms of

15 government expenditure. In other words, revenues the developingworld. Moreover, transport costs have collected from all types of highway usertaxes (annual increasedrelative to other costs as a result of oil price vehicle taxes, vehicle import duties, fuel and tire taxes increases. Unfortunately there are no major energy- etc.), would be earmarked for expenditures on road saving alternatives available to the developing world constructionand maintenance. since transport demand,is widely dispersed.While railways may substitute for the automobile in a few There are several weaknesseswith earmarked placeswhere major line haul operatingconditions exist, funding arrangements and the Bank generally dis. the developingcountries will for the foreseeablefuture courages such systems except as a last resort. First, haveto rely mainly on roadtransport. the amount of public expenditure allocated to road programsis dictated by a "rule" which doesnot change Confronting a situation of scarce resources,it in the light of changesexperienced in the rest of the becomesparamount that availablefunds be put to the economy. It may therefore lead to substantial ineffi. most effective use and that the alreadyexisting system ciencies in resource allocation. Second,the tax base be maintainedand utilized in an efficient manner. in developing countries tends to be weak and there are often difficulties in the collection of direct income What lessons can we draw from past Bank ex- and corporate taxes. Therefore salesand excise taxes, perience in this respect?I think there are a few that especially various taxes on highway users, provide a should be stressed.First, the needto properly evaluate significant portion of governmenttax revenues.Under the overall need for transport investmentsand to estab- such circumstancesit is both difficult and undersirable lish a priority listing of roadsto be constructed. Second, to earmarktax revenuescollected from usersexclusively once the priority road links have been identified, the for road constructionpurposes. appropriate designstandard to be used must be deter- mined. Often, substantial savingscan be achieved in Before leaving the subject of road funds and stage construction, and the need to carefully evaluate earmarking, let me ~y, however, that for many de- possibilities for low-cost solutions cannot be over- veloping countries, I would personally favor one type emphasized.Here, it must however,be borne in mind of road fund -namely a Road MaintenanceFund. I that the relevantcost to minimize is not only the cons- will come back to this later. truction cost but rather the combined costs of cons- truction, maintenanceand vehicle operation properly A third way of financing road construction is toll discounted over time. Third, when construction is financing. This representsa complete departure from underway, close supervisionof the works is essential generalfund fmancing. In its purest form, roadswould to ensure that unnecessarycost overruns and delays be constructed and operated by separatetoll corpora- are avoided. In this context, it is preferable that full tions which would be interested in recouping capital detailed engineering on all high standard projects be costs, meeting recurrent annual expenditures, and undertakenbefore deciding on a final go-ahead. possibly, obtaining a return on invested capital. It appears unlikely however, that toll road schemesin Fourth, the need for appropriate maintenance developingcountries can help channeladditional private cannot be over-emphasized.There is unfortunately in funds into road construction. The toll corporationbonds most developingcountries a lack of adequatemainte- more likely just replace other government revenue. nance. A few countries are at presenteven diminishing Moreover,the conditions necessaryto make toll systems their road networks, losing more kilometers of road efficient -high traffic volumes and congestion -do through lack of maintenancethan they gain through not very often exist in developingcountries. In these new construction. This situation arises, in our ex- circumstances,tolls easily become expensive to ad- perience, from the fact that there is a generallack of minister and the resulting high chargesmay hold back appreciation first, of the benefits to be gained from important categories of potential and even essential maintainingthe road systemin adequatecondition, and traffic. second,of the amount of money required annually for this purpose. Even when an appreciationof funding Finally, one should not forget that contributions requirementsdoes exist, there is the questionof ensuring to road construction can be in kind. In severalcountries that the necessaryfunds will be forthcoming. Such rural roads are being constructed or more commonly funding must compete with all other demands on maintained by the use of voluntary village labor along Government finance, including the more glamorous with the highway agency providing supervision,tools alternative of new road construction. A planning capa- and equipment. Perhapsthere is no strongertestimony bility should be established within the country to to the usefulnessof a road than the willingnessof the permit a true assessmentof the maintenancerequire- people who live around it to shoulderthe responsibility ments presentand future, and the financingimplications for improvementand maintenance. of the necessaryprogram. The next step, and perhaps the critical one, is the developmentof proceduresto Today, almost all countries are facing increasing ensure that the necessaryfunds are forthcoming. One difficulties in financing their highway constructionand way to do this would be the establishmentof a Road maintenanceneeds, and this holds particularly true for MaintenanceFund -the earmarkingof certain funds

16 to cover maintenance costs. Let me repeat that the equity, revenue generation, energy conservationand reasonfor my suggestingsuch a method is a continuous administrative simplicity in revenue collection. These experience of neglect of road maintenance,coupled objectivesare not alwaysachievable at the ~me time - with the fact that proper maintenancehas a very high they may in fact conflict with each other most of the economic rate of return. A road savedis a road earned time. and the need for expensivereconstruction is avoided.Of course, it should not be forgotten that when the funds Existing evidence from the developing world are there, a trained and equipped organizationis also suggeststhat little attempt has been made to set road neededto implementthe program. user charges in accordancewith economic efficiency criteria. It appearsthat developingcountries have been Fifth, in most countries, the basic road network relatively more concerned with increased revenues, now exists. However, it needs to be complementedby recovery of full costs, improving income distribution the construction of secondaryand feeder roads, that and/or simplicity of revenue collection. Whether such facilitate agricultural production and lead to a more an emphasisin objectiveshas led to an overall inefficient efficient useof the basicroad network. allocationof resourcesis not clear. Sixth, there is a need for a revenue-raisingme. What can be Slid is that the two imbalancesin chanismto recoup from the road users at least a sub- road user chargesneed to be attended to. First, heavy stantial part of the costs associatedwith highways.As vehicles which are responsiblefor a major part of the a general proposition the Bank is not persuadedthat damagedone to roadsare often not adequatelycharged. indirect subsidiesthrough transport pricing are as effi. This results in overchargesof lighter vehiclesand the cient as more direct ones. From an efficiency point of possibility of a distorted composition of the trucking view one should require that user chargesbe set no fleet. Second, road users in urban areas should be lower than the direct costs causedby the road userto called upon to contribute their fair share. The lack of the road and to the other road users,i.e., the variable proper congestionpricing has promoted the uninhibited maintenance costs plus the congestion cost, if any. use of the private autornotible, making city life quite Also, it should be kept in mind that the pricing prin- umbearable.It has also led to a waste of valuablere- ciples adopted will affect intermodal allocation. The sources (fuel, time etc.) and to great difficulties in economically desirable allocation of traffic between accessto urban job markets for the poor living in the modes may be unacceptably distorted by different peripheralareas. financial targets for one mode as opposedto another. The levying of congestioncha~es is not, as has often been entertained,an impossibility. If the will is h1 reviewing what is actually done in a number there, the administrative techniques are available. A of developingcountries, one finds a great deal of varia- most interest and path-breakingexample is the Sin. tion in the share collected from road users. In some gapore Government'sArea License Scheme,which the countries like h1dia, Malaysia,and Paraguay,the road bank has beenfollowing closely. users,in total, pay two or more times the annualtotal highway expenditures. h1 other countries like the The SingaporeGovernment set itself the specific Philippines, Honduras, and Venezuela,they may pay goal of reducing peak-hourtraffic by 25 to 30 per cent. sbout half. If we look at how much eachvehicle con- It was estimated that this reduction would provide tributed a couple of years ago, the sum varied from reasonablygood traffic conditions equivalentto those $USI,OOOper vehicle in Korea to $US165 in Mexico. found during off-peak hours. The Governmentbased Ten years ago, revenues from highway users in the its traffic restraint primarily on area licensing supple- developingworld did not, generally,cover evena major mented by increasedparking fees. The restricted zone percentageof overall highway costs,and therefore the is downtown Singaporecovering 500 hectaresand it generaltaxpayer remaineda principal sourceof highway has 22 entry points. In order to enter the restricted finance. Today, however, in most countries, highway zone during peak-hoursa licensehas to be purchased users pay a large percentageof total costs,if not all or and shown in the vehicle wind-screen. The current more. license fee is $US26 a month or $USI.30 a day. The requirementto display an area licensedoes not apply to What has causedthis change?I think more and more governmentshave found that taxation of road buses or commercial vehicles, nor to motorcycles or users can effectively and easily contribute to general vehiclescarrying four or more people.The impact of the revenue.In addition, in many countriesthe numberof schemehas been substantial.The number of cars en- vehicles has increasedrelative to the highway network tering the restricted zone fell by 73 per cent and total resulting in a better utilization. traffic by some 40 per cent, at the sametime as the actual number of carpools increasedby 60 per cent Finally, the seventhlesson tells us that the "right" and bus passengersby 10 to 15 per cent. The economic level of usercharges is difficult to determine.There are rate of return based on the value of time savingsis a number of objectivesto bear in mind whenestablishing quite high but may seemabstract. Public officials are this level, all of importance,like economic efficiency, more likely to be interested in cashcosts and revenues.

17 In 1976, the revenuesfrom licensesales exceeded total ping foreign sourcesof funds soundfinancing principles operating costs by about $US2.5 million a year, which should be followed. This entails both restraint on the amounts to an annual cash return to the Government part of developingcountries to use short-termfinancing of more than 90 per cent of the total capital cost. only with great circumspection,and cooperation and However, rather than economic or cash flow considera- coordination on the part of the bilateral and inter- tions, it was more the generalobjective of changing national lending agenciesto make sure that their finan- people'sattitudes towards the use of carsin commuting cial help achievesthe best results. that motivated the Governmentplanners. The creation of a breathing spaceand the preventionof the streets, and with them the economic life of Central Singapore, Care must alsobe takento selectthe right projects from being completely choked by automobiles, is on the right basis,using sound economic,engineering clearly an important and valuable achievement.This and service criteria. Over-investmentand duplication type of schemehas potential use in other cities in both must be avoided. Highway maintenanceis especially the developing and developedworld. As a matter of important. Coordination of the different modes of fact, there are a number of cities that are in a far worse transport is often neglected,resulting in misinvestment situation today than Singaporewas when the scheme or incomplete use of resources.The key element in wasadopted. defraying the cost of the highway systemis to charge the users and beneficiariesof the highway system at In concluding, let me stressa few points. There least the economic costs attributable to them. In char- is an obvious shortageof transport facilities, especially ging more in order to increasegovernment revenues, highways, in the developingworld. At the sametime, considerationmust be given in the designof the tax there is rigorous competition amongvarious government systemto the often conflicting objectivesof economic departmentsto get their shareof scarcefunds. In tap- efficiency, equity, revenueand administrativesimplicity.

18 AND RAILWAYS: COMPARISONS, COMPONENTS, SPECIFIC VALVES AND SAVINGS*

Energy situationand energyconsumption prises, but also of private householdswhich purchase energy sources for their own use or consumption The energy crisis late in 1973 and early in 1974 without re~elling them. The energy demand can be has clearly demonstrated that the primary energy met both by primary and derivedenergy sources. sources,in particular petroleum, which form the basis of our industrial society are not alwaysavailable safely Already in the conversionphase, i.e. during the and without restriction. Very soon,however. the situa- conversion of primary energy sources into derived tion easedagain. Neverthelessthe prices of fossil pri- energy sources,considerable energy lossesmay occur. mary energy sourcescontinued to rise and this trend is The percentageof theselosses is 4.5 per cent for mineral going on persistently. Many of the prognoseson the oil, practically 0 per cent for coal, nearly 23.5 per cent developmentof the supplies of primary energysources for gas (including ~sification), approximately 33 per and on the expected energyconsumption, forecast an cent for long-distance heat and fmally for electric exhaustionespecially of the petroleumsupplies in a not current approximately68 per centof the initial primary too distant future. energysource. Apart from statements of intentions, decisive The sum of the derived energysources consumed measureswith a view to the expectedshortage of energy in the FederalRepublic of Germanycan approximately have so far not beentaken. It is necessaryfor the trans. be equatedto the final energy consumption, which in port sector,too, to considerthe introduction of energy. 1976 amountedto 247.6 million tons SCE.Approxima- saving methods. This article discussesthe question of tely 43.6 per cent of this final energywere consumed energy in the field of transport with specialemphasis by private householdsand businessenterprises, 36.8 on railway transport. per cent by the manufacturing industry and 19.6 per cent by the transport undertakings(figure 2). The final Following a decline in 1975 the primary energy energy consumptionof the transport sectoramounting consumptionin the FederalRepublic of Germanyagain to 48.6 million tons SCE can be split up by the indi- increasedin 1976 from approximately 348 million tons vidual transport modes. As can be seenfrom figure 3, of standard coal equivalents(SCE) to nearly 370 million road transport has the largest share,viz. 41.7 million tons SCE. However, the maximum consumption of tons SCE or 85.5 per cent. Railway transport, i.e., 379 million tons SCE in 1973 has not yet beenreached GermanFederal Railways (GFR) and the private railway again. According to the latest forecast primary energy companies,consumed only 2.5 million tons SCE or 5.1 consumptionwill rise to 415 million tons SCE by 1980 per cent. and to 480 million tons SCE by 1985. As can be seen from fIgure 1, the supply of primary energyis based On the other hand the primary energyconsump- more than 50 per cent on mineral oil and only 19 per tion of GFR only amounts to 2.9 million tons SCE. cent on hard coal. Over 95 per cent of the mineral oil With a shareof nearly lOOper cent of the derived energy supplies must be imported. A high percentageof the sources gasoline and diesel oil in meeting the total natural gasis imported, too. Energy supply is therefore energy demand of road transport this transport mode largely dependenton imports. is highly dependenton imported energysources (over 95 per cent). On the contrary the railways use about According to the defInition, primary energy 70 per cent electric current and solid fuels-i.e., inland sources are energy sources which are not subject to energy sources -for their transport performances.In conversion. Each conversion means a change of the inland waterways and air transport, conditions are chemical and/or physical structure of energy sources. similarto those in road transport. The products of conversionare derived energysourcesand non-energyproducts, such as tar. Derived energy sourcesare for instancehard and soft coal briquettes, With a view to an increasingshortage of primary gasoline, diesel oil, electric current and long-distance energy sources,the optimum utilization of the energy heat supply. sourcesis of utmost importance. The energy source used by the fma1 energy consumeris converted into Final energyconsumption is the energyconsump- effective energy,i.e. normally into heat or into mecha- tion of all manufacturing, transport and other enter- nical work. The efficiency is 53 per cent for households and small-scale consumers, for the manufacturing industry about 54 per cent and in transport about 17 * By K. BauermeisterDie Bundesbahn,Volume 9,1977. per cent. Remarkableare the considerableconversion

ENERGY19 Nuclear power 8.0 million tons SCE

2.2,;

~~8r~uli§C~ower 13 'I Others 1.7 m t SCE 0.5',.

Figure 1. Share,of the individual primary energy sources in meeting the energy demandof the Federal Republic of Germanyin 1976

Figure 2. Final energy consumption values in the Federal Republic of Germanyin 1976. Breakdownby economic sectors.

Figure 3. Final energy consumption values in the Federal Republic of Germanyin 197 Breakdownof the transport sector by transport modes.

Air transport 3.1 m t SCE 6.4% Inland waterways 1.3 m t SCE 2.7 % Railways 2.5 m t SCE 5.1 %

20 losses in the field of transport in the proportion of 63 consumption base~ on primary energy demonstrate the

per cent of the energy used. They are primarily caused exceptional importance of electric traction for the

by road transport. Thus about 18 per cent of all energy GFR. l)ata on the consumption of derived energy

losses caused by conversion can be allocated to sources are less useful for interpreation in this con- transport. nection. Since, moreover, all energy-economic conside-

rations must be seen from the angle of limited primary

Factors influencing energy consumption energy supplies, the primary energy demand per unit

..of output should always be indicated. Only such indi- The energy..n consumpt10n of the vanous means of cat1 ' o g1ves' a c 1ear p1 ' ct ure as t 0 w hat ex t en t th e ex1stmg..

transport 1S influenced by a number of parameters. energy S S ill b d d d hat t ' , The .. 1 ource w e nee e an w nega Ive enViron.

se are m part1cu ar: men tal infl uences WI. 11 anse" m t hi s connect10n, .

-Train resistance (rolling and air resistance, resistance offered by the line) With an energy consumption of 2.9 million tons

C . 1 d SCE for traction the GFR accounts for approximately

-ommerCla spee .,

0.8 per cent of the total pnmary energy consumption

-Weight of the vehicle of the Federal Republic of Germany. The share of road

-Rate of utilization (occupied/available seats transport is nearly ten times as high at 11 per cent,

or actual load/payload ratio) whilst the transport performance of road transport

Di b reaches only three and a half times the amount of rail -stance etween stops transport .

-Operating processes and smoothness of opera-

tion. Specific energy consumption

A system-inherent advantage of the railway is The total energy consumption of an undertaking

the physical fact that the adhesion coefficient of the for the provision of a product is only of limited value

rubber tyres of a rood vehicle is on average six to nine for interpretation. Definite conclusions regarding pro-

times as high as the adhesion coefficient of a railbound ductivity in relation to the energy consumed can be

steel wheel. A certain drawback of rail transport with drawn by comparing a production unit with the energy

regard to energetics lies in the relatively high tare of rail consumption required for the production of this parti-

vehicles which, however, offer certain advantages in cular unit. The quotient of both quantitites represents

terms of safety and comfort. the specific energy consumption. It should always be

indicated in terms of primary energy. On the transport

Energy consumption of the German Federal sector we apply the unit passenger-kilo metre (Pkm) for

Railway (GFR) passenger traffic and the unit ton-kilometre (tkm) -

i.e. the chargeable weight multiplied by the chargeable In the past, the transport services of the GFR were d ' ..1 sta nce -lorl' ~'lrelg ht tra fli1C. For over-a11 assessments performed by the three tract10n types: steam, d1esel . t ' d . bl t t .it h ert ' d f . 1 1S a Visa e 0 pu up wac am egree 0 approXl- and electnc. W1th the summer timetable of this year t . d ert . t t 1p' .., .ma 10n an conv m 0 On"1\.1 1 orne t res th e t ranspo rt steam operation was d1scontmued so that future conSl- fi . d . will . 1 . 1 1 .per ormance m passenger t ra fli 1C, t 00. erations mc ude d1ese and e ectnc traction only.

The motive power units of the DB are now using derived To determine the energy consumption two

energy sources, i.e. diesel fuel and electric energy. different methods can be applied.

Figure 4 shows the energy chains of different means of traction during the conversion of primary energy First the analytical method (figure 5) measures

into propulsion energy. For comparison a private car the over-all consumption for each type of traction, such

with internal-combustion engine is also represented. as electric locomotives and railcars. This over-all con-

sumption is determined very precisely by the GFR. In

In the year 1976 in which steam was going to be order to obtain the over-all value of the specific energy

completely discontinued the following primary energy consumption for the "railway" or "electric trains" we

consumption values were reported for the individual only need to relate the consumption to the correspond-

types of traction: ing transport performances in tkm or Pkm. For the

purpose of a more detailed classification the methods Steam traction. 0.09 million tons SCE 3.1 % developed by GFR not only permit breakdown of

Diesel traction. 0.72 million tons SCE 24.8% energy consumption by methods of operation but also

the distinction of energy consumption values by the Electric traction. 2.09 million tons SCE 72.1 % actual train journeys and by local performances, such

2.90 million tons SCE 100% as shunting movements. Such as classification can also

be effected for individual train categories, such as

At present more than 80 per cent of all transport passenger, freight and other trains. A further break-

performances in gross ton kilometres hauled are achieved down permits indication of specific energy consumption

by electric traction. These figures indicating the energy values for individual train category groups, such as

21 "3" \ Y':.!cjc: ;;1 , C r'r h- '~' !,'., '; ': ,',,';, ' ~

ic" ~ ~~ Primary Energy 100.

80 I Electric locomotive I

60

40 Propulsion energy

20

0 Power Distribution Auxiliary station machines,motor ar transmission ~~ Primary energy ~ 100 I Diesel locomotive I

80

60 energy 40

2

achineo, engine transmission

% Primary energy 100 +

Private car with 80 internal combustion

60 engine

40 Propulsion energy 20

'0 Refinery Internal Auxiliary combustion machines, engine transmission Figure 4. Energy chains of the different meansof transport

'.'! ';', Ii ;r(,

, i,~,i:(1

;,;...". '" 22 Total energy consumption

~~:~~~::::::~:::::::::~ Steal [lectric Oiesel Raillotor Battery O"US Railbuses Others locos locos locos tractors railcars I ["US I I I I I Traction I 'I I I I I r"'-""-"~---,: I I.' I I modes: t I ,',. 'c' I ["US Electric loco~ ' ~I' ::~==--J--~:;::~ I It

I I --"'.. " , - - Typesperformances: of Actual train journey local perfo lances "" , -

(traction) A

Shunting Pr8-h8atinq vit~ ~ attachedtrain-locolotive to train ~ Passenger FreiQht Othors Passenger freiQht Others trains trains trains t~.ins, I~~~~~~~~ '

Types of ~~:~~~:~~::::::::::~---'--"1[[ Fast Seli.fast local Rapid transit Others trab1s trains trains trains trains AI 'I I II I.I

I

class 1 class ...class M

Cl~es of motive powerunits

:~,,:,r;: Figure 5. Procedure for the determination of energy consumption following the analytical method

I 23 Trans Europe Express,fast trains, semifasttrains etc. referencepoints for the energysupply. In the event of The specific energy consumptionof individual tractive vehiclesusing liquid fuels the fIller cap at the vehicle unit classesis determined,too. tank and for vehicles with electric power supply the pantographare to be taken asreference point. For the Since in general energy consumption is deter- railways the energy consumptionvalues and transport mined globally certain valuesmust be allocated which performances can be exactly determined from the have been establishedeither syntheticallyor on the basis existing records. The situation is somewhatdifferent of many years of experience.The advantageof this in road transport. Here estimationsmust be made in method lies in the fact that the energy consumption particular with regard to the transport performances valuestake into accountthe actual operating condition achieved, but also the energy consumption can be with regardto the rate of utilization of the trains and determinedonly in a very generalmanner. the operating processas well asthe ancillary consump- tion, suchas train heating. Especiallyin private car traffic recoursemust be taken to estimations. Second,the microscopic (physical-mathematical) method (figure 6) calculatesthe energyconsumption for Supervision of the specific energy consumption is a particular train running condition including the line, of considerable value also for the internal situation of vehicle and running data (speed,distance between stops the undertaking, electric traction accounts for more and others) or determinesit from a seriesof measure- than 80 per cent of all operating performances. Ob- ments. The energy consumption thus determined can servation of the specific energy consumption in watt- be allocated directly to transport performances.The hours/gross ton-kilo metre (wh/gtkm) -i.e. an indication microscopic method is particularly applied for con- on the basis of derived energy -offers a measurement sumption data not centrally recorded in an enterprise. result which permits a certain supervision of the profit- It considersoperational influences only in part. In some ability of electric traction. This is shown in figure 8. cases,however, operation exerts considerableinfluence on energy consumption. In practice the first method The GFR recordsthese consumptionvalues very will be givenpreference as far aspossible. accurately. As can be seen from figure 8, the specific energyconsumption in the electrified network decreased For the determination of its specific energy strongly since 1950 and reachedits lowest value in 1969 consumption the GFR uses a combined form of ana- with 26.4 whfgtkm. If we assumethe value of the year lytical and physical-mathematicalmethods. The ana- 1969 at 100 per cent, the reduction up to that time was lytical method for the determination of energy con- nearly 30 per cent. Since 1969 the specific energy sumption is shown in fIgure 5 and the physical-mathe- consumption rose again until the year 1975. In the matical method in figure 6. This guaranteesthat all year 1976 again a decline took place, although the indications of specific energy consumption values do value of that year was 12 per cent higher than that of not only include the energy consumptionfor the actual the year 1969. The causesof this developmenthave not train journey but also for local performances,such as yet been completely determined. As can be generally shunting and preheating at the train. Furthermore,the seen,there is a certain dependencyon the proportion energy consumption for train heating is also recorded. of passengertrains in the over-all transport perform- This meansthat all energy consumption valuesfor the ances.Apart from this, other parameters,such astem- movement of passengersand freight are collected. In perature curve, increaseof train speed,an increasing addition the actual operating conditions and the actual use of air-conditioned passengercarriages and the rate of utilization havebeen included in this data. operatingprocedure exert a certaininfluence.

Figure 7 shows the developmentof the specific Apart from this global form of representingthe energy consumption in kilograms SCE/I00 tkm for specific energyconsumption on the basisof primary or road transport and for GFR. Whilst the specific energy derived energy by transport modes or by types of consumption in road transport increased from 21.8 traction or by modesof operation, the specific primary kg SCE/100 tkm in 1968 to 29.6 kg SCE/IOOtkm in energy consumption can also be represented for a 1976, ie., to 126per cent, the specific energyconsump- singlemeans of transport of a transport mode. Figure 9 tion of the GFR dropped from 17.6,to 4.7 kg/SCE/l00 shows specific energy consumptionvalues on the basis tkm during the sameperiod, i.e., to about 27 per cent. of primary energy.The curvesdemonstrate the specific Thus the specific energyconsumption of road transport primary energy consumptionas a function of the rate is 6.3 times higher than that of the railway. The en- of utilization for various meansof transport in long- deavours of the GFR to reduce energy consumption distancetraffic. We notice that an Inter-city train with havetherefore been extremelysuccessful. a rate of utilization below 40 per cent already is better than the private car which hasa 100 per cent utilization. This demonstrates the importance of specific Much more favourable is the specific primary energy energy conswnption for intermodal comparisons,i.e. consumption of a fast train. Here the 100 per cent comparisons between the individual transport modes. value of the private car is reachedonly at a utilization Whenmaking suchcomparisons we must choosesimilar rate below 20 per cent.

24 Actual train journey (traction) local perfOr8inCeS

By calculating the .ean values conceming the lethod of traction

Figure 6. Procedurefor the determinationof energyconsumption following the physical-mathematicalmethod

25 ~

Ir.n t ~'"

31

30

18

16 14

1 1

I

1

1

I

1

8

6

4 1

1910 1912 1914 1915 . Figure7. Specific energyconsumption of DB and of road transport

~L.9.fu. 3~

34 33 Specific eMrgy consumption 32'I. 315~

30 4&1 1 294611 - 284411 - 17411 264J1 1--. -._ 1 . 2~ 3a11 ..

313..1 shL, of pas en er tra ns in-..r-\., ' , : t 21~ ::i;:;~tl 0';1';""1"1 of illl tr i"I11 1-i-'t-f-f-r-r-1 -.

oJ .

78

Figure 8. Specific energyconsumption in wh/gtkm ex sub-station,and shareof passengertrams in the transport performanceof all trains of DB in gtkm

26 This comparisonshows that the rate of utilization unit-train). In general during braking this energy is is of considerableimportance. Much higher than the dissipatedin the form of braking heat. The changeof specific energy consumption of the means of ground locomotive generations,.which has beeninitiated by the transport is that of continental airplanes.This com- order to develop and construct five prototypes of a parison underlines the necessityto relate the energy three-phasecurrent locomotive, leads to exceptional consumption of the individual means of transport possibilities in the field of energysaving in addition to always to an equal rate of utilization when making remarkable improvements of the traction technique. technical comparisons. Further factors are market The three-phasecurrent locomotivesin the form chosen considerationsas well as the influence of commercial by GFR are characterizedin their main circuit by the speed. existenceof a single-phaseac circuit, a dc intermediate circuit and a three-phasecurrent circuit. During opera- The essential difference between railway and tion the electric energyis taken from the contact wire road transport lies in the fact that in passengertraffic by the pantograph, stepped down in the locomotive the utilization of private cars permits a door.to-door transformer and supplied to a rectifier (four-quadrant transport, whereas rail travel requires additional road controller). On its secondaryside this convertersupplies transport before and after the rail journey. The same a constant dc voltage to an intermediate circuit, and applies to freight traffic as long as the transport is not through this intermediate dc circuit a complete de- effected from private siding to private siding. In order coupling of the power supply network and the three- to standardizethe comparisonsof energyconsumption phasecurrent supply of the traction motors is achieved. between both meansof transport, the distanceof the From this intermediate dc circuit the autonomous road transport before and after the rail transportmust inverter collects electrical energy,converts the dc into be determined. The respective energy consumption three-phasecurrent of variable frequency and voltage must be added to that of the rail transport. In freight and feedsit to the three-phasetraction motor. traffic the energy consumptionfor transhipmentshould also be taken into account. This circuit arrangementalso permits an energy A Union hlternationale Chemin de Fer working flow in the opposite direction so that on three-phase group for the determination of energyconsumption of locomotivesof t}1istype regenerativebraking is possible the railways is at present studying this complex of without the necessityof additional elements. A con- questions. servativeestimate revealed that approximately3 per cent of the traction energycan be regenerated.Provided that Economicaspects and possibilitiesof Siving energy the entire fleet of electric locomotivesconsists of three- phaselocomotives and basedon the energyconsumption Apart from efforts to ensurereliability of energy of the year 1976 of approximately 5,957 million kWh, supply, it is the principal aim of all energypolicy efforts this would theoretically mean a &lYingof energy of of GFR to securethe supply of its motive power units about 180 million kWh. with inexpensive traction energy. In electric traction this is guaranteedby a well balancedenergy structure, i.e., by relying on severalenergy sources.In the event A further advantageof the three-phasecurrent of price fluctuations the most reasonablypriced primary technique is the favourable behaviourof the inverters energycan be used within certain limits. The utilization with regard to the traction supply network. According of the most modern energy sourceshas contributed to test results, the catenary traction supply circuit is towards an evenmore economicalgeneration of current. almost entirely free from extraneouscomponents. This An essentialprecondition to this is the railways' own improvesthe power factor considerably.A power factor traction systemwhich is operatedwith minimum current between 0.98 and 099 seems absolutely realizable. generation costs and transmission losses through a Even on the basis of a lower power factor the losses computer-supportednetwork optimization. could be reduced by 20 per cent. With a total loss of nearly 450 million k\\'h in 1976 this would mean a In order to obtain favourable economic results savingof about 90 million kWh. Thus the introduction in the field of energy supply it is not only important to of three-phasecurrent technique would bring about provide for inexpensive primary or derived energy notable reductionsof energyconsumption. sourcesbut also to make concentratedefforts to reduce the absolute energyconsumption. In rail transportthere are variouspossibilities of savingenergy. Reductionof the demandof energyfor heating

Regenerationof energyby applying regnerativebrakes The demandof heatingenergy of railbound means of transport can be reduced further by a better heat In comparisonto other meansof groundtransport, insulation. An exact recording of the energyconsump- railways have inherently a relatively high tare. In each tion required for train heating calls for considerable accelerationprocess a considerableamount of energyis expenditure. If the demand for train heating energy suppliedto the transport unit (hauled train or multiple- were reducedby a better thermal insulationthis measure

27 ky ~;(:f ;ooPk;;;" 22 -, , '' the absolute consumptionvalues and in Particular by , , the production performancesand the rate of utilization Airbus A 300 of the trains. The line-specific transport performance 20 at 600 kmdista ce Boeing727 went down from 7.1 million ntkmjline-km per annum Vmax. 900km/~ at 600 kmdistance in 1970 to 53 millionntkm/line-kmper annumin 1975 18 270 seats ..Vmax .-925 km/h due to the major decreaseof the transport volume of 1~eats the GFR, As can be seenfrom figure 8 a precipitous rise of the specific energy consumptionwas the con- !6 -sequence. Also the specific energy consumption is a yardstick for the productivity of the GFR. It caneasily 14 .be concluded that a considerableincrease of the trans- port performanceswith the existing transportapparatus 12 rivate car would lead to even lower specific energy consumption middle-clas values.This possibilitydoes not exist for road.traffic.

max .150 10 * Self-cumulationof transport growthand of specific energyconsumption 8 - In terci ty In the present situation the specific primary energyconsumption of road transport is more than six 6 Vmax. 160km'" times as high as that of the railways.Technical improve- .. :;: :~~:=:=~=== ments and an increasedrate of utilization of the railways 4 .Long-d~~_tancebu give:~se to the expectationof a further decreaseof the Vm." ~o.", specif1c energy consumptionof the railways. On the 2 -Fast traIn ~ :::::::~~;;;;;;;;;;;~ other hand,the shareof the GFR in the total transport Vmlx=140km. volume is steadily ~ecrea~ng..It cannot be forgotten that, before long, difficult1es m the energysupply, in 0 particular with mineral oil products, will arise. Such Utilizgtion in (~) 2~ 7S 100 developmentsoblige the GFR to point out that by figure 9. Specific energyconsumption values of different suitable regulating measuresa better utilization of rail means of transport asa function of the utiliza- transport shouldbe achieved. tion in long-distancetraffic It must be t horoughly stud1ed,. which externaland would not hav tabI ffi ct h internal measureswill help to reachthis aim. Perhaps sh ' consumptionon e the any GFR. no e e e s on t e energy ~e ould try. to mak,ea large propo~10nof the popula- t10n fully realIZethe 1mageof the railway asa transport Reductionof vehicle weight mode with a low energyconsumption. Primary energy can be saved by a reduction of In this connection a comparative calculation is the vehicle weight, in particular in passengertraffic. rather interesting. If, for example,in 1976 only about However, the energy savingsare opposed by higher 13 per cent of the operations of road transport had expenditure for lightweight construction. Primarily been shifted to the rail an energy savingof nearly 4 in high-quality long-distancepassenger traffic the desire million tons SCE would have been achieved(including to increase comfort leads to higher weights which road transport to and from the rail terminals)because compensatesavings to a certain extent. Application of of the lower specificenergy consumption of the railway. lightweight construction is primarily an economic This is about 1.4 times the primary energyconsumption question. of the GFR in 1976 for traction purposes,or nearly1.1 per cent of the total primary energy consumption of Improvementof operatingmethods the Federal Republic of Germany. This energy saving Apart from the above measuresa reduction of measurebecomes evenmore important if we consider the absolute energy consumption can also be achieved that no investmentat all would have been necessaryto merely by way of decision-making,i.e., by choosingthe reachthis goal. A further argumentwould be that such shortest transport distance,reducing empty running to a shift of transport from road to rail would havecon- a minimum and by ensuringa smooth operation which siderablyreduced environmental pollution. avoids, if posSlole,additional stops in front of signals .. and overtaking of trains. This would have to be borne ..on the railways th~ mcreaseof traffic and the in mind when introducing an operating control system spe~if1cenergy consumptIon are, to a certain extent, .subject to a sort of self-cumulation,i.e. the more In addition to a reduction of the absolute energy traffic is shifted to rail and the better the ra;e of utiliza- consumpt~on~he cutt.ing down of ~he.P?rnary energy tion becomes,the lower will be the specific energy consumptIon 1Salso 1mportant. This 1Sinfluenced by consumption.

28 URBAN TRANSPORT PLANNING IN DEVEWPING COUNTRIES*

Planningframework from one mode to the other in the courseof a single trip. Various modes of transport do exist in major Intra-city travel is closely related with the socio- affluent cities, but with the difference that they are economic factors, the conurbation profile, the popula- mostly competitive and not complementary. Pakistan tion distribution and growth and land use pattern of is not so opulent as to be able to permit duplication the city. It is, therefore, imperative that these bench- of transport servicesand to encourage competition marks outside the transport field are determined first between them. On the contrary, the economic condi- and the travel desiresidentified later. last of all, mea- tions dictate their proper integration, even though it suresto remove the existing transportationbottlenecks entails intermodal transfer in the caseof "through"journeys. and to satisfy transportation demands,during the peak and lean periods,have to be thought of. But, in a coun- try faced with scarcity of funds, this is not the be-all In fme, the planner'sonly option is to evolvethe and end-all. The investment for implementing the most appropriate mix of existing and new transport transport plan hasto be quantified and weighedagainst modes,the over-ridingconsiderations being : the social, economic and environmentalgains that will (a) To maximisethe use of the availablemeans flow from it. The plan hasto be tailored to the fInancial by minimum investment; resources of the society which it seeksto serve and the paying capacity of the city dwellers. Therefore, a (b) To eliminate inter-modal competition and line hasto be drawn betweenthe idealplan and the prac- impose somekind of statutory co-ordination between tical plan, the latter being more important than the transportmodes; former. (c) To provide the capital-intensivemodes only where the lessexpensive ones will not servethe purpose, Option limitation eventhough the outlay on the former would be justified A rapid transit network of gradeseparated electric- by recurring advantageof lower operating cost and based railway is, theoretically, the ideal transportation other socialand economicbenefits. systemfor a city of the size and populationof Karachi. Operating on its unfettered right of way, aboveor below choice criteria the surface,equipped with the latest devicesfor speed, Three main considerations -the servicecharac- safety, punctuality and frequency of services,with teristics of the various transport systems,the physical lower operating cost per traffic unit, higher carrying and technical factors and the cost criteria -govern the capacity to meet peak requirements and margin for intermodal choice of urban transport. b1 other words, automation, rapid transit is the most attractive form of the cheapera systemthe more preferableit is, provided transport in large cities. Surface transport, howsoever the cheapestsystem can serve the peak-hour require- efficient and modern, suffers from delaysand hold-ups ments. Therefore,the optimum carrying capacityvis-a- not only in down town congestedroads, but also at vis peak hour traffic demand is the main criterion of busy intersections of wide boulevards,in new urban modal choice. The comparative costs of providing, areas,particularly during peak traffic hours. Therefore, maintaining and operating each systemwould be re- the temptation, on the part of the planner,to recom- levant only in marginal cases,where choice is to be mend the latest urban transport technology is irresist. made between two modes of transport whose capa- able. But, becausethe initial outlay is prohibitive, the bilities to handle the given volume of peak traffic are planner is left with no choice but to suggestretention about the same. and patch-work improvement of the existing transport infrastructure and provision of new modes only on Capacityconstraints those corridors where the peaktraffic can,by no means, be carried by the availableones. The comparativetraffic capacitiesof the modes can be worked out to a reasonabledegree of accuracy. Under the circumstances,the city's transport The maximum capacity of the most modern tramway, system is bound to be multimodal, involving transfers according to P.J. Walker (vide his book, The New .Jafar Wafa, OIartered Institute of Transport Journal, Tramways -page 15) a three-car tram set, to carry Vol 38, No.4, May 1978. This paperis basedon urban trans- 350 passengerswith 50 secondspeak headway, is 22,000 port planningexperience in Pakistanbut the problemsdiscu~ed passengersper hour/per direction. To carry this traffic, are largely commonto all the developingcountries. The author is a TransportOfficer, Ministry of Communications,Government about 400 of the existing type of single-deckKarachi of Pakistan. bus, with a crush load of 60 personsper bus, will have

29

Modal to ply on a given route per hour/per direction. Sucha the built-up areasis not feasible,unless urban property large fleet of buses cannot ply in quick succession is acquired at extremely high cost. Thus, an extensive during peak hours on the city roads in the central grade separated railway system is the real answer, businessdistrict, even if there are two bus lanes each besidesdouble tracking the presentsingle line surface way on each road. A maximum number of 40 buses, railway. The provision cost of sucha systemis terribly on 90 secondsheadway, can be on the road, per hour, high in face of the present resource constraint. In per bus lane, in one direction and they will, all taken such a situation, only two measurescommend them- together, carry not more than 2,400 passengersper selvesto the planner. Firstly, reduction in the peak hour, per direction, per lane. Reducingthe bus headway, factor by staggeringthe timings of offices, banks, to permit a larger fleet to operate on a city route, will businesshouses, factories and educational institutions produce nothing but an extremelylong queue of these etc. and, secondly, construction of only a small size, vehicles on each traffic light. Regarding tramways, high capacity rail-oriented transport network in the P.I. Walker's concept of three-car tram sets to carry city centre, which the community can afford, with 350 persons may be realistic, but, going by the more convenient interchange facilities with the tram and common tram cars (as in Calcutta), the maximum bus systems,the latter acting primarily as feedersto peak hour capacity per direction will be in the region the former and operating mostly in the peripheral of 15,000 passengersper three-cartram set with 50 areas,Such a systemwill substantiallyreduce the capital secondsheadway. Peak traffic exceeding20,000 pas- investment, ensure adequate capacity utilization of sengers/hour/directioncan be carried only by grade each transport mode, reduce the level of under utiliza- separatedrailways. For modal split, the following capa- tion during slack periods and, aboveall, stemthe grow- city ceilingscan be adopted: ing congestionon down town roads arising from cons- Pa hr tant increasein privateand public mechanisedtransport, Bus: ( ss~?ger~pe;.1 becausebuses and trams will either not enterthe central Irecnon area at all or their numberwill be too small. In return singledeck, mediumchassis 2,500 (onebus lane) for all this, the commuterswill haveto make the follow- singledeck, mediumchassis 5,000 (two bus lanes) ing sacrifices: double deck 10,000(two bus lanes) (a) Due to staggeredtimings, it will be distateful trolley bus large size for some to leave their homes rather early in the mor- with one ~railer 6000 (one lane) ning, and equally unpalatable for some to return late in , the evening;

light rail: (b) The ma]on.' t y will have to contend WIt. h 2-cartrams 9,000 to 12,000 transfer from one mode to the other, while in transit; (dependingupon car size) (c) The over-all journey duration will increase, 3-cartrams 12,000 to 15,000 in the caseof intermodaltravel, to the extent of waiting time at interchangepoints. Railways: La d surfacerail (single line) 10,000 n use reVISIon.. surfacerail (double line) 20,000 gradeseparated (under- Another alternative, which might, in the fInal ground or elevated) 20000 and above. analysis, prove equally or more expensive than the , provision of high capacity transport modes wherever Peakfactor they are required, is the change in present land use. Dispersal of trip-attracting institutions and establish- On about 50 per cent of the maintraffic corridors ments from the present gravity centre, to reduce the in Karachi, by which commuters travel to and from traffic volume on corridors covergingon the city core, their place of work, the daily two-way personstrips, is fraught with possibilities of public resentmentand projected up to 1985, range between 100,000 and resistance from vested interests, apart from the cost 600pOO. By applying the peak factor of 15 per cent involved in re-siting and re-building the affected faci- (ratio of one-way peak hour traffic to the daily both lities. Perhapsonly an autocratic regime can succeed ways traffic), as in Europeancities, the peakper houri in making such sweepingchanges in the presentland direction trips will vary between 15,000 and 90,000. use, regardlessof popular sentiments and fInancial In other words, the capacity criterion favours double propriety. line railways -partly on surface and partly on grade -in half of the city area,leaving the other half to be served by trams and buses. At present, only 32 km of Cost aspect double track and 35 km of single track railways on surface serve the metropolitan area. Construction of Although the capacity criterion is the prime railways on the surface on the high density routes in factor in determining the modal choice, subject to

30 physical and technical feasibility of the mode, the by buseshave been included,the maintenancecost of dominant role, in a developingcountry, belongsto the right of way of other modes has also been included. relative cost characteristics.This necessitatesrealistic estimates being made of the expected initial outlay (capital cost) and the operating, maintenanceand It will be seenfrom the above table that if the rep~acementcosts of the proposed syste~s. This is. a buses and other modesof public transport are'placed delIcate task, because~he:eas the operat~g and mam- on an equal footing and, as the capital cost of road tenance costs of the eXlstmgsystems are .eIther a1rea~y construction, road signallingand policing is borne by known, or :an be work:d .out on the basIsof the av~- the Governmentand not by the bus operators, the able financIal and statIstIcal data, the correspond~g capital investment in providing the right of way and costsof th~ proposed.modes ha:e to .bec?mpu~ed WIth signalling infrastructure in other modes is also not care and cIrcUmS?ectIo~to avoId major dIstortIonsand taken into consideration,the fInancial cost per passen- makethe comparIsonfaIr. ger-kilometre is lowest in the caseof surface railway Mode-wisecosting has been carried out in detail, followed by undergroundrailway. Also, the operating for the Karachi project, and the following table contains cost of electric tramways and electric trolley busesis the basicand derivativedata: less than that of dieselbuses. But, since interest on capital investment in the engineeringand electrical infrastructureis a financial cost to the agencYoperating The capital cost of the right of way and its replacement the transport mode, the fareshave to be fIXed at a rate cost have not been included to make the data com- which will recoverthe annualinterest on capital invest- parable with bus costs. However,since road taxes paid ment actually made. An estimateof this item of ftnan-

Costing by mode for the Karachi Project

Costin rupees(including taxesand duty) Onerupee = 10 US centsapprox.

...Total cost (excluding Capital Operation Vehicle Interest and right Modes (per unit ie per Maintenance Replacement otway costs) vehiclesper (per cost per train etc. Unit-km) (Unit-km) p'er Per Unlt-km Passengerkm

DieselBus (exising type) 200,000 1.59 0.42 2.01 0.0447 Averageloading 45 passengers

DieselTrain 15,200,000 13.73 4.66 18.39 0.0102 (existing systemwith proposed new type 8 coachesper train) Average loading 1,800 pas. sengers

UndergroundTrain 18,975,000 11.97 5.99 17.96 0.0112 (proposed, with 6 power coachesper train) Average loading 1,600 pas- sengers Electric Tram 3,100,000 2.28 0.94 3.22 0.0143 (proposed with one power unit and two trailers) Averageloading 225 passengers

Electric Trolley Bus 650,000 1.86 0.37 2.23 0.0185 (proposed, with one power unit and one trailer) Averageloading 120 passengers

31 cial cost at 12 per cent rate of interest (which is the mum capacity use. They are three times as costly as opportunity cost of capital in developing countries rail andtwice ascostly asthe tram. like Pakistan)has been made, which is asunder: These cost considerations,inevitably lead to the (Rupeesper following decisions: passenger-km) D. 1 b 00094 (a) Introduce an integrated system of mass public lese us .transport modes placing them under a Metropolitan Dieselrail 0.0113 TransportAuthority. Undergroundmetro 0.0628 (b) Improve the existing surface railways and Electric tram (3-car) 0.0242 construct additional lines, if land reservationsare avail. Electric trolley bus (2-car) 0.0115 able in the plannedtownships. (c) Introduce three-carelectric trams and two. The total fInancialcosts per mode, per passenger- car trolley buses,in replacementof dieselbuses where kilometre thus standsas under, in descendingorder: the latter cannot carry the peaktraffic. The trams and (R) trolley buses were banished from the city streets,be- upees cause their economicsin the pre-energycrisis period, Undergroundmetro 0.0740 when the prices of petrol and diesel oil were far too Dieselbus 0.0541 low, did not favour their retention and the traffic con. .gestion that they causedconstituted a positive reason Electnc tram 0.0385 for their disappearance.The time has come to push the Electric trolley bus 0.0300 busesoff the congestedroads and replacethem by more Dieselrailway 0 0215 economical, higher capacity, electric-poweredsystems .which are,at the sametime, pollution.free. Conclusions (d) Restrict the underground railway to those In fi ..short routeswhere one mode or eventwo supplementary pure manCtalterms, the surface railways are modeson surfacecannot cater for the peaktraffic. the cheapestmode if their carrying capacityis utilized to the optimum limit through mandatory measures (e) Let busesserve only the low traffic density prohibiting competition from rival modes. They are routes and assign them the role of feedersto other more than twice as cheapas the dieselbuses. The electric systems, because they alone have the flexibility to trams and trolley buses are slightly costlier than the collect commuters from the street pavements and surfacerailways but cheaperthan the bus. The under. take them to the nearest railheads or tram/trolley ground railways are the costliest mode, even on opti- terminals.

32 THE FORMULATION OF BASIC CONCEPTS AND GUmELINES FOR PREPARATION OF TOURISM SUB-REGIONAL MASTER PLANS IN THE ESCAP REGION*

The phenomenal growth of tourism in recent a marked geographicaland cultural homogeneitymay years has made its impact in many areasof humanacti- be regarded as an asset for tourist promotion, but in vity. It hasmade many governmentsrealize that tourism reality this may not proveto be a plus factor. is not only concernedwith questionsof transport by air, sea and land and with providing hotel and other forms One can divide the ESCAPregion into the follow- of accommodation, but is also deeply involved with ing sub-regions: economic and socialquestions as well aswith ecological (a) East Asia (China, Japan, Philippines, the and demographicissues. Tourism is also seenas a cata- Republicof Korea); lyst for the economic developmentof backward areas and a leveller of incomesby transferof wealth from the (b) Southeast Asia (Brunei, Bunna, Democratic richer to the less affluent sections of the international Kampuchea, mdonesia, Lao People's Democratic Re- community. A great deal of researchon the tourism public, Malaysia,Singapore, Socialist Republic of Viet phenomenonhas beendone in recent years and its true Nam,Thailand); characterand implications are only just beginningto be (c) South Asia (Afghanistan,Bangladesh, Bhutan, understood. One of the concomitants of a proper mdia, Maldives,Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lankaand Iran); understanding of the wide-rangingeffects of tourism is that governmentshave become actively involved in (d) Australasia(Australia and the New Zealand). its promotion and development. Taking into account the realities of the tourist move. Tourism planning no longer consists merely of a ment, Hong Kong and Macau could be added to the physical plan for the developmentof tourist facilities Fast Asian sub-regionand there may be a separatesub. in a resort or an area. It calls for an interdisciplinary region defined as the South &cific Basinconsisting of approach. In other words, it cannot be treated sui Cook Islands, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa,Tonga, generis,a category apart. It impingeson many areasof the Trust Territory of the &cific Islands and several administrative, economic and cultural activities and other islandterritories. hence tourism developmentbecomes an integral part of the over-all economic development of a country. There are some distinct cultural patterns which This is what makes the planning of tourism a highly run through these sub-regions.The Chinese,Indian and complex exercise. It is hard enough to reconcile Polynesiancultures and the religious traditions of the different viewpoints on the strategy of economic de- main world religions, Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam and velopment of a country which after all constitutes a Christianity have been the main influences.The South singleadministrative unit; it is more difficult to achieve Asian subcontinent is a classic example of common consensusin regardto a group of countriesconstituting characteristics.Visitors from other parts of the world a sub-region.Even the EuropeanEconomic Community notice not only ethnic resemblancesbut also simi- which is governedby a formal Treaty covering almost larities in architecture, sculpture, dance, music and every conceivableaspect of economic activity fmds it food. In the sameway commonfeatures would be found difficult to reach agreementon many matters of vital throughout SoutheastAsia. For instance,Indonesia is interest. Moslemand Thailand is Buddhist but their danceforms are fairly similar, and largely influenced by an earlier It should be recognizedthat the master plan of Indian tradition. The most wellknown monument of a sub-region,or for that matter of a country, will be Indonesia,Borobudur is Buddhist, and while the great largely determined by the nature of its tourist attrac- monument of Democratic Kampuchea,Angkor Vat, tions, both natural and man-made,its geography,its is Buddhist, at the sametime it showsthe Hindu god religious and cultural traditions and fmally the level of Vishnu and the bas-reliefson its walls portray scenes its economic development. It is obvious that a tourist from the Hindu epics of Ramayanaand Mahabharta. master plan for Japan will be vastly different from the It is a mixture of Buddhist and Hindu mythologies. plan for Australia or for India and Pakistan.The concept of a sub-regionassumes that the areahas some common To travel is an experience;an international tra- characteristics,some sort of homogeneity.To prepare veller therefore looks for variety. If he has seena large a plan for a homogeneousregion presumablywould be number of Moslemmonuments of the Mughalperiod in easierthan for an area with diversefactors. Ostensibly htdia he might not be thrilled by seeingsimilar monu- ments againin Pakistan.Mter he has seena large num- ber of Buddhist and Hindu temples in htdia he might .Note by the secretariat. not be anxious to see temples and monuments built

33 on a lesser scale in Nepal or Sri Lanka. The homo- (d) Manpowerdevelopment-training programmes; geneity of a sub-regionmakes the processof economic (e) Socialand environmentaleffects; planning easier but for tourism planning it is more (f) Economicaspects; important to emphasizethe differences rather than similarities. The great charm of multi-destination travel (g) Marketingstrategy. to Europe is that the United Kingdom, France, the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy, though be- 1. Statisticaldata longing to a sub-regionare so different from eachother. In the contemporaryworld any kind of sound The casehistory of tourism in Sri Lanka during planning, economic, industrial, educationaland so on, the past 10 years is a most significantexample of how must be based on reliable data. So, too, must tourism a new approach offering something different from planning. For various reasonsthe tourism statistics as India made tourism a successstory. For almost 15 compiled by many countriesare not quite reliable. For yearsthe number of tourists visiting Sri Lankaremained one thing it is easierto measurethe movementof goods, stagnantat around 20,000 to 25,000 a year. Sri Lanka the iInport-export trade, than to measurethe movement was highlighting its medieval monumentsand temples of humanbeings. Secondly, not all the countriesfollow as its main attractions. Not only the number of tourists the United Nations definitions of "tourist" and "excur- attracted by them was small but their averagelength sionist". The definitions are based on an economic of stay was about five days. Just 10 yearsago Sri Lanka conceptand not on motivation. A tourist is a temporary changedits tourism strategy. It has fine seabeaches, visitor to a country other than the one in which he some of the best in the Indian Ocean,but not one sea normally residesand is not remuneratedfor any service resort had been developed. There was not even one rendered in the country visited. The purpose of his proper hotel on any of the beaches.A 10-yearmaster visit can be holiday, sightseeing,health, study, pil- plan was finanlized in 1969. One of the main aspects grimage, business,conference or just to seefriends or of the plan was to develop Sri Lanka as a holiday desti- relatives. The temporarinessof his visit is determined nation. As a result three beach resorts have been de. by the duration of stay. It has been generallyagreed veloped on the southwest coast and two are being that the stay should not be lessthan 24 hours and not rapidly developed on the east coast. (An important more than six months. If his stay is lessthan 24 hours geographical feature of South and SoutheastAsia is or if he is a cruise visitor and does not utilize overnight that the sea is quiet like a lake in winter on the west accommodation on land he is defined as an excur. coastswhile on the east coastsit is quiet in the summer. sionist". This definition excludes all travellers who in Hence the beach resorts on the west and east coastsof the legal sensedo not enter the country regardlessof South India, Sri Lanka, Malaysiaand so on complement the length of their stay, e.g., air travellers who do not eachother, thus overcomingone of the major problems leave an airport's transit area. This definition was of tourism, the seasonalityfactor, if a country or a adopted by the fIrst United Nations Conference on sub-region is treated as a unit.) There are currently International Travel and Tourismheld in Rome in 1963, more than 40 medium-size beach resort hotels in Sri and in a sensewas a refinementof an earlier definition Lanka and the main motivation of two-thirds of the establishedby the Committee of Statistical Experts of total tourist traffic is a beachholidy and not a tour of the League of Nations in 1937. Most countries, parti- historical cities. The number of nights a tourists stays cularly those which are members of WTO, recognize has increasedfrom 5 to 11. A by-product of selling Sri the value of these definitions but it has not beenalways Lanka as a holiday destination is that most of the possible for them in practice to count tourists and visitors having spent one week in a sea resort travel excursionistsdefined as above. For instancethe United through the island for three of four days and visit Kingdom considers 12 months as the maximum limit ancient cities as well. The moral of this story is that one and the United Statesof America ignoresthe maximum of the main guidelines for tourism planning for a sub. limit altogether. region would be to emphasizethe distinctive qualities rather than similarities of each unit of the sub-region. There are severalreasons for this. First, the usual method of counting the number of visitors by frontier Taking into account the multifaceted character check sometimesbreaks down if the number of visitors of tourism the following aspects may be regarded as is very large, running into millions. This is particularly relevant to the preparation of a tourism master plan so when visitors crossfrontiers by land border, by road for a sub-region: or rail. For instancethe problem of counting accurately (a) Statisticaldata; the large number of visitors who come from Singapore by road over the Strait of Johore into Malaysia and (b) Facilitation; sifting those who come for less than 24 hours and may (c) Inventory of tourist attractions such ashisto- be regarded as excursionists has proved somewhat rical buildings and monuments, folklore, dance, music intractable. Secondly,there are severalareas with high and other cultural and social traditions, wildlife parks, tourist movement where a number of countries by mountain and sea resorts, opportunities for recreation bilateral or multilateral agreementshave abolished and sportsand climatic factors; frontier checks e.g. France, Belgium, the Netherlands

34 and the FederalRepublic of Germany,the Scandinavian ganized by the British Tourist Authority on behalf of community and some of the countries in the Middle WTO in 1975. It is suggestedthat the tourist depart- Fast. In the interest of tourism no travel formality which ments or boards should give high priority to improving can otherwise be done away with shouldbe retained for procedures of data collection and analysis and seek statistical purposes. Thirdly, from the standpoint of technical assistance,if necessary, through United marketing it is more important to know the point of Nations agenciesor organizationsspecializing in data residenceof a visitor rather than his/hernationality. For processing. historical reasonsthere are probablymore than a million personsholding British passportswho are not resident in the United Kingdom and who are not ethnically 2. Facllitation British. A good marketing policy must take into account One of the important characteristicsof the ESCAP market segmentation.In the contemporaryworld every regionis that the majority of tourists come from distant industrialized country has a considerablenumber of countries. The following 15 countries produced nearly foreign residentswho keep on returning to the country 80 per cent of world tourism during the years 1966- of origin: Indians, Pakistanisand West Indians in the 1975: United States of America, Canada, Federal United Kingdom, Turks, Yugoslavsand Italians in the Republic of Germany,United Kingdom, France, Italy, Federal Republic of Germany; people from Algeria, Switzerland,Austria, Belgium,the Netherlands,Sweden, Spain and Portugal in France; and people from many Norway, IRnmark, Japan and Australia. This trend, Asian countries in North America. In terms of nationa- becauseof the high per capitaincome of thesecountries lity, arrival figures can therefore prove somewhatmis- and the freedom to travel allowed by them, is still leading. Fourthly, for purposesof planning,the measure- continuing. Fortunately a healthy though gradualtrend ment of tourism should also include domestic tourism. in favour of intra-regionaltravel also is taking place. Mter all the volume of domestic tourism in most coun- The high level of intra-regionaltravel within the two tries is much larger than that of foreign tourism and blocks .of Europe, Westernand Eastern, has been a a great deal of infrastructure and transport and accom- prominent aspect of travel movement for many years. modation facilities are usable by both. Most of the For inStanceout of approximately 210 million inter- developing countries have not yet started doing this. national travellers in 1974 Europe received153 million Finally, what is more important is not the arrival figures and most of them were intra-regional tourists criss- but the volume and economic value of tourism, which crossing Europe. Only about 12 million Europeans meansthe number of visitors multiplied by the average travelled beyond Europe. In the case of the ESCAP length of stay plus an estimate of expenditure by region, 10 years ago the largest number of visitors tourism. came from the United Statesof America and Western Europe, but sincethen Japanand Australiahave become Contemporary census methods, based on data major contributors. In fact there has been a consistent derived from disembarkationcards or frontier checks, decline, in percentageterms, in the number of visitors cannot provide information on length of stay or receipts from the United Statesof America to the Pacific Area from tourism. The estimatesof tourist receiptsmade by Travel Association(PAT A) region which is more or less the central banks of various countries have generally co-terminous with the ESCAP region. In 1971 the proved inadequate.The more reliable method of measu- number of United Statesvisitors formed 249 per cent rement of volume and receiptswould be by spot checks of the total while in 1975 it had come down to 133 and ~mple surveysprovided they are carried out by per cent. The volume of intra-regionalvisitors increased, experienced market researchersand are made on a however, from 53 per cent to 619 per cent during the continuous basis. No doubt there is a growing cons- same period. In the same way the number and per- ciousnessof the need for reliable data and more coun- centage of visitors within each sub-regionof ESCAP tries are trying to use computersto extract data from have considerablyincreased except in the South Asian embarkation/disembarkation cards, but so far the subcontinent where travel within the sub-regionhas majority of countries compile the data manually re- remainedmore or lessfrozen. sulting in an unacceptably high percentageof error. This has been pointed out by many tourism research Facilitation means relaxation of frontier forma- studies made in recent years.The authors of many such lities as well as removal of travel barriers. A discussion studies have struck a cautionary note on the dataused of travel barriers for political reasonsis outside the by them. However,the national tourism organizations scope of this study but where travel is restricted for of a majority of developingcountries, including those economic reasons experience has shown that such of the ESCAPregion, are not fully equipped to carry restrictions are self-defeating. The rapid means of out reliable sample surveys.Hence, for the time being, communicationand transportation havegenerated the a combination of both methodsperhaps offers the best urge to travel. Hencepeople fmd a way to travel for one solution. Becauseof the data problem it has not been reason or another. Secondly, in the long run, travel possible to make reliable forecasts of the growth of expenditure among countries of a sub-regiontends to tourism either. This was also one of the main conclu- even out. The reasonswhy certain countries continue sions that emerged from a seminaron forecastingor- to allow travel qua travel is not only that someof them

35 can afford to, but also that they believe in freedomto Bhutan or ladakh or the unspoilt and unfrequented travel as a matter of policy. While developingcountries placesin the SouthPacific Islands,it would be a sound can continue to receive tourists from industrialized policy to developtourist facilitiesin the areas. societies even if they do not permit their own citizens to travel, among developingcountries of a sub-region One of the major problemsof world tourism is travel like trade has to be promoted as a two-way that of seasonality. The geographicaland climatic business. The lack of two-way traffic explains why factors usually determine the pattern of demand. For a large country like India has taken 25 years to reach instancethe traditional vacationperiod in Europe and the total of half a million and some other countries North America is July and August and there are far of the sub-regionare still counting the visitor arrivals too many people travelling in these two months. The in five-digit figures. It would be difficult to prepare a Scandinaviancountries are a classic example of the meaningful tourism plan for a sub-region if the plan is seasonalityof tourist traffic: the number of visitors based on attracting visitors from distant marketsalone in the high season,June, July and August,is five to six and freedom to travel within the region is not allowed. times more than the number in the low season,~cem- ber, January and February. The lTnited Kingdom and Austria had the sameproblem for years.It is unremune- rative to create facilities for the high seasonwhich Inventory of tourist attractions suchas historical remain largely unused in the low season. Over the buildings am monuments,foUdore, dance, music years many countries have taken specialsteps to pro- and other cultural am ~cial trooitions, wild.life mote tourist traffic in the off season.The United King- palks, mountain and seare~rts opportunities dom has been outstandingly successfuland can now for recreationand sportsand climatic factors claim practically all-the-year-roundtraffic. It is of courseeasier for metropolitancities like london, Paris, It is presumedthat all the countriesof the ESCAP New York and Chicagoto overcomethe problem of region have madean inventoryof their tourist resources. seasonality;it is far more difficult to do so for resort Most countries of the ESCAPregion are rich in history, areas.The island countries of the Caribbeanare essen- tradition and folklore. They have also great natural tially resorts but someof them have been successfulin assets,mountains, beaches,wild life and so on. They extending the tourist season.Until 15 years ago prac- are also inhabited by interesting and attractive people: tically all hotels in the Bahamasclosed down or main- it should be recognized that the people of a country tained a skeletonstaff for six months in the year, May are often its most interesting feature for a visitor. Yet to October. Now the ratio of visitors in the summerto the ESCAP countries have limited financial resources. those in the winter months is 40:60 and there are as With abundanceof tourist attractions the best policy many visitors in July and August as in the best months would be that of selectivity. The long-haultourist would of Februaryand March. prefer a multi-destination holiday extending to several countries rather than just one country. Consideringthat The proven methods or overcomingthe problem the average duration of stay of holiday tourists, as of seasonalityare to extend what in tourism are called distinct from visitors who may be coming for study or the shoulderperiods and, secondly,to organize special to meet friends and relatives,is two to three weeks,the attractions in the off season.For instance,if the high tourist can at best visit a few placesin eachcountry. It seasonfor beachholidays in Sri Lanka is Novemberto would be a wasteful exerciseto try to developsophisti- March, incentives in the form of promotional fares, cated tourist facilities in a large number of areas.The discounts on accommodationand meals, rebates on determining factor in following a policy of selectivity shoppingprices etc., should be offered for the shoulder should not only be the climate and natural sceneryor periodsof Septemberand Octoberand April and May so the historical importance of a place,but the possibility that the seasonis extendedfrom Septemberto May -to of providing (a) the necessaryinfrastructure and utilities eight or nine months. There canbe severalimaginative at a cost which is not inordinately high and (b) suitable forms of incentives.For instancein the Caribbeanmany accommodationand manpowerfor services. hotels offer free accommodationfor two extra nights provided the visitor pays for six nights. A gimmick The process of selection must also take into which proved a great successwas advertizedunder the accountthe marketability of a resort or an area.Market- slogan"Pack a Partner". What it meant was that during ability would largely depend upon the demandpattern: the shoulder period hotels would charge for single what would attract tourists, what are their needs?It is occupancy (European Plan) for two personsstaying a not suggestedthat if the wants of visitors are of a type minimum of six nights. Another proven method of which are likely to offend the susceptibilitiesof local promoting tourism in the off seasonis to offer special people they must be met for the sakeof tourism. For rates for conventions and conferences. Festivals of instance, if casinos or massageparlours are considered music, dance,drama, golf and tennis tournamentsetc., undesirable because of local social traditions then arrangedin the major developmentsin attracting visitors tourism is not a good enough justification for estab. to Europe in the winter seasonis the phenomenal lishing them. If there is a demand, however, for ad- growth of winter sports. Next to the great tourist venture tourism or beachholidays in remote areaslike movementtowards "sun, sand and sea" has been the

36

3. movementto mountainresorts which offer sophisticated Indonesia culture, dance forms, facilities for winter sports. There are as many, if not Borobudur, Bali and unique more,tourists visiting the mountainresorts in the Swiss, handicrafts Austrian, French and Bavarian Alps in the winter months as in the summermonths which usedto be the (b) South Asia; high season. Pakistan Mohenjodaro and Harappa, folklore, Moslem monuments However, since the climate of the entire area and way of life extending from Sri Lanka to Philippinesis more or less uniformly hot and humid the problem of seasonalityassumes India Great monuments like the Taj a different character. Tourist traffic to this Mahal and Fatehpur Sikri, region is high in the winter seasonnot becauseof the Hindu temples, erotic sculp- local weather but because that is the seasonwhen tures, rock-cut temples of Europeansand North Americanswant to get awayfrom Ellora, and Ajanta, elephants, the severe winter of their own countries. The main Buddhist shrines, Kashmir problem; therefore, is to build up traffic in the summer Valley, wild life, classical and months. In this matter the interest of foreign tour folk dances operators who want to promote year-roundtraffic and Un spoilt scenery, quaintness, of the destination countries are identical. Many coun-tries panoramic view of the Hima- of this region are adopting the proven methods layan peaks, Hindu way of life of attracting traffic in the off seasonbut generally Sri lanka Sea beaches, mediaval cities, speaking not enough has been done in this direction. Kandy Perahera and interest- Planningon a sub-regionalbasis provides a better oppor- tunity for dealing with the problemof seasonalitythan ing people planning for individual countries. Bhutan Breathtaking landscape, Bud- dhist monasteries, throwback to earlier ageand novelty hi planning sub-regionaldevelopment, the flfst step would be to preparean inventory of tourist attrac- Bangladesh Beautiful countryside, poetry tions of the sub-regionas a whole and classifythem by and folklore. type, by their outstanding features,historical, architec- The objective of emphasizingthe uniquenessof ture and sculpture, religion and cultural interest, scenic attractions of eachunit is to persuadevisitors to prolong beauty, wild life, remotenessand novelty, recreation their stay, resulting in a higher volume of tourism for and sport. The next stepwould be to assessthe market- the sub-regionas a whole. However, in view of the ability of each type in terms of the demand pattern. common historical and cultural pattern of each sub- Having completed these preliminaries it would be region some overlap is inevitable. Secondly, it is not necessaryto consult with all the related interests of intended that a sub-regionalplan should fetter the the sub-region: governments,carriers, hoteliers, travel initiative of each country in divising new forms of agenciesetc., in order to achieveconsensus on certain attractions and entertainmentor in developingfacilities matters such as (a) that it is easierto "sell" a sub-region for domestictourists. The aim shouldbe to have a sort than individual units or countries, (b) that to avoid of rolling plan which can be reviewedperiodically and wastageand to make the maximum use of resources, which is sufficiently flexible to meet the needs of each area should aim at developingdifferent types of elasticity of demand. International tourism is highly attractions, attractions that have an element of uni- dynamic, characterizedby continuous change in the queness and which each area is best equipped for. demand pattern. A tourism master plan must aim at Perhapsa good way of illustrating this concept would both short-termand perspectiveplanning. be to apply it to two groupsof countries in the ESCAP region: (a) Thailand, Malaysia,Singapore and hidonesia, The example provided by low air fares on the and (b) Pakistan, hidia, Nepal, Bangladesh,Sri Lanka North Atlantic route, by comparison,underlines the and Bhutan. lack of excursionand promotional fares in the ESCAP region. First, there are not many excursionfares avail- (a) SoutheastAsia: able on scheduledcarriers from the main tourist gene- Thailand: ]Buddhist temples, cultural rating points in areas like Europe, North America, shows, handicrafts and "fun" Australia and Japanto destinationpoints in South Asia, tourism SoutheastAsia and East Asia. Secondly,there are not enough flights available within each sub-region. It is Malaysia Seabeaches, beautiful country-side true that this insufficiency is to someextent due to lack and the way of life of apluralisticof demand, which is another way of saying that thereare society not enough intra-subregionalor inter-subregionaltourist Shoppingand services-what movements.There are severalreasons for this: Singapore calls "Instant Asia" first the low per capita incomes, secondly,restrictions

37JavaneseNepalSingapore .on travel describedunder section 2 above,and thirdly, Tourism organizations are genuinely concerned lack of motivation to visit neighbouring countries. about the preservationof nature, environment and When Indian, Sri unkan, Thai or Malaysiancitizens folklore. They have an abidinginterest in tourism assets; want a holiday they like to go to the "more sophis- once they arelost they cannotbe restoredeasily. That is ticated" countries. Their preferenceis for the Western why most of the tourist organizationsat the national world, for the "fleshpots" of the metropolitan cities and international levelshave startedgiving considerable of Europe and America and not for countries nearby. attention to the relationshipbetween tourism and the environment. As mentioned earlier this is one of the Another aspect which has seldombeen discussed main concernsof the ~velopment Authority of PATA. is the almost total absenceof cruise holidays in the This aspectis also receivingcontinuous attention in the ESCAP region. Unlike Europe and the Americas a technical studies sponsoredby wrO. Consideringthe majority of countries of the ESCAP region do not size of the countries, tourism has not grown to such constitute a land mass. They are divided by sea.There proportions in any part of ESCAPregion as to have should be ideal opportunities for running cruisesamong been the main causeof pollution. Most of the damage fudonesia, Singapore,Malaysia, Sri lanka, fudia and has resulted from the growth of population and some- so on. There can be short cuise holidays of one week what unplanned industrial development.The rivers and as well as longer holidays of three to four weeks. But lakesof fudia have beenpolluted by industrialeffluents almost all cruise shipsare concentrated in the Can"bbean and its forests have been denuded and wild life des- or the Mediterranean.There has been a phenomenal troyed by local contractors and poachers.The ~me is increasein cruise-holidaytraffic but it has more or less perhapstrue of severalother countries of the region. bypassed the ESCAP region. Any sub-regionalor re- The preparation of a sub-regional master plan should gional tourism planning should take into accountthe not only ensure planned growth but make positive possibility of developingcruise tourism. recommendationsfor the protection of nature from h1 the long run one cannot beat the market. The local vandalism.Tourism would then be a catalyst for demand has to be stimulated to make tourism infra- the promotion of folklore and handicraftsand preserva- structure and other facilities like hotels, transportation tion of wide life. etc. sufficiently remunerative. Within the framework of national and sub-regionaleconomies there has to be S. Manpower development-training programmes justification on the basis of viability for expending Adequate services to the tourist can only be given resourceson tourism development. by professionally trained staff. Hence the need for establishing institutions for the training of staff for 4. Social,cultural and environmentaleffects hotels, restaurants, travel agencies,carriers and national tourist offices. There is also need for imparting training During the past few years there has been con. at various levels. It has to be recognized that, consider- sirable criticism of the effects of tourism on the ecology ing the growing demand for trained personnel, the of destination areas. For instance,the rapid depletion training programmes currently available in the ESCAP of wild life in Kenya has been attributed to the large region are woefully inadequate. It is a common pheno- influx of tourists and five yearsago alarmsignals against menon that every time a new hotel opens in a large city big game hunting by tourists were given in India, when it tends to steal the experienced staff of existing hotels. a new census revealed that the tiger population had Only a few hotels or hotel chains in the region are decreasedfrom 50,000 to 2,000. Tourists are generally organizing regular programmes for the training of their accused of spreading pollution in the Mediterranean and the Caribbeanresorts. Tourists are also blamed for own staff. Secondly, while most members of ESCAP have set up one or more training institutions for hotel disrupting the traditional social and cultural patterns of native societies in the Caribbeanand the Pacific crafts and management there are only a few institutions training in general tourism services in the entire region. islands. The recent initiative of the Philippines Government in h1 fact defectiveplanning because of inexperience setting up an institute for training in tourism in the or lack of forethought can spoil ~ny resort regardless near future, which will serve regional needs as well, of the volume of traffic it receives.There are similar should be welcomed. A few universities in India, and exampleson some of the seabeaches in Sri Lanka, at presumably in some other countries of the region, have Pattaya in Thailand, in Bali and at Torremolinasand established or are planning to set up faculties or depart- Costa Brava in Spain. Hence earlier in this study an ments for diploma courses in tourism. Thirdly, and interdisciplinary approach has been recommended.A perhaps the most important snag is the dearth of qualified interdisciplinary team for the preparationof trainers. Qualified teaching staff for even the existing a master plan and a feasibility study for the assessment institutions is not available. That is why PAT A Develop- of its economic viability should normally consist of ment Authority has started its training scheme by experts in town planning, architecture, econometrics/ holding short courses called "Train the trainer". Two market research,hotel operationsand possibly recrea. such courses were held in India and Sri Lanka last year tional facilities. and two more have been planned for this in Southeast

~R Asia. Many promising young personshave had training tions to gross national product; tax revenue,mainly in hotel managementand tourism schools in Europe, indirect, on goods and servicessold to tourists; and the United Statesof America and Canada.But as has employment, direct or induced,generated by enterprises happenedin other fields many of them have taken up providingservices to tourists. jobs overseasand their talent and experiencehave been lost to their native countries. Even those who have In recent years however there has been serious returned have found lucrative jobs in hotels and other questioningas to whether investmentin tourism is the segmentsof the tourist industry becausethe salaries best possiblemeans of deriving thesebenefits. In other that hotel managementschools can offer are rather words it has to be eStablishedby comparativeanalysis meagre. lastly, professionalism is achieved by ex. that the same benefits cannot be derived from other perience. In many countries of the region the staff in types of industries or enterprisesat a lessercosts. An the national tourist organizationsbelong to the general investment of $USI ,000 in agriculture and certain administrative servicesof the country and as such are groups of manufacturingindustries may produce more subject to transfers to other departments.lack ofcon. employmentthan a similar investmentin a hotel project. tinuity meanslack of professionalism.Such staff have However,what is more important for purposesof plan- no Stake in tourism as a profession. Governmentand ning is to adopt measureswhich would maximizeeco- the industry have to fmd a way to overcomethese nomic benefitsfrom tourism. problems becausemanpower developmentis a sinequa It is univer~lly recognizedthat packagetourism non for the developmentof tourism. has proved to be an important meansof reducing the However, training programmesat national and costs and thereby increasingtourist flows. In fact it sub-regionallevels cannot be delinked. The lower cate- has changedthe entire picture of world tourism. But gory staff for the restaurant,kitchen and bakery, for for the concept of inclusive tours of various types it reception and housekeepingservices etc. have to be would have been difficult to fill up the additional provided opportunities for training within eachcountry. capacity created by wide-bodiedaircrafts. Yet package h would be generallyimpractical to arrangeprogrammes tourists al~ result in considerableleakages. One of the for such staff on a sub-regionalbasis. Training institu- most comprehensivestudies of the economicimpact of tions at the sub-regionallevel therefore should be at tourism on developing countries, published by the supervisoryand managementlevels. Perhapsat a later International Union of Official Travel Organizations stage exchange programmes for the non-supervisory (IUOTO) in early 1975, lists these leakages under staff can be arrangedas is alreadybeing done by certain three heads: first, those arising from the structure hotel groups in the region. If this is acceptedthe fIrst and control of distribution; secondly, from revenue step both at the national and sub-regionallevels, would distortion, and thirdly, from foreign investments in be to estimate the manpower requirements,country- tourist infrastructure and facilities in the receiving wise, (a) for the hospitality industry, (b) for the rest of countries.The third in a senseis legitimate becausebut the travel industry including national tourist organiza- for foreign investments many tourist projects in de- tions, travel agencies,guides, front line staffs of airlines veloping countries with limited re~urces would not and transport operatorsetc. This is quite an elaborate havegot off the ground. task. Such an assessmenthas to be basedon the condi- The complaints under the first head are that tions of employment obtaining in eachcountry, and on tour programmesare often aimed at attracting low- forecastsof growth rates in the next 5 to 10 years. It spendingtourists contrary to the policies of developing would have to take into account the need for training countries. Since the distribution is controlled by ope- existing employees by means of in-servicetraining as rators in generatingcountries local tourist enterprises well asthe requirementsof training new staff. The next are used only for hotel accommodation,transfers and step would be to determinethe location of sub-regional excursions. Consequentlythe earningsof local enter- institutions. There can of coursebe more than one such prises offering a variety of attractions are reduced. institution in a sub-region,but to avoid duplication it The control of a very high proportion of ~les by only may be agreed that each institute specializesin a parti- a few organizationsin the generatingcountries results cular field. For inStancefor SoutheastAsia there could in influencing demand and weakening the negotiating be, say, one institute in Singapore for management power of the receiving countries. The main concern services, another one in Bangkok for training for of the tour operator is to sell packagetours and the national tourist offices and travel agenciesand a third promotion they undertake is gearedto this aim. Con- one in Kuala Lumpur for the training of chefs. The sequently destinations which have already established sameprocess of specializationcould be repeatedamong themselvesare largely sold. Only a few tour operators the countries of South Asia, like Sri lanka, India and have the pioneering spirit of promoting new destina~ Pakistan. tions. In other words there is need for greater com- 6. Economic aspects mitment on the part of tourist enterprisesin originating countries for promoting less remunerativedestinations, The economic benefits of tourism are by now which in the long run will help the over-all growth of fairly well established:foreign exchangereceipts; addi- tourism. There is yet another aspectof packagetours

39 which in many casesworks against maximization of alone cannot provide the year-round traffic nor pro- earnings from tourism for tourist receiving countries. duce sufficient volume. The package tourists, parti- Since the payment for packagetours is made in the cularly large groups coming by charters spend less per generatingcountry, even for servicesrendered for most day and their modus operandi results in high leakages, part in the receivingcountry, paymentsfor suchservices but because of their longer duration of stay their per are sometimesretained in the originating countries with capita expenditure is quite considerable. In the caseof the connivance of local enterprises. It amounts to Sri Lanka, because of charter groups, the averagelength establishinga sort of barter system and essentiallyis of stay has increased from five nights to 11 nights and not different from the unethical practices of over- so per capita expenditure has also increased. India has pricing imports and underpricingexports. not encouraged or promoted charters or holiday traffic Basically there are three main components of because of the preponderance of cultural tourists and inclusive tours: (a) air fare, (b) hotel and passenger special interest groups: groups interested in history and transport in the destination country, (c) tour operator's culture, in wild life or visiting out of the way places like overheads including commissions and profits. The ladakh. Tourism in India has retained a distinctive IUOTO study analysedthe distortions of revenueunder quality. Singapore, by contrast, has followed the policy these three heads in respect of a number of typical of mass tourism at bargain prices. packagetours lasting from one to three weeks. From Keeping in view the conditions prevailing in the this analysis one could draw the following broad con- various sub-regions of ESCAP it would be sound policy clusions: to aim at a "mix" of different types of visitors: inclusive (a) If the carrier belongs to a foreign country tour groups by charters or scheduled services, conven- but the hotel and transport servicesare owned by tion groups, special interest tourists, students, ethnic local enterprises,the destinationcountry would receive visitors and so on. on the average40-45 per cent of the inclusive tour The economic argument in justification of such a retail price paid by the tourist at the point of origin; policy would be that if a country can earn the same amount from 100,000 high spending visitors as it can (b) If the carrier and the hotel in which package from a "mix" of 200,000 of which the majority are low tourists are staying belong to a foreign country the spenders why not go for the first alternative. The greater leakage would be as high as 75-78 per cent. In other the number of visitors the higher will be the outlay by words the destination country will receive 22-25 per the receiving country on airport facilities, communica- cent of the retail price paid for the inclusive tour at tions, transport services, hotels and other forms of the originatingpoints; infrastructure. The cost benefit analysis may reveal (c) If the carrier, the hotel and all the services that a policy of limited growth of "class" rather than given to the packagetourists belongto the destination mass tourism is more advantageous. However, no set country the leakagemay be 20-25 per cent. However, formula can be prescribed for all sub-regionsbecause the the first type of situation where the carrier belongsto character of each sub-region may be different from that a foreign enterprise seemsto obtain more commonly of any other. The South Asian sub-region is more in the ESCAP region. Besidesthe above three com- compact than East Asia or the scattered countries of ponents the tourist spends money on shopping, on Australasia. As already explained an important factor some recreationor on entertainmentwh.ich do not form affecting the volume and character of tourism is that a part of the inclusivetour and other sundryitems. of freedom to travel within the sub-region. The intra- A sub-regionalplan, more than a national plan, subregional tourists would be comparatively low offers better opportunities for reducingthe leakagesand spenders and yet highly desirable for cultural and distortions of revenue. A group of countries are likely political reasons. to be in a better position to negotiate advantageous Marketingand planning essentiallyreflect the two terms with foreign tour operators than individual coun- basic facets of tourism -demand and supply. The tries. They would also have collectively more resources processof planning cannot start until there is consensus to be able to provide accommodation,services and among the governmentsand the related interested of possibly their own charters. Th_esuccess of such a the sub-region on the concepts and policies to be stiategy would depend upon the willingness of the followed by the sub-regionas a whole or by individual oountriesof the sub-regionto co-operatewith eachother countries regarding the growth pattern of tourism. It and act as a community. It may then be possibleto is not necessarythat all the countries of the sub-region pool their resourcesand compete with foreign carriers, should follow the samepolicy. Dependingon the nature tour operatorsand trans-nationalhotel chains. of outstandingattractions of eachcountry, its economic Marl<:etingstrategy resourcesand climatic conditions, it is quite possible that one member of the sub-regionwould like to pro. The marketing strategyof a sub-regionwould be mote low priced tourism and another country may determined largely by the tourism policiesof the govern- follow a selectivepolicy. Once the "Mix" for the sub. ments concerned. The individual tourists and special region has been agreed upon the marketing strategy interest groups are generally high spendersbut they and developmentplan canbe gearedto it.

40

7. THE DEVELOPMENT OF RAILWAYS IN THE USSR*

1. Railway transport in the USSR During the last 10 years, 4,100 electric loco. motives, 6,300 main line and 4,900 shunting diesel Notwithstanding the rapid developmentof motor locomotivehave been newly put in service. vehicles, air transport and petroleum pipelines, the railways are responsiblefor about three.fourths of the Over this period powerful Model VL 10 (5,200 total freight traffic in the USSRand almost half of the KW) eight-axle freight DC electric locomotives and passengertraffic in long-distanceand suburbanpublic Model VL 80 T (6,520 KW) eight-axle freight AC services.In 1977, the country's railways, with a length electric locomotiveshave been widely introduced. The of almost 140,000 kilometres, handled over 3,700 Model VL 11 (7,850 KW) DC electric locomotive million tons of freight for the national economy and allowing the hauling of trains weighing up to 10,000 carried about 3,600 million passengers.The railways tons has been put into serviceon lines with high freight employ 3.7 million people including 2.1 million oc- traffic density. Czechoslovakianelectric locomotives cupied in the main activity of providing transportation for passengertrains (Model CHS2T, 4,510 KW) have services.Today, the USSRrailways is one of the world's effective rheostatbrakes and have reachedspeeds up to major railway systems.It is responsiblefor over 53 per 160 km/h: Electric trains using AC or DC current and cent of the freight traffic and about one-fourth of the having a maximum speedof 130 km/h have been em. passengertraffic of the world's railways with a network ployed for suburban passengerservices. The Model length forming about 11 per cent of the world's figure. ER 200 electric train and the high speedtrain "Russian The USSR railways are distinguishedfor their high level Troika" with locomotive traction were designed for of utilization of their technical equipment and a high speed up to 200 km/h and both are currently being level of labour productivity. For instance,the average tested. The fleet of diesel locomotives is being intensity of traffic per km of track is six to seventimes replenished with Model 2TEI0L and 2TE116 main higher than on the railways of the United Statesand line diesel electric freight locomotives with a power the WesternEuropean countries. of 6,000 hp (in two units), Model TEP60 diesel-electric passengerlocomotives with a power of 3,000 hp, and 2. Developmentsin railway engine~ing also with Models TEM2 and ChMe3 diesel-electric shunting locomotives with a power of 1,200 and 1,350 In the last sixty years, the length of the railway hp, respectively. Several improved types of diesel. network has ahnost doubled to reach about 140 electric passengerlocomotives are being tested. thousand kilometres (figure I and table I). In 1974, construction of one of the longestbroad gaugelines in Four-wheel freight cars are being replaced by the world -the 3,100 kIn Baikal-Amur Railwayline - large-capacity ones, and passengercars with all-steel was begun. It will make a major contribution to the vehicles having a body length of 23.6 metres. The national economyby promoting the accelerateddevelop- deliveryof sixteen-wheelopen-top and tank carshaving ment of the productive forces of the easternregions, a lifting capacity of 125 and 120 tons, respectively, providing a second railway outlet to the Pacific Ocean has beenincreased. The maximum speedof freight cars ports and reducing the length of haul to theseregions has been increasedto 90 km/h and it will be brought by as much as 500 kilometres. A very important stage up to 100 km/h in the next few years.The up-to-date in the development of the country's railways was the passengercars having an improved layout and equipped technical reconstruction on the basis of electrification with heating,air conditioning and air brakescan run at and widespread introduction of diesel traction. Since speedsup to 160 km/h, thus providing an increased 1965 the length of electrified lines has increasedmore reliability in service,an improvedsmoothness of running than seventimes and reached40,000 kilometres, which and high standardof comfort. is 29 per cent of the route length of the railway net- work. The more economicalsystem of electric traction The growth in the traffic volume, greaterlifting using industrial frequency alternating current of 25 KV capacity of cars and increasedspeed of trains made it has been introduced on more than 15,000 kilometres necessaryto considerablyincrease the strength of the of lines. The length of the lines with diesel traction track and improve its design, and also to introduce reached 95,000 km in 1977 and so the total length of highly productive machinesfor track maintenance.At track transferred to progressivetypes of traction is now presentthe main tracks are laid with rails of 50 and 65 96.8 per cent of the route length of the network. kg/m. and, on lines with an especially high freight traffic density, 75 kg/m. Every year about 1,000 kilo- metres of new heavy rails are laid. Usually these rails * This article summarizes the publication "The USSR are thermally hardenedwhich increasestheir servicelife Railfty Transport during 60 years", Ministry of Railway Trans- one-and-a-halftimes on the average.During the last 10 port, USSR, Moscow,1978. years the length of track on reinforced concrete ties

41 i i

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42 ~ Table 1. The railwaysof the USSRand their length introduced by stages.Automatic information control systemshave been introduced to eachrailway and the Ministry of RailwayTransport.

3. Maintrends of raDwaydevelopment in 1976-1980

1. October Leningrad By 1980, the amount of freight and passenger 2. Baltic Riga 6,204 traffic should reach 3,950 billion ton-kilometres and 3. Byeloru~ian Minsk 5,519 360 billion passenger-kilometres respectively. Duringthe 4. Moscow Moscow 9,318 five year period 1976-1980about 3,400 kilometres 5. Gorkov Gorky 5,570 of railwayslines are to be constructed,first of all in the 6. Northern YarosJavl 5,935 region of the North, Siberia and the Far East being 7. South-Western Kiev 4,622 opened up for the rapid developm6ntof the productive 8. Lvov Lvov 4,588 forces of their regions.Construction of the &ikal-Amur 9. Odessa-Kishinev Odessa 5,081 Railwayand the approachesto it will be continued. 10.11. Southern Kharkov 3,673 Dnieper Dnepropetrovsk 3,228 A very important task in the developmentof the 12. Donetz Donetzk 2,865 railway is the acceleratedincrease of the train and 13. North Caucasian Rostov-on-Don 5,567 traffic capacity of the lines along routes with intensive 14. Azerbaidzhan Baku 1,901 freight traffic, and a growth in the handling capacityof 15.16.17.Trans-Caucasian Tbilisi 2,080 classificationand freight yards. Among the effective South-Eastern Voronezh 3,520 measuresfor coping with this task will be the construc- Volga Saratov 4,681 tion of 4,000 kilometres of secondtrack and double- 18. Kuibyshevsk Kuibyshev 4,677 track inserts on routes with the heaviesttraffic and the 19.20. West-Kazakhian Aktjubinsk 3,822 electrification of 4,500 kilometresof railway lines. Tselinna Tselinograd 5,521 21.22.23.24.Alma-Ata Alma-Ata 4,420 Over the last 10 years,locomotive stock has been Central Asian Tashkent 6,223 replenishedby 2,200 electric locomotives,6,400 units of Sverdlovsk Chelyabinsk 5,942 main-line diesel locomotivesand 2,500 shunting diesel South UralWest Cheljabinsk 4,756 locomotives. These locomotives have considerablyin- 25.26.27.28.Siberian Novosibirsk 5,931 creasedtractive power and thus increasethe capacityof East Siberian Irkutsk 5,786 railway transport. Mainline-freight electric locomotives Trans Baikal Chita 3,436 will rate over 10,000 hp, two-unit main-line diesel Far East Khabarovsk 4,675 locomotives up to 8,000 hp, passengerdiesel loco- Total route length 139,587 motives up to 6,000 hp, and shunting diesel loco- motives rating 2,000 hp. The railwaysare to be supplied with 400,000 freight and 16,600 passengercars, and increased more than four times to reach 41,000 km with an appreciably greater number of containers, while the length of continuously welded track increased especially large size ones, than in the precedingfive almost five times to 37,000 km by the end of 1976. year period. The rolling stock of suburban sections electrified using direct current will be replenishedwith The speeding up of scientific and technical pro- improved electric trains having cars 24.5 metres long, gress on the railways has been achieved,to a great a maximumspeed of 130 km/h and regenerativerheostat extent, by the higher rates of introduction of the latest brakes. automation, remote control, communicationand com- puter equipment. A centralized traffic control system Track strength will be increasedfirst of all by and electrical signal boxes of the block type are being laying heavyrails of types P 75 and P 65 and increasing extensively introduced on the railways. Four-aspect the production of fully-hardend rails. Furthermore, automatic block signalling is being used on suburban the length of track with reinforced concrete sleepers sections with intensive train traffic. To organize high- will be increasedto 64,000 km and of continuous speed traffic at speedsfrom 160 to 200 km/h a system welded track to 60,000 km. of multi-aspect cab signalling has been introduced. About half of the hump marshallingyards have been mechanized,while four of them have beenautomated. It is planned to equip 16,800 kilo metres of rail- In the last ten years the first stageof the development ways with automatic block signalling and centralizedtraffic and introduction of an automated system of railway control, to install train radio communication control has been completed. At Moscow terminal the facilities on all the railways, and construct several automated system "Express" for reservingaccommo- toou~nd kilo metresof cable and radio relay communi- dation and booking tickets for passengertrains is being cation lines.

43

10,046 To improve the handling capacityof classification The main sourceof the increasein the speedand and freight yards it is plannedto mechanize3S humps weight of freight trains lies in the considerablegrowth and to install pneumatic tube systems for handling in the amount of freight carried in block trains which freight documents at 40 yards. Computer systemswill should carry up to 50 per cent the total amount of be introduced or expanded to provide automated freight shippedby 1980. It is also plannedto increase systems of planning accounting, yard control and the amount of freight shipped in containers almost reservationsfor accommodationand tickets. 1.5 times.

44 CONTAINERIZED HAULAGE E ETWEEN EUROPE AND JAPAN AI.DNG mE TRAN~~SmERIAN ROUTE. Throughout the world containerized haulage is Container traffic between Japan and Europe by firmly rooted in transport servicesrendered in industries the Trans-Siberianroute can be classified into three and other spheres of the national economy. Faster categories: delivery of high-capacity containers from Japan to Western Europe and vice versa on a transit basis via (a) Sea -USSR rail -sea, called "TRANSSEA" the Trans-SiberianTrunk Route is now quite popular traffic, which provides transit from Japaneseports, amongmany fIrms outsidethe USSR. Hong Kong and Manila to the Europeanports on the Baltic, Black and MediterraneanSeas and vice versa. Transit container traffic across the USSR was initiated in 1970, but as early as 1971 it has already (b) Sea -USSR rail -Western European rail, acquireda fIrm managerialfoundation. called "TRANSRAIL" traffic, which provides con- tainerized delivery of goods from Japaneseports, Hong It was in 1967 that the idea of a trans-Siberian Kong and Manila to the Sovietborder stations at Brest, land bridge between Europe and the countries of the Chop, Ungeny, Luzhaika, Julfa, Kushka, Termez and Far East was fIrst discussedat a conferenceorganized vice versa. jointly by Sovietand Swissspecialists, and eventhen the (c) Sea -USSR rail -road, called "TRACONS" vast potentialities of so-called "Trans-SiberianRoute" traffic, which provides containerizeddelivery of goods were duly appreciated. from Japaneseports, Hong Kong and Manila to a The fact is that a trans-Siberiancontainer line destinationin Europeand vice versa. offers "door-to-door" delivery of large-capacitycon- It takes 30-35 days to deliver containers b},I tainers via the shortest route connecting Europe and TRANSSEA, 20-25 days by TRANSRAIL and 30-4C Japan. The searoute betweenthe United Kingdom and days by TRACONS. Japan via the PanamaGlnal is as long as 23,200 km, those via the Cape of Good Hope and Suez Glnal are The Nakhodka-Japanline is served by severI 27,000 and 20,700 km respectively,whereas the trans- specializedcontainer ships each carrying from 300 tc) SiberianRoute cuts the distanceto 13,000 km with a 425 TEU containers,one ship carrying 180 TEU con corresponding reduction in transportation time. This tainers servesthe Manila-Nakhodkaline, and two spe explains the stimulus for a significantincrease in transit cialized shipscarrying from 270 to 320 TEU container!il,. traffic of large-capacitycontainers from WesternEurope servethe Hong Kong-Nakhodkaline. to the Far East and back. Thus transit traffic of large- capacitycontainers across the USSRin 1971 amounted Till 1975 the Nakhodka-Japanline employed to 2,314 pieces, including 491 pieces from Western the fleet of the USSR Far EasternShipping Compan) Europe to Japan and 1,923 from Japan to Western exclusively, prior to an agreementwith two JapaneSf Europe, whereas in 1972 such haulagemultiplied at shipping finns, Yamashita Shinnihon and Iino Kaiun least seventimes. At present,two Japanesecarriers serve the line. The vesselsused are designed to provide for Comparedto 1971, the volume of this traffic was umestricted containerloading and unloadingby cranes. 44.5 times as large in 1977 and reached 102,500 con. This goal is reachedby making the holds of vesselsin tainers, including 46,500 from Europe to Japan and the form of a system of cells correspondingin sizeto 56,000 in the reversedirection. that of the containers to be carried. Containersare Transit container haulage service is carried out lowered into thesecells by cranesand stacked one on in the USSRby sea.rail and motor transport. top of the other three to six layers high. This is why large-capacitycontainers are designed to carry the Delivery of containers from the countries of vertical load.ing from containersplaced on them. This WesternEurope to the borders of the USSR is by sea meansthat each-~~ vertical stanchionof a 3D-toncontainer to the ports of Leningrad, Tallin, Riga, Zhdanov, must be able to carry a 904on vertica11oad(the dynamic lljichevsk, by rail to the stations at l.uzhaika, Brest, factor is estimatedat 1.8 in viewof dynamiceffects). Clop. Ungeny, or by road to Vysoko-litovsk. They then ride on the USSR railways to Nakhodka for The containers,after being placed into the holds, transhipment to vessels owned by the Far-Eastern are sealed with steel hatches thus forming a deck SteamshipCompany and are unloaded at suchJapanese flooring for carrying additional containers. As a rule, ports as Kobe, Osaka, Yokohama, Nagoya. Shimizu, two layersare adopted. as well as at Hong Kong and Manila. Container carriers are equipped with powerful .Note by the secretariat. enginesenabling them to reacha speedup to 20 knots.

45 They have a power plant to supply electricity to cold. (b) Gantry craneswith variablespreaders to load store containers. and unload containers from the railway rolling stock; It should be emphasizedthat the most critical (c) Docksidecontainer carriers moving containers link of the trans-Siberiancontainer system is its rail from the pier loading areasand railway track to the portion which coversthree fourths of the total distance. dumpingareas.

It takes longer to deliver containerized cargoes Specialized container terminals have also been in separatewagons as it is extremelydifficuh to control built in the commercial sea ports in Leningrad, Tallin their movement along the trans-SiberianTrunk Une. and Riga.

In view of this, the USS Ministry of Railway Border railway stations have been provided with Transport has decided on haulage by specializedcon- container handling centres equipped with up-to-date tainer trains. handling mechanisms. At present, the Soviet railways carry transit Containerizedfreight traffic from the consigner's containers from Nakhodka (Mys Astaffiev Station) depot to containerterminal port of the sendingcountry in total container trains, composedof specializedrolling is arrangedwith the foreign agentsof SOYUZVNESH- stock supplied with counter-fitting for containers, TRANS, a national servicerun by the USSR Ministry based on specialschedules. Such a train carries100 TEU of ForeignTrade. Theseagents pay the costsof terminal containers. Total container service is offered from operationsincluding delivery of containerson board a Nakhodkato: ship; SOYUZVNESHTRANSpartners aloo arrange for (a) Leningrad with containers destined for the movementof containersfrom the stations located Finland, Scandinaviancountries, Belgium,Great Britain, on the westernborder of the USSR on the railways of Sweden,~nrnark; other Europeancountries and delivery to the consignee's depot at destination. In addition, the agentsarrange for (b) Brest with containers destined for West containerized freight traffic between a port in the Germany,Poland, the Netherlands,France; country of destinationand the consignee'sdepot. Such (c) Chop with containers destined for Hungary, co-operationwith foreign partnersenables the goodsto Czechoslovakia,Austria, Italy, Yugoslavia; be delivered on the trans-Siberiancontainer line on a door-to-doorbasis. (d) Julfa with containersdestined for Iran. In the organizationof freight traffic on the trans- If sufficient containers are available, through Siberian container line, SOYUZVNESHTRANS co- trains are also arranged eastwards from I.eningrad operateswith over 50 charteringand agentcompagnies and Brest. of Japan,Hong Kong, Afghanistan,Iran and the Euro- Through container trains cover 900-},000 km/ pean countries.These companies help in fmding freight day, whereas individual wagons carrying transit con- to be carried, delivering containers to terminals, con. tainersmake only 500-800km/day. signers' and consignees'depots, chartering containers, paymentsetc. The running of specializedcontainer train service made it possible to speed up delivery and improve SOYUZVNESHTRANS co-operates with such servicing. Besides,container haulageby through trains companies based on yearly agreements. As a rule, facilitates control of their movementon Sovietrailways contracts are signed concurmtly with an agent or through use of a computer container tracking system. chartering company in Japan or Hong Kong and its European counterpart. To further improve servicingof container traffic between Japan and WesternEurope acrossthe USSR, Tariffs for container rail traffic on the trans- some important sea terminals (Nakhodka, Leningrad) Siberian line are based on those establishedby the and railway stations (Chop, Mukachevo,Brest, Vysoko- Far East Conference on Freight. fu contrast to the litovsk, Ungeny, etc.) have been fundamentally re- pricing system adopted by the Conferencebased on constructed. classes,the SOYUZVNESHTRANStariffs are classified into 10 major groups for 20- and 40-foot containers, The newly-built container terminals at Nakhodka depending on the TRANSRAIL, TRANSEA or and Vostochny ports equipped with up-to-datehandling TRACONS method of shipment. Each group is asso- equipment serveas the major centresfor handling transit ciated with a list of goodssupplied to a contract. containers.This equipmentincludes: TRANSRAIL payments cover all costs incurred (a) Dockside reloaders of 30-ton capacity with in rail freight traffic from/to franco wagon at the USSR carrying hook and replaceablespreaders designed to border terminals to ports in Japan, Hong Kong and handle 20 to 30-ton containers; replacement of a Manila. spreadertakes from 3 to 5 minutes, including connec- tion of the hydraulic hoses; TRANSSEA payments cover costs of sea trans-

46 portation from/to Europeanports ("free-in/free-out") That is why re-equipmentof the line with up-to- to ports in Japan,Hong Kong and Manila. date technology and facilities, such as specialized through container trains, container ships and a new TRANSCONS payments cover motor haulage port, Vostochny, in Vrangel Bay, is complemented from/to Europeanconsignees' depots to ports in Japan, with an automatic tracking systemdeveloped by spe- Hong Kong and Manila. cialists of the Soviet railways to monitor the where- The tariffs also envisagethe transportation of aboutsof transit containers. mixed freight, empty containers, procedures to be followed in paying SOYUZVNESHTRANSbills, getting The system is based on the existing network of information, document circulation, weight limitations computer centres available at railway administrations and other conditions. and an associatedMinsk-32 computer operating at the Ministry's Head Computer Centre in Moscow. hlitial Despite significantprogress and high growth rates information will be fed into the system from border in trans-Siberian container traffic, it is noteworthy stations and ports by the SOYUZVNESHTRANS that the presentvolume of containerizedtraffic between offices availableat suchplaces, while en route informa- West and East amounts to a mere 10 to 15 per cent tion on rolling stock carrying transit containers will of the total figure -the rest being carried by shipping be supplied as a result of automatic processingof the companies. goodslist in the local computercentres. Containerized freight traffic relies heavily on servicing standardsincluding information on the where. The tracking systemfollowing the movementof abouts of each container at any moment and the ex- transit containers, information to foreign consigners pected time of its arrival at the destination.Availability and consigneeson the exact whereaboutsof any con. of such information contributes to timely elimination tainer, expectedtime of its arrival at the destination - of delays in the movement of containers which may all these will contribute significantly to the competi- otherwiseexceed the fIXed deliverytime. tivenessand efficiency of the trans-Siberianline.

47 II. NEWS ON RECENTDEVELOPMENTS

Air transport in Australia. Non-scheduledservices operated for both pas- sengerand cargo traffic. During the year a number of Domesticaviation passengercharter flights were approvedwhich brought significant numbers of additional overseastourists to Australia's domestic airlines carried 9.4 million Australia. A number of cargo charter flights were ap- passengersduring 1976-1977an increaseof 0.1 per cent over 1975-1976. However,hours flown by the airlines proved during the year under the single e~tity policy bringing in such varied items as computers,television dropped by 5 per cent to 261,345hours. sets,boots and jeans. In 1976,a British charteroperator Provisional figures show that the domestic air- began transporting chilled meat from Perth to Middle lines carried 109,694 metric tons of freight (up 2.5 Eastern destinationsusing a DC8 aircraft lifting forty per cent). Total metric ton kilo metres performed, that tons of meat on eachflight. Increasingcosts threatened is the aggregateof the total mail, passengerand freight to undermine the viability of this operation and con- ton kilo metres,was 769.3 m (up 0.5 per cent). sultations were held by the Departmentof Transport with Qantasand Australian MeatBoard. After a review All domestic airlines were given approval to of the circumStancesthe Minister determined in increasefares and freight rates by 3 per cent on 1 July November 1976 that charter flights lifting full loads 1976. of Australian export meat would be permitted to bring Five domestic airlines (Connair Pty Ltd., Mac it up to six individual consignmentsin place of the Robertson Miller Airline Services,Bush Pilots Airways usual single entity load required by charter policy. Ltd., Civil flying Services Pty lid. Trans-WestAir Continuing rost pressures lead to further in. Clarter Pty lid.) receivedsubsidies totalling $A680,OOO creasesin fares and rates throughout the year. The during 1976-1977,a decreaSefrom $A768,333 in 1975- devaluation of the Australian dollar also led to the 1976. application of a surchargeon air fares and rates in The Civil Aviation Ca"ier's Liability Act 1959 Australian currency. For most countries in the ESCAP region the c~ency surchargeamounted to 10 per cent has been amended to increasethe maximum liability resulting from the death or injury of a passengertra. on passengerfares (with effect from February 1977) while other increasesraised fares a further 5 per cent. veIling on a domestic airline br charter service from Cargorates in the regionalso experienceda 10 per cent $A30,OOOto $A45,OOO. currency surcharge(with effect from February 1977) International aviation with other increasesranging from 4 to 15 per cent for specificroutes or commodityclassifications. During 1976,2.92 m internationalpassengers were uplifted/disembarked, representing a 14.2 per cent A major initiative during the year was the intro- increaseover the previousyear. Half of the total number duction of a markedly new fare structure on the of international passengerstravelled through Sydney Australia -United Kingdom route effective from air port. 1 April 1977. It was designedto reflect more accurately Mail traffic increasedby a moderate 43 per cent in the cost of fares, the economic cost of providing travel at periods of peak demandand of stop overs,to to 7,902 metric tons. Freight handled rose by 15 per encourage consumers to travel at periods of lower cent to 75,943 tons. Sydneyairport dispatched/received demandby pricing travel at thesetimes more attractively 72.2 per cent of the total freight. and to assist airline fleet planning by encouraging Twenty-four international air lines operate sche- passengersto give prior notice of their travel plans. duled international servicesinto and out of Australia. International airlines continue to introduce wide bodied Legislationto increaseair navigationcharges by aircraft to their operationsto Australia. 15 per cent from 1 December1976 also provided for a revised scale of chargesfor scheduledinternational During 1976, bilateral negotiationson air services flights to Australia. The charging principle, endorsed agreementswere conducted with the Federal Republic by ICAO,was that costsincurred by the Commonwealth of Germany, Italy, the Netherlands,Yugoslavia, New in providing and maintaining airways facilities, as dis- Zealandand PapuaNew Guinea. tinct from airport facilities, will be recoveredin pro- portion to distance flown. The revised scale is not * Selected extracts from Australian Trans1XJrt 1976-1977, designed to increasetotal revenue from international annual report of the Australian Department of Transport. flights but to apportion costs more equally between

48 the operators based on their actual use of airways currently being considered include doing nothing, facilities. rearranging operations at existing airports without further runway development, developing Sydney No important charges in entry/departure for- (Kingsford-Smith) Airport by providing additional malities for international air travellerswere promulgated runway capacityor developinga major airport at a new in the past year -those introduced in the previousyear location. relating to vaccinationrequirements and re-entry visas havingworked extremelywell with advantageto arriving Airways engineering and departingpassengers. The Australian-developedInterscan microwave Security landing systemsignal format has beenrecommended for adoption asan internationalstandard. The Department of Transport's Olief Aviation Security Officer has visited elevenfofeign countriesto evaluate the integrity and application of security at As part of the continuing programto relievetraffic airports representingthe last ports of call before entering congestion and expand static free and reliable direct Australia. Through a mutual agreementwith the coun- communication between pilot and the responsible tries concerned,the visits have permitted an exchange ground operator. four additional very high frequency of security information and it is intended to program and one ultra high frequency facility were commis- similarvisits on a regularbasis. sionedduring the year. Passengersearching is an important part of the Significant progress toward full automation of Australian aviation security system.The effectivenessof the Australian Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication passengersearches can be gauged by the number of Network was achievedduring 1976-1977. New auto. potentially dangerous items discoveredduring 1976. matic messageswitching centres were commissioned 1977. at Brisbane and Adelaide extending considerablythe area served by automatic facilities. These has been live amunition in varyingquantities 64 reflected in decreasedmessage transit times. Auto- (number of passengers) mation of the Darwin-PortHedland and Perth Centres Firearms -sporting 34 is plannedin the rearfuture. -handguns 103 Continuing replacement of value-type radio -starting pistols 9 navigation and communication aids by solid state Knives -offensive 25221 equipment has resulted in progressive reduction of Other articlesconsidered offensive their standby Power requirements. Seventeendiesel enginegenerating sets were withdrawn from serviceand Unfortunately, there are still people who in. replaced by small direct current power supplies with convenienceavaiation by making threats to the safety battery standby supply. The use of solar panels as a of aircraft. During 1976.1977threats of bombsor other power ~urce for remote radio aids is being continually explosivestotalled ftfty-three. reviewed. Prices are falling and reliability is rising but ~lar cells are still not a ~lution for any but the smallest installations. A unit has beeninStalled at Ayers Rock to Airports power data recording equipment and an experimental The porous friction coursesapplied to runwaysat unit to power distance measuringequipment is being Brisbane and Sydney Airports in 1975 continue to installed at EssendonAirport for evaluation. A proto- perform well and provide improved texture, drainage type ~lar cell powered marine light beaconhas been and runway visibility under wet conditions. developedand is presentlyundergoing field tests. Two "Jetport" vacuumatic sweeperswere de- livered during the year, for Sydneyand Perth Airports. Australia's "last link" paved These sophisticated machinesare capable of cleaning airport pavements at high speed and are important (World Highways,Vol. 28, No.8, August 1977) operational safetyitems of aerodromeplant. To the asphaltpaving crews sealing the last section A Committee of Commonwealthand State Offi- of graved highway on the desolate Nullarbor Plain of cials was set up in October 1976 to review the likely South Australia, it was probably just another routine future regularpublic air transport needsof Sydneyand day. But as the dusty surface of the Eyre Highway to recommend a suitable strategy for airport develop- disappearedunder the newly applied blacktop, a con. ment over the next twenty-five years. The Committee tinent was bridged. For the first time, in September is to take account of economic, financial, social,tech- 1976, it becamepossible to drive acrossAustralia from nical, operational, environmental and land use factors Cairnsto Port Hedlandon pavedhighways -a distance as well as community attitudes. The main options of almost 9,920 miles (15,961 kilometres).

49 Completion of the Eyre highway, which stretches the Port of Bangkok. The expresswaywill have six from Port Augusta in South Australia to Perth in lanes and be elevated on a viaduct for much of its WesternAustralia, will improve communicationsbet- length. Railings on the elevatedsections will be made ween WesternAustralia and the EasternStates, and will of prestressedconcrete for economyand easeof main- open up industry and tourism in between. tenance and will provide a sound barrier as well as a safetyrailing. Exactly 100 years ago the east and west coasts of the continent were fIrst linked by the Overland Oosed circuit television cameras will monitor Telegraph line. h1 the last years of the nineteenth the entire expresswaysystem which will be.illuminated century the discovery of gold in Western Australia at night with high intensity sodium lights throughout. stirred some interest in the region, and a little traffic Traffic detectors at the entry ramps will report traffic braved the crossing, mainly using the camel tracks conditions to be control centre where controllers can formed when the telegraph line was built. In 1917, adjust traffic signals and variable-messagesigns the Trans-Australia Railroad was opened, but until accordingly. the outbreak of the SecondWorld War,the road system consistedof only cattle trails westof Penong. The toll fee for cars on the an Daeng -Port Expresswaywill be 5 baht ($USO.25)and 10 Baht As late as the 1950s only a few vehiclescrossed for trucks. The cost of this segmentis estimated at the plains each day. But in 1962 the Commonwealth $US80 million while the entire expresswaysystem Games in Perth attracted many visitors and traffic will cost $US229 million. Thai authorities estimate flowed along the highway at a rate of more than 30 that the expresswaysystem will benefit the economy vehicles a day. By 1968 this had risen to 120 vehicles of Greater Bangkokby $US29.3 million annually when a day throughout the year reaching a peak of 330 a it is opened and by $US41 million annually by 1990. day during ~cember. The Governmentsof South Australia and Western 37.9 million vehicles are expected to use the expresswaysystem in 1980 and this number will in. Australia, recognizing the hjghway's potential for industry, tourism and national defense decided to go creaseto 79.2 million in 1990. ahead with a project to have it sealed. Mter many The expresswaysystem will reduce the number problems such as unsuitable soils, limited gravel, lack of trucks and passengercars now using Bangkok city of water, long supply lines and isolated living con. streetsto passthrough the city on their way to other ditions the work \WS fInally completed in September areas of Thailand, and al9:>reduce commuting traffic 1976. on existing roads. It will also provide faster and more convenient accessto the Port area, with subsequent High-speedtoll road to ea~ traffic congestion reduction in transportationcosts. in Bangkok

(World Highways,Volume 28, No.2, August 1977) Induli:ry and tourism in the Republicof Korea According to many published reports, the world's spurredby expresswayprogranune worst traffic congestion problem can be found in Bangkok, Thailand. Whether this claim is justified or (World Highways,Volume 28, No.9, September1977) not, the problem is not only continuous but also ex- A concurrent program of completing the paving pensive. A study by the Thai Governmentestimates of 8,000 kilometres (4,970 miles) of gravel surfaced that about $US50 million is incurred in economic national highways and the construction of 128 kilo- losses caused by transportation problems and traffic metres (80 miles) of new expresswaysmarks the be- congestioneach year. ginning of the Republic of Korea's fourth Five-Year EconomicDevelopment Plan. Greater Bangkok has grown rapidly without planning and control of the city's limd use.The popula- The plan, to be implemented between 1977 tion increasedfrom 2 million in 1954 to 4 million in and 1981, calls for the investmentof $US739 million 1972 and is expected to double againby 1990. Trans- on all levels of national, industrial and local roads, portation problems are compounded by a housing maintenanceand bridges. shortageand inadequatepublic facilities. By 1981, the Governmentexpects to have 1,270 The problem will be greatly easedwith the com- kilometres (790 miles)of expresswaysand high standard pletion of a 27 kilometre (16.7 mile) expresswaysystem national highways forming the nation's trunk highway linking the major highways from the north, the south network. The Five-Year Plan puts emphasison the and the east, and reducing the amount of through national highwaysbecause they carry the major portion traffic using the crowded Bangkok street network. of the nation's road traffic. Provincial and local roads Work was started in July 1977 on the first stage, a will be improved following work on the national high- 9 kilometre (5.6 mile) toll road from Din Daeng to ways, but probably also within this five year period.

50 In 1966, the country's road network included Pakistan Railways prepares for a new fIVe-year only 1,934 kilometres (1,200 miles) of pavedhighway. investment plan In the next 10 years the length of paved highways rose to 10,000 kilo metres (6,213 miles), much of (International Railway Journal, January 1978) which was represented by several new expressways. PakistanRailways has drawn up a five-year de- The four-lane divided tool road between Seoul and velopmentplan which would cost $US807.4million to Inchon was built in 1968 and has cut the driVingtime implement. This total includes a foreign exchange between the two cities from one hour to 18 minutes. componentof $US484.5million. A two-yearmoderni- -.Also a toll facility, the 428 kilometre (266 miles) zation project involving investmentof $US2019 million Seoul.Pu~n Expresswaycan be travelled in 5 hours. to improve Pakistan Railways' operating efficiency is included within the plan.

Other toll roads constructed between 1970 and The developmentplan calls for construction of 1975 include de Daejon -Jeonju Highway,the Singal 750 new passengercoaches at the Railway Carriage -Weonju Highway,the Eonyang -tnsan Highwayand Factory, Islamabad and reconditioning of 60 diesel the Jeonju -Pusan Highway. electric locomotives and 25 diesel railcars in Pakistan Railways workshops. One hundred and thirty-three new diesellocomotives will be imported; 1,207 km of A new toll road between Daegu and Masanis track will be renewed and new concrete sleeperswill due to open in early 1978. The 84.5 kilometre (52 be provided over 1,600 km of track. The existing tele. mile) highway will cost $US489 million and will spur communications system will be replaced by a micro- the economic developmentof the southeasternsection wave system. The electrified line between Lahore and of the Republic of Korea. Khanewalwill be extendedfrom Khanewalto Samasatta involving electrification of 90 km of single track and 27 km of double track at a cost of $US17.2 million. Two studies are now under way to increasethe It is expected that by the end of 1982.1983 Pakistan highway capacity of two vital transportation corridors Railways will be handling 12,928 million metric ton-km in the southeast.The first corridor connectsPusan, the of freight and 15,446 million passenger-kmcompared Republic's principal port and secondlargest city, with with 8,874 million ton.km and 12,816 million passenger. the industrial port city of Masan,while the second km in 1975-1976. links Gyongjuand Pohang. Modernization of the telecommunications and signalling system is to cost $US37.5 million. The main The Pusan -Masan corridor passesthrough one line from Karachi to Rawalpindi will be covered by a of the Republic's most rapidly developingareas. Pusan microwave "back bone" system with three spurs to has a population of 2.5 million which is expected to Quetta, Muttan and Lahore, replacing the present double by the year 2,000, while Masannow has400,000 overhead system. In addition, small capacity UHF people. A new industrial city is being developedfrom radio spurs will be provided to remote stations on the farmland and is expected to add another 300,000 same routes for operational and control purposes. The people to the corridor's population. To cope with the system will also provide VHF radio equipment for influx the Suncheon-Pusan Highway will be widened 200 base stations, 500 locomotives, 100 railway motor from two to four lanes in the areaand a new limited - vehicles and 200 railway personnel. VHF communica- accesshighway built to servethe Gimhas mternational tion will be used to activate axle counters at station Airport and the port of Pusan. This will involve the signals for automatic block signalling between conStructionof a 1,524 meter (5,000 foot) bridge over Hyderabad and Lodhran and for tokenless block signal- the NagdonRiver, to the westof Pusan. ling between lodhran and Wazinabad. Implementation of the scheme is expected to help increase Pakistan Railways' freight carrying capacity by 10 per cent and The cities of Gyeonju and Pohang are also ex- passengercarrying capacity by 5 per cent -increasing periencing phenomenalgrowth, but for very different railway earnings by about $US20.2 million a year. reasons.Gyeongyu, for a thousand yearsthe metropolis of the Silla Dynasty, is being developed as an inter- The two-year modernization project to improve national cultural and tourist centre. Pohangis the site operational efficiency consists mainly of track rehabili- of the country's largeststeel mill, with an annualoutput tation, manufacture of passenger coaches, providing of 10 million tons forecast by 1980. The discoveryof new engines for ageing diesel locomotives, acquisition on under the city is expectedto double the population of marshalling yard equipment, provision of telecom- of 150,000 in the next 8 years. The first stage of de. munications, bridge and other civil engineering works, velopment for the Gyeongju -Pohang corridor is ex- improved repair facilities and provision of rolling stock. pected to include the widening from two to four lanes Work is already in progress on a rail connection to of the 25 knometre (15.5 mile) highway betweenthe Islamabad and complete track renewal between Karachi two cities. and Lahore and between Lalamusa and Peshawar will

51 be undertaken. Pakistan Railway is to use more con- The test car is the samewidth but half the length crete sleepers to reduce dependenceon imported and, at 10 tons, about one third the weight of the ve. wooden sleepers. Existing factories at Jhelum and hicle to go into practical use. It is magneticallylevitated Sukkur are to be modernisedand expandedand four to an effective height of 10 cm by superconductive new factories are to be built. Two hundred and twenty induced repulsion,propelled by ground primary linear lower class passengercoaches, each with a seating synchronousmotors on both sidesand guided by null. capacity of 88, will be built by 1978-1979 and 40 flux system.A cycloconverteris employed as a variable locomotiveswill be re-engined. frequency, variable power machenism for the linear synchronousmotor. Ollcutta's rapid transit system The test car ran on the 4.2 kIn of the test track (Internationa.z Rail\l.rzY Journal, January 1978) with considerablyless noise and vibration than a con. ventional railway car. JNR is convinced that the ma- Trial runs on Calcutta's $US256 million new gnetic levitation car representsthe next generationin rapid transit systemcould begin early in 1981 if cons- urban and suburbantransport with higher speedsand truction continues on schedule. Revenueoperations lower levelsof environmentalpollution. are not expected to begin until 1983, after thorough testing of all the equipment. The test track will be expendedto 7 kilometres in 1979 and running tests up to 500 km/h will be Orders have been placed for eight prototype conducted. It is envisagedthat another test track of air-cooled transit cars. Each will have seating for 40 40 km will be constructed within a few years to carry and standing room for 400 passengers.Ballastless out the various detailed tests necessarybefore the track will be used for the first time in India. magnetic levitation car canbe put into practicalopera- The system was originally estimated to cost tion. Once, testing has been completed JNR imagines $USI43.4 but delays -caused mainly by the need that it will be possibleto operatethis systemto provide to arrange substantial traffic diversions to allow for one hour trips on the 500 km journey betweenTokyo cut and cover construction -resulted in the project and Osaka. being hit by inflation. To speed up work now would require heavy expenditure on imported machinery International Transport Exhibition (IIIV A '79") and equipment -defeating the object of using, as far Humburg, Federal Republic of Germany - as possible, indigenous technology. But Soviet equip- 8 June -1 July 1979 ment to cut two tunnels, each 244 m long, at Chitpur The IV A '79 in Hamburg will be the largestand is to be deliveredby mid.1978. most significant event of its kind in the world for The new underground rail system will operate developmentsin traffic and transportation. with 144 cars in its initial phasecarrying 60,000 com- Suppliers from at least 16 countries (including muters an hour. At peaks, trains will operate at two the United States, Japan,the Republic of Korea and minute headways. With a maximum speed of 80 km most of the Europeancountries) will be representedin per hour journey time betweenDum Dum and Tollygunj Hamburg with their products. Also the German Federal (17.5 km) should not be more than 34 minutes, with Railways and Federal Postal System are taking part halts at all stations. with comprehensivedisplays. Some 2,000 metres of Air will be taken into the metro systemthrough rail track are being laid in the exhibition area to enable ventilation shafts which incorporate air cooling and various national railway companiesand national and conditioning equipment. Air intake shafts will be close international manufacturersof rolling stock to display to stations and air expulsionshafts will be sited between their latest equipment in the field of rail transportation. stations. The Hamburg h1ternationalAirport, Fuhlsbuttel, will also play an important role as part of the exhibition More than 2,000 labourers are now engagedon area will be devotedto air and spacecraft vehiclesand cut-and-coverwork in the city. their suppliers.

Running test of the Levitation Railway Carby This exhibition will provide an over-all picture JapaneseNational Railway (JNR)* of the worldwide developmentof traffic systemsand routes as well as answersto questions on safety and The magnetic levitation car ML 500 of the Japa- information on the present state of traffic research. nese National Railways achievedthe maximum speed In particular, problemsrelating to co-operationbetween of 337 km/h -the highest speed ever recordedby an the production industries and the various modes of electric land-transport action vehicle -on the test transportation ("transport chain") will be of special tracks in Miyazaki District of Japan on 7 July 1978. interest for the visitors from allover the world.

Transportationexperts from the FederalRepublic Note by the secretariat. of Germany and abroad will take the opportunity

52 offered by the exhl"bitionto meet in Hamburgin more A group of high-rankingrailway officials from the than 20 official meetings dealing with questions of ESCAP region who will participate at the ESCAP modem goods and passengertransportation and up-to- seminar-cum-studytour in the Federal Republic of date communication systems. One of the most im- Germanywill joint the Congressof ModernRail Vehicle portant conferenceswill be the meeting of the Inter- Engineering.The visit of this group will give the coun- national Union of Railways(UIC) but the programmeof tries of the ESCAPregion the opportunity to showtheir this exhibition will alsoinclude meetingsof: activities in developing national railway systemsin an open ESCAPmeeting to be held on 15 July 1979. (a) World Congress of the Airport Operators Council International(AOCI); The exhibition is being sponsoredby the Govern- ment of the FederalRepublic of Germanyand the City (b) The German Automobile Association with of Hamburg under the patronageof the Presidentof "Medical Questions in the Field of Trans- the FederalRepublic, Mr. WalterSheel. portation" asthe theme; (c) GermanAero Qub; Further information canbe obtainedfrom: (d) Association of Town and country Planners; HamburgMesse (e) Association of German Railway Managers; und CongressGmbH N A '79 (f) The Federal Association of German Inland P.O. Box 302360 WaterwayShipping. D-2000 Hamburg36.

53 III. CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN TRANSPORT COORDINATION PROGRAMMES AND POLICIES IN MEMBER COUNTRIES OF THE ESCAP REGION

TRANSPORT CO-ORDINATIONPOUCIES The original restriction on road transport com- IN NEW ZEALAND* petition with rail was introduced in 1936 a~inst a backgroundof economic depression,and over-capacity Introduction in the road transport industry. The rule stipulated at that time that where there was 30 miles or more of In the last issue readerswere informed of New railway between the stations nearest to origin and Zealand'spolicies directed towards transport co-ordina- destination,then goods had to be carried by rail. The tion. Sincethat article was written in mid.l976, several 30 mile, restriction was extended to 40 miles in 1961. advanceshave beenmade in implementingthese policies. A number of commodities and routes however were This article seeksto bring the reader up to date with exempted, especially perishable goods, livestock and recent developmentsin transport in NewZealand. householdremoval.

In December1971, the New ZealandGovernment The Transport Policy Study by Wilbur Smith and invited a team of American consultants,Wilbur Smith Associates in 1973 had concluded that over-all transport and Associates,in conjunction with local consultants, costs in New Zealand were higher than necessarybecause to undertake a comprehensive review of transport for some transport tasks, rail wasless suitable and more policy in New Zealand. Their report submitted late costly than road transport. Early in 1976 the Govern- in 1973, wasrequired to provide - ment mounted an extensive exercise to investigate ""..an appropriately phased seriesof measures means by which the restrictions on road/rail competition to co-ordinate the use and developmentof the might be relaxed. These investigations resulted in an various modes of transport in New Zealand, so announcement in the 1977 budget that the 40 mile that resourcesdevoted to transport are used in (64 kilometre) limit would be extended to 150 kilo- the most efficient manner." metres. Comprehensive investigations were undertaken into This measuremeans transport users now have a transport pricing, entry into the industry, regulatory free choice between the two modes up to 150 kilo. measuresand investment, fiscal and subsidy policies metres. In particular this opensto road haulagea num- as well as the inter-relationshipsbetween these policy ber of major transport corridors betweenthe main cities areas. and nearby regional centres. This move is consistent with the Government's1975 manifesto statementthat; In many ways, the New ZealandTransport Policy " the TRANSPORT USER must be given a Study carried out by Wilbur Smith and Associates,remains a cornerstone of New Zealand's transport choice of mode in order to use that which pro. policy, particularly in the areaof economicregulation. videsmost economicaland efficient." Its conclusions have influenced recommendationsin By relaxing the limit on road/rail competition, it a number of subsequentGovernment reports and have was obvious that a greater number of heavy motor provided a basisin recentyears for certain major changes vehicles would be making greater use of the nation's in transport policy. Someof these changesare outlined roading network. For this reason, the investigation in this article. initiated in 1976 into the issueof road/rail competition also included an exerciseon heavy motor vehicle taxa- Road-rail competition aoo heavymotor vehicle taxation tion. One of the aimsof this exercisewas to complement any relaxation of the road/rail limit by some restruc- Regulation of road freight transport was intro- turing of heavy motor vehicle taxation to ensure that duced in 1931 to curb unrestricted competition which the costs imposed on the roading network by the addi- was undermining the viability of the road transport tional heavy traffic were adequatelymet. The Govern- industry as a whole. Operatorswere licensedand their ment was also concernedto put roading finance on a operations restricted to defined areas at rates and more assuredbasis and at the sametime to put roading charges set by the then Commissionerof Transport, taxation on a more economicbasis. the permanent head of New Zealand's former Road Transport~partment. In the 1977 budget the Governmentannounced its proposalsto restructureheavy motor vehicle taxation and to introduce a new system of taxation based on .Contn"buted by the Government of New Zealand. taxes known as"road usercharges".

54 _The Government was aware that the previous transport. The new Urban Transport Council will pro- system of taxation had evolved over a long period, vide the Governmentwith advice on national policies largely as the result of ad hoc decisionswhich had been for the developmentof urban transport and it will have quite arbitrary in economic terms. The result was a the responsibility for co-ordinating central government system of unrelated revenue collecting measures.The involvementin urban transport. It will be the channel aim in restructuring the system was to develop road for assistance,both fInancial and advisory, to urban taxation as an instrument of transport policy and to public passengertransport. Under these arrangements, ensurethat eachtype of vehiclewas taxed more directly central government's financial contribution to urban accordingto the costsit imposedon the roadingsystem. transport authorities will be based on comprehensive In essence,the new systemwas designedto introduce plansand programmes. the conceptof "userpays" to roadingfinance. As an interim measure, the Government has The new road user charge, which came into operation on 1 April 1978 is calculated accordingto - compensated for the delays in investment in urban public passengertransport by bringing in a five year .the weight of the vehicle programme,estimated to cost $50 million, to replace .its payload busesaged 15 yearsold and over owned by local autho- rities in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dune- .the distanceit travels on the road din. Similarly, New ZealandRailways suburbanpassen- and .the types and numbers of axles and their ger rolling stock was in poor condition, and a replace- spacing. ment programmespread over four yearshas begun. All vehicles except trailers and petrol-driven A new subsidy for urban bus operatorshas also vehiclesunder 3.5 metric tons must pay the newcharges. been introduced, which will cost $2.25 million in the The old mileage tax which had beenimposed in diesel 1977/78 fInancial year. The subsidy is in four parts: driven vehicles on the basisof a declaredmileage has The fIrst is distributed to all operators on the basisof been abolished, petrol tax of 9.7 cents per litre will be passengerkilo metres run on scheduledurban services. refunded in full to all petrol driven vehicles over 35 The second goes to all those operators not included tons, and the heavy traffic fee has been abolished. in the bus replacementprogramme, on the basis of This means that the road user chargeis now the only the number of buses required to service peak period paymentmade by heavymotor vehicles. demand. The third part goes to all operators on the As part of the heavy motor vehicle taxation basis of bus kilometres run on night and weekend package announced during 1977, sales tax on these services. The fourth part of the scheme provides a vehicles was reduced by 10 per cent to 30 per cent supplementary subsidy of up to $1 for $1 to local on 1 April 1978, and will go on reducing at a rate of authorities assistingoperations other than their own. 10 per cent a year until it reachesa level of 10 per Both of these interim measureswill be incor- cent in total on 1 April 1980. porated into the financial arrangementsfor the Urban Transport Councilon its establishment. Urban transport A study completed by the Governmentin 1977 Road &lfety aoo traffic research showed that there were major problems with all aspects The injuries and loss of life sustained on New of urban transport -in its organization, operation, Zealand roads continue to be of major concern to finance and environment. In particular, investmentin the Government. It was disappointing to those con- urban public passengertransport had been delayed, cerned with traffic safety to note a substantialincrease and responsibilities for the organization and finance in fatalities in 1977. In 1976 the lowest casualtytotal of urban transportwere fragmented. for 8 years was achieved.There were 18,504 casualties later in 1977, againin its budget,the Government that year and 609 fatalities. In 1977 fatalities rose to announced long term plans to provide a co-ordinated 707, although total casualtiesare expected to be less strucutre within which these problemscould be tackled. than 19,000 when fmal fJguresbecomeavailable. In the fiVe main urban areas -Auckland, Hamilton, Public reaction to this situation has been strong Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin -urban trans- and there have been extensive demands for remedial port authorities will be established.These authorities action. Current efforts are aimed at lesseningthe impact will have responsibility for over-all planning and pro- on fatality figures of three problemareas. gramming for urban transport, for designatednational roads and for all public transport servicesin their area The fttst of these is the problem of alcohol and except railways. The existing body at the rational the drinking driver. The governmentis proposing to level, the Urban Public PassengerTransport Council, introduce tougher legislation including increasedfmes, will be reconstituted so that it will be involved with evidential breath testing, greaterrestrictions on limited all aspectsof urban transport, not just public passenger licences and hard hitting ~ublicity and enforcement

55 campaigns.There is also a proposal for an investigation announced on 19 December1977 that it had decided into rehabilitation programmes for drinking drivers. in principle to merge Air New Zealandand the National Airways Corporation. This decision provided for the The second area is seat-beltuse. Various recom- constitution of the new airline as a limited liability mendations have been made to make seat belt usage companyto be named"Air New Zealand". more effective in reducing personalinjury. Compulsory fitting of inertia-reel type belts in front seatsand lap The Head Office of the companyhas beenestab. belts in the back seatsof new carsis being considered. lished in Auckland while the presenttechnical bases at It is also planned to lower the age for compulsoryuse Christchurch and Auckland are to be maintained. The of seat-beltsfrom 15 to 8 years. separateidentity of Safe Air limited a subsidiaryof National Airways' and an air freight carrier, is to be The third major area of concern is the young continued with its own independent headquarters. driver category. The high accident involvement of the 15-19 year age group continues to worry the Govern- The potential benefitsincluded a further move in ment and the Ministry of Transport. A reviewof driver the direction of the Government'spledge to co-ordinate training and licensing procedures has been initiated transport in order to provide transport users with the which it is hoped will lead to an accidentreduction for most efficient and economicservices possible. Substan- this vulnerableage group. tial &ivingsand increasedopportunities for the genera- tion of additional revenuesare involved. The financial Many other issuesare also under investigationand benefit is estimated to reach more than $10 million the Ministry of Transport continuously monitors over- per annum in the longerterm. With a singleairline the seas developments with a view to implementing any opportunities for tailoring servicesto suit the needs ideas which appear likely to reduce accidents. The of all travellers are increased. Government continues to support researchefforts in traffic safety and the importance of such researchis recognised as being in the long term interest of road TransportAdvisory Council safety. The Road Traffic Safety ResearchCouncil which hasjust completed its fourth year of operation, is the As was pointed out in the previous article the chief agencyresponsible for co-ordination of research. Transport Advisory Council, set up under the Ministry Under its aegisa wide range of traffic safety research of TransportAct, provides a common meeting ground is in progress. for the relevant Government Departments and the transportmodes and users. An important study is the accident exposure study which is designedto provide knowledgeof the Early this year the Chairmanof the Council, who total mileagetravelled by drivers of various agegroups. is also the Minister of Transport,proposed an in-depth This information will be valuablein assessingthe relative study of the transport industry. This proposalenvisages accident involvement of drivers or different agesand a wide-ranging and systematic review exerciseof the sexes, and will assistthe Government in establishing transport situation in the principal modal and user the need for changesin licensing agesand testing pro. groups of the transport sector and will highlight the redures. key issues,problems and needsof the sector. It is intended the review of the transport industry Amalgamationof Air New Zealandand will be carried out by the industry itself, through its NationalAirways Corporation representationon the Council. During 1946 and 1947 a new domestic airline, The recommendedcompletion date of the review New Zealand National Airways Corporation, absorbed will be early 1979 and will include practical recommen- all then existing scheduledcommercial services in New dations to achievetransport sectordevelopments which Zealand.The corporation addedto the fleet of aircraft can be put forward to the Government and referred and was able to commence new services. Air New back into the industry for consideration. Zealandwas created in 1965 after the purchaseof the Australian share of the two countries' combinedinter- national airline, TasmanEmpire Airways limited. Both Conclusion NAC and Air New Zealand, the international airline, haveexpanded greatly since their inauguration. Transport policy in New Zealand, as in every other country of the world, is constantly evolving as On the 13 September 1977 the Government we face new demandson the sector and new techno- stated it was to investigate the feasibility of merging logies. This article gives a brief sketchof somecurrent the international and the domestic airlines to form a developments in the New Zealand Transport scene. single aviation entity for New Zealand. Following an The New Zealand Governmentwould be pleasedto investigation carried out by a steering committee re- provide readerswith further information on the topics presentingthe Ministry of Transport, Air New Zealand, discussedin this paper and on further developments and National Airways Corporation, the Government as they come to hand.

56 STRATEGY FOR CO-ORDINATED TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT IN BANGLADESH.

Introduction aoo backgrouoo (e) Transport operators in both private and public sectors should be treated at par and should be Developmentof a co-ordinated transport system allowed to chargeat least the marginaloperating costs. ensuring optimal utilization of the various modes of If this is not possible then the Government, not the transport as they exist, is essentialin the developing operator,should bear the loss. countries, particularly to avoid wastage of resources which are scarceand havehigh opportunity cost. (f) Transport operators should be allowed to discontinue operations along uneconomic routes. If With this general strategy in mind, the Govern. the Government decides, from oocial and/or political ment of Bangladeshimmediately after the liberation considerations,that certain uneconomic servicesare war initiated a study called "Bangladesh Transport essential then the Government should subsidize the Survey (BTS)" in 1972. This study was undertakenby operators. the Economist Intelligence Unit Ltd., london (EIU) in close collaboration with the BangladeshPlanning (g) Assembly of transport equipment should Commissionand the Ministries and agenciesconcerned. start within the country with provision for progressive The outcome of this study was presentedin the form manufacturingat a later stage. of BangladeshTransport Survey (BTS) reports in 1974 (h) In view of fmancial and other constraints which has 22 volumes in 11 parts. The report is now efforts should be concentrated on a small number of being updated by the Transport Survey Sectionof the high priority projects/schemesat the one time so that BangladeshPlanning Commissionwith active collabora- benefits can be obtained with the least possible delay tion/assistanceof the Ministries and Agenciesconcerned rather than distributing limited reoourcesover too and with advisory servicesfrom EIU, fmanced by the manyprojects and thus delayingany results. British OverseasDevelopment Ministry (ODM). The fIrst phaseof the report wasalmost ready for circulation (i) For effective future planning, facilities for by middle of May 1978 and it contains recommenda- the collection of information on inventoriesof facilities, tions for investmentin transport sector up to the year traffic volume, performancelevels and costs should be 1980. strengthened. Some of the specific steps recommended are now The strategy outlined below mode by mode. The Government is Many of the recommendationsof the 1974 BTS already in the processof implementing many of these study were still found to be valid subject to slight recommendationswhile others are under active con- modifications. The updated BTS study undertaken sideration. by the Transport Survey Section has highlighted cer. tain general principles to be followed to ensure co- Air transport ordinated developmentof the transport sector: (a) Work on essentialitems relating to the opera- (a) Consolidate assets and facilities already tion of Kurmitola International Airport should be possessedand further improve their operational/mana- completed on priority so that Kurmitola can be opened gerial efficiency and performance. to traffic by early 1979 and the presentTejgaon Airport canbe graduallyclosed to civiliantraffic. (b) Improve (and, if necessary,augment) the repair and maintenance facilities and ensure higher (b) Construction work at SaidpurAirport should productivity of existing facilities. be completed as soon aspossible to servethe economic and socialneeds of the northerndistricts. (c) There should be no further expansion of transport fleets until the existing rolling stock is pro- (c) A thorough examinationshould be made of perly maintainedand optimally utilized. any proposals to open up new air-links b~fore a firm decisionis made. (d) There should be no further extension of route mileage or infrastructural facilities until the (d) The present fare structure on domestic proper maintenanceand optimal utilization of existing routes is far below marginal operating costs and the facilities is ensured. lossesare being cross-subsidizedby earningson inter- national routes. This practice, however, distorts the * Note by the secretariat. position of air transport vis-a-visother inland transport

57 modes. The BangladeshBiman should (be allowed to) (f) Discontinue operations on some of the revise the fare structure to make it in line with at least uneconomical lines, and if the operations are to be the marginaloperating costs. continued becauseof political, social or any other reasons, the Government should reimburse the loss (e) BangladeshBiman should further augmentits incurred by the railway. repair and maintenancefacilities to be better able to utilize existing assets. (g) Start assemblingwagons and coacheswithin the country with provisions for progressivemanufac- (f) The training facilities for BangladeshBirnan turing at a later stage. officials/staff should be drastically improved to put it on an adequatefooting to survive among tough inter- (h) Improve passengeramenities in both trains nationalcompetition. and stations by ensuring proper lighting, supply of water, cleanliness,safety etc. (i) The railway may be allowed to acquire Railways some main line locomotivesand shunting locomotives to improve further utilization of wagons and coaches. (a) No further increase in the route mileage should be allowed during the period up to 1980 and Roadsand h~hways and road transport maybe up to 1985. (a) Reduce the number of schemesbeing taken (b) BangladeshRailway should consolidate the up for implementation through annual development assets and facilities it already possessesand further programmesand spreadresources on a smallernumber improve the operational and managerialefficiency and of schemes,00 that these can be executed within a performancethrough: reaoonabletime period to get an adequate return on (i) Improvementof the repair and maintenance investment. facilities and ensuring higher productivity (b) Complete, according to priority, those of the existing facilities; schemesin which sufficient funds have already been (ii) Improvement in the utilization/turn-round sunk and which could be completedwithin the shortest of engines/wagons/coachesetc.; possibletime through investmentof nominal amounts. (iii) Giving priority to operations on long dis- (c) Ensure proper maintenanceof the existing tance routes and alsoto goodstrains; trunk road system and, where traffic justifies it, up- (iv) Introduction of unit trains/expresstrains gradecertain sections. for goodswherever feasible; (d) Improve quality control in road construction (v) Further improve/simplify the handling faci- by organizing regional mobile field laboratories and lities and procedures at the terminals to 00 give better field test facilities. To make this effective, avoid delayswhich involve cost; the Road Researchlaboratory (RRL) should be re- (vi) Improvement of the signalling and tele- organized by bringing togetherthe rksign and Planning communicationfacilities for ensuringhigher Wings of the Roads and Highways rkpartment with that of RRL and then renamingthis "Test, rksign and operationalperformance; Inspection Wing" of the Roads and Highways Depart- (vii) Introduction of vacuum braking system in ment. Someincentive measures may have to be provided at least 30 per cent of the wagonsto im- to attract talented engineersinto this wing. prove speedand safety; (e) Complete, accordingto priority, oomeof the (viii) Further strengtheningtracks (involving re- smallerbridges on major highways. placement of rails, sleepers, ballast etc.) and bridges on certain sections which are (t) Further improve ferry servicesat important old and weak and which restrict speed. locations such as Meghna and Meghna-Gumti river crossingsby introducing improved ferries and increasing (c) Treat railway as a commercial organization the numberof approachlanes on eachbank. and not to ask it to provide subsidiesto certain traffic or organizations such as postal traffic, relief traffic and (g) Further improve ferry serviceson the river defencetraffic. Jamunaand if possibleopen one or two other crossing points at locations such as Sirajganj-Jagannathganjor (d) Railway fares and freight chargesshould be related to at least the marginal operating costs so that Tistamukghat. the railway is at par with other competing modes of (h) The BangladeshRoad Transport Corporation transportincluding the private sector. (BRTC) should further improve its operational and managerialefficiency and performancethrough: (e) Further improve the ticket checking system and so reducethe percentageof ticket-lesstravel which (i) Improvement of repair and maintenance is as high as30 per cent in certainroutes. facilities; and ensuring higher productivity

58 of the existing workshop facilities to reduce Transportco-ordination and implementation the number of off.the-road buses/trucks; Transport co-ordination is made effective at (ii) Improvement in the utilization of existing two stages: (a) investment stageand (b) operational assets; stage. (iii) Further strengthening of the "incentive As the investmentis controlled/regulatedthrough system" already in use to improve the annual developmentprogrammes (ADP), the Planning productivity of operating Staff and to Commission(through the Transport Section) plays an reducerevenue leakage. important role in ensuring co-ordinated development (i) Treat BRTC asa commercialorganization and of variouscompeting modes and implementationof the allow it to chargefares related to at least the marginal recommendationsof various studies,such as BTS and operatingcosts. Rural TransportStudies. (j) Allow private road transportoperators to play For strict implementationand monitoring of the their proper role by placing them at par with Govern. progress of implementation of developmentprojects ment.owned road transport corporation (BRTC) in all included in ADP, the Project Inlplementation Bureau respects. (PIB) plays a very effective role. It hasthe status of a division under the Ministry of Planning. PIB works as the secretariatfor the quarterly reviewmeetings with water transport the various Ministries/Agenciesto take account of the (a) Improve handling facilities at the inland progressof implementation of different development ports/terminalsthrough introduction of semi-mechanical projects. These review meetings help in resolving the handling facilities and improving packaging,palletiza- various problems that hamper smooth implementation tion etc. and are chaired sometimesby the Presidentof Bangla- deshor by a seniorMinister of by the Minister-in-Charge (b) Provide lighting facilities at the inland ports of Planning. to introduce night operations including loading and At the operational stage, the co-ordination is unloading. effected at two levels: (c) Improve navigational aids and markings (a) At the ministerial level, through monthly along major waterways/routesto allow night navigation. meetings of the National Co-ordination Committee (d) Provide searchlights on all major inland water headed by the most senior Minister in the field of transportvessels to facilitate movementat night. communications (normally by the Minister in-charge (e) Improve communication facilities between of the Railway, Roadsand Highwaysand Road Trans- vesselsand from vesselsto inland ports to facilitate port Division)where policies are decided,and propermonitoring of the movements. (b) At the executing level, through weekly meetingsof the Executive Committeeof the National (f) Treat the BangladeshInland Water Transport Transport Co-ordination Committee, headed by the Corporation (BIWTC) as a commercialorganization and most senior secretaryin the Ministry of Communica- not ask it to subsidizecertain traffic such as foodgrain, tions (normally the Secretaryin-<:harge of Railways, defencetraffic and relief traffic. Roads and Highways and Road Transport Division). (g) Further improve operational efficiency of the existing fleets through accelerated turn-rounds Concludingremalks rather than going for investments on new acquisition As the transportation survey/studies,referred to of newvessels for BIWTC. above, were undertaken by the BangladeshPlanning (h) Replace old vessels,if required, by vessels Commission in close collaboration and with active of new and improved designsas outlined in the supple- participation, at both the supervisingand working level, mentaryBTS report. of the Ministries/Agenciesconcerned, the implications of the various recommendationsare already known to (i) Strengthen survey and conservancyactivities those Ministries/Agencies.As they were parties to the of Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority whole transportation survey/study,and as the recom- (BIWTA) and ensure proper maintenanceof the major mendationsare based on the generalfmdings and natural BIWTA routes through regular and timely dredging, conclusions drawn from the viewpoints of technical to keep thesepassable throughout the year. and socio~conomic considerations, the Ministries/ G) Ensure collection of such statistics/data on Agenciesare under general obligation to accept and a regular basis as are required for proper planning of implement them. The trend of implementation in this the fleet acquisitionof BIWTC. connexionis alsoencouraging. In certain cases,political considerationsmay, however, outweigh economic and (k) Improve and simplify the accounting and other considerationsand the possibility of suchhappen- financial systemof the BIWTC. ings,from time to time, cannotbe ruled out.

59 ln1and IV. DOCUMENTATION

Recenttransport publications Bonsall etal, Urban Transportation Planning: Current Themes and Future Prospects, [Tunbridge Wells R.W. Faulks, Principles of Transport, [Shepperton, (UK), 1977, Abacus Press], pp. 386, £15.80. Middlesex (UK) 1977, second edition, Ian Allan Ud.] , pp. 220, £4.50. Peat, Marwick, Mitchell and Co., Initial Report on Minimum Levels of Service for Rural Public Transport and Road ResearchLaboratory, Management Transport, [1977, prepared for the National Bus of Urban Freight Movements,[Crowthorne (UK), Company (United Kingdom)], pp. 124, £6.50. 1977, Transportand Road Researchlaboratory] , pp. 141, Proceedingsof a seminar, TRRL SR 309. Hong Kong Transport Department, Public Transport in Wang Tau Hom and Lok Fu, (1977, Hong P.R. Martin and RJ. Tunbridge,Optimigztion of Public Kong Transport Department, Researchand De. Transport in Small Towns, [Crowthorne (UK), ve1opmentSection), pp. 24. 1977, Transport and Road Researchlaboratory] , pp. 42, TRRL LR 791. G.D. Jacobsand I.A. Sayer, Study of Road Accidents in SelectedUrban Areas in DevelopingCountries, R. Cresswell(ed), Passenger1ransport and the Environ- [1977, Crowthorne (UK) Transport and Road ment: the Integration- of Public Passenger1rans- ResearchLaboratory] , pp. 14, TRRL LR775. port with the Urban Environment, (London, 1977, uonard Hill -International Text book Co. Kingdom Department of the Environment, Ud.),pp.299,£11.00. Study of Some Methods of Traffic Restraint: Transportation ResearchBoard, Freight Transportation Summary Report (London, 1976, Department of the Environment, ResearchReport No. 15), OIaracteristics(Washington, 1976, Transportation ResearchBoard), Transportation ResearchRecord pp.20. No. 591, pp. 50, £2.69. Croney,Design and Performanceof Road Pavements, (london, 1977, HMSO for the Departmentof the M.E. uvine, Alternatives to Regulation: Competition Environment. Transport and Road Research in Air Transportation and the Aviation Act of 1975, (Pasadena, 1976, California Institute of Laboratory),pp. 673, £15.00. Technology),pp. 32. United States Department of Transportation, Mass J.W.S. Brancker, lATA and What it Does,(uyden, Transit Developmentfor Small Urban Areas: A 1977,A.W. Sijthoft) , pp. 257. CaseStudy Tompkins Country, New York, Second Year Final Report, (Washington, 1976, United T. Rallis, Intercity Jransport: Engineeringand Planning, States Department of Transportation, Office of (1977, MacmillanPress), pp. 240, £12.00. the Secretary, Office of University Research), I.S. Jones, Urban TransportAppraisal (1977, Macmillan pp. 321. Press),pp.160, £7.95/£2.95. Transport and Road ResearchLaboratory, Symposium Button, The Economics of Urban 1ransport, on Unconventional Bus Services, (Crowthorne [Faraborough(UK), 1977, SaxonHouse Teakfield (UK) 1977, Transport and Road Researchlabo- Ltd..],pp.181.£8.50. . ratory] .pp. 43, TRRL SR336.

60

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