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Chapter 2 The Push to Nationhood Is Invaded

Time: 31 May 1866 Battle at Ridgeway The march on toward Ridgeway. The Place: Niagara Falls, Canada West countryside is in terror. Canadian fighters Event: Invasion of Canada by Irish American who meet them are inexperienced volunteers. soldiers known as Fenians. They are no match for the experienced soldiers, fresh from fighting in the American Night of 31 May Civil War. In a battle at Ridgeway, six Cana- In the dark of night, about 800 Fenian soldiers dians are killed and 30 wounded. cross the from the United Fortunately, British soldiers arrive from States. They are part of a other parts of the colony. The Fenians are determined to strike at Britain by invading counting on their own reinforcements from . Their goal is to free Buffalo, but none arrive. After a few days, the Ireland, their homeland, from British control. invasion is turned back. If their invasion is successful, Canada will become “New Ireland.” Predicting The Fenian soldiers catch Canadian 1. What effect do you think the threat of forces off guard. The town of Fort Erie falls invasion would have on people living in without a fight. The Fenian flag is raised over British North America in the 1860s? How the town. The Fenian commander orders tele- would you react if you were living in graph lines cut and railway tracks torn up. Canada at the time? When they hear of the invasion, Canadian 2. Do you think the colony was prepared to generals rush troops to the area. deal with an invasion? Why or why not?

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Factors Leading to The had nothing to do Confederation with Canada or Britain. But wars have a habit The Fenian raids were only one of many issues of affecting many countries. Britain appeared facing the British North American colonies in to support the Southern states. The South was the 1860s. It was an unsettling time. The idea of a great producer of cotton and British textile Confederation had been put forward, but there factories depended on this supply of cotton. were still many obstacles to overcome. What Britain’s support of the South did not make would make the colonies determined to unite? Britain popular with the Northern states. In the 1860s, five major problems provided the Canada became involved in the tensions in final push. 1864. A group of Southern soldiers raided the village of St. Albans in Vermont, a Northern 1. The Threat of an American state. They robbed banks, set houses on fire, Takeover and then dashed across the border into Canada From 1861 to 1865, the Americans fought a to escape. The Northern states saw this inci- bloody civil war. A civil war is a war between dent as evidence that Canada was hostile to the people who live in the same country. In the Northern cause. American Civil War, the Northern states were When the North won the Civil War in 1865, fighting the Southern states. The issue was Canadians really began to worry. They won- whether North and South should remain united dered whether the North would now turn its or whether the South would separate. vast armies against them. Would the North attack Canada as a way of getting revenge on Britain? At the same time, a number of American newspapers and politicians had been talking about the takeover of Canada. Many Americans believed in Manifest Destiny. That is, they believed it was natural that the would one day control all of North America. Before long, would the whole continent belong to the United States?

People in the British North American colonies took the threat of an American takeover very seriously. Thousands of citizens volun- teered for military training and joined a militia force. By 1870, the militia numbered over 30 000.This photo shows the volunteer regiment of Elora, in 1862. 017-030 120820 11/1/04 12:57 PM Page 19

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THE THREAT OF AN AMERICAN TAKEOVER— PRESSURE POINTS ON BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 1866–67

ALASKA (formerly Russian territory)

Pressure Point In 1867, the United States purchases Alaska NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES from the Russians. Would the US begin to look at the empty plains of the North- West Territories next? NE Hudson Bay W FO U Pacific BRITISH N COLUMBIA D Ocean LA N D Victoria RUPERT'S LAND ST EA A D RED RIVER A N PEI SETTLEMENT A CANADA WEST C Québec Pressure Point Ottawa Montréal Kingston The discovery of gold in Pressure Point brings thousands of American settlers, railways, Americans into that and trade are steadily colony. When the pressing in on the Red Pressure Point Americans buy Alaska River Settlement. Fenian soldiers plan an in 1867, British invasion of British North Columbia is hemmed America from the US. in to the north and They make raids on south by the United Canada West, Canada States. East, and New Brunswick. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA The US government is slow to stop them.

Atlantic Ocean

Pressure Point Tensions are high between British and Americans. During the American Civil War, a ship from the Northern States stops N the British vessel Trent and takes two Southerners prisoner. The British 0 250 500 750 km government says the Northern States had no right to stop a British vessel and demands an apology. The Northern States are also angry at Britain for supplying armed ships to the South during the Civil War. Will the Northern States try to get back at Britain by attacking British North America? 017-030 120820 11/1/04 12:57 PM Page 20

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Civics & Black Settlers and Society the Underground Railroad

lavery had been abolished in Underground Railroad. This Sthe in 1834. “railroad” was not a real rail- Anti-slavery laws had been road. It was the name given to introduced in Upper the network of safe houses and Canada as early as 1793. people who helped escaped Deep in our history of struggle for But slavery was still in slaves from the US come to freedom, Canada was the North Star. force in the United States Canada. —Martin Luther King, Jr., CBC Massey until 1865. Black fugitives considered Lectures, 1967 Between 1840 and British North America a safe 1860, about 30 000 Black haven. Several Black folk songs slaves from the United States refer to Canada as “the Northern escaped to British North Star” that runaway slaves America by way of the should follow. Well-travelled underground railroad routes ran through Ohio, Pennsylvania, and the New England states. Runaway slaves crossed into Canada at Detroit, Niagara Falls, or Québec. Others sailed across to present-day Ontario. One of the most important settlements was the Elgin Settle- ment near present-day Chatham, Ontario. Descendants of these settlers still live there today. People of colour Slaves travelled mostly at night and hid during the day.The people have a long history in who helped them used railroad terms as code words.The houses British North America. that hid the runaway slaves were called “stations.” The path they followed to Canada was called the “route.” “Conductors” were the people who gave the slaves food, directions, and places to hide. A woman named Harriet Tubman was one of the best-known conductors. 017-030 120820 11/1/04 12:57 PM Page 21

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Mary Ann Shadd was a freeborn woman of colour and a teacher. She moved to Canada West in 1851. In 1852, she pub- lished a pamphlet called Notes on Canada West.This pamphlet advised Blacks to come to Canada from the US. Mary Ann Shadd was also the first woman of colour newspaper publisher in North America. Her newspaper, the Provincial Freeman, spoke out against slavery and was pub- lished in Windsor and Toronto.

I’m on my way to Canada That cold and distant land The dire effects of slavery I can no longer stand— Farewell old master, Don’t come after me. I’m on my way to Canada Where coloured men are free. —A version of the song “The Free Slave” 1. What advice do you think Mary Ann Shadd by American George W. Clark might give Blacks about coming to Canada in her pamphlet? 2. If you were a slave who wanted to escape to A historic plaque in Canada in the mid , how do you think Windsor, Ontario, reads: you would find out about the Underground Railroad? What methods could you use to hide and get across the border? What dan- Here the slave found freedom. Before gers do you think you would face? the United States Civil War 1861-65, 3. Find out more about some other Black set- Windsor was an important terminal of tlers who came to Canada during this the Underground Railroad. Escaping period. How did they get to Canada and from bondage, thousands of fugitive where did they settle? How did their lives slaves from the South—men, women, change after settling in their new community? and children—landing near this spot Here are some web sites to help you get found in Canada friends, freedom, and started: www.ciaccess.com/~jdnewby/ protection under the British flag. heritage/african.htm (African Canadian Heritage Tour) and www.ugrr.org. 017-030 120820 11/1/04 12:57 PM Page 22

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2. The Trouble With Trade markets at the preferred rate. Now they found The British North American colonies enjoyed a themselves in financial trouble. Some angry special position, called a preference, in trading Montréal merchants felt they would be better with Britain. Under the Corn Laws, Britain off breaking away from Britain and joining the allowed wheat and flour from the colonies to United States. enter Britain with a very low tax. On the other Britain’s new free trade policy caused seri- hand, Americans who sent their wheat and ous problems for the economy of the British flour to Britain had to pay a much higher tax. North American colonies. The colonies would Suddenly, in 1846, Britain announced that it have to find new trading partners. The most was putting an end to the trade preference. obvious choice was their rapidly expanding There would be free trade. Britain would neighbour to the south, the United States. allow goods from any country into its markets without a tax. Canadians had invested a great Reciprocity with the US deal of money in trade with Britain. They had In 1854, the British North American colonies built a canal system and flour mills to grind signed a reciprocity agreement with the United American wheat so that it could reach British States. Reciprocity is an agreement to allow trade in certain goods between coun- tries without tariffs (taxes). The TRADE PREFERENCE WITH BRITAIN British North American colonies sent fish, timber, grain, and cattle to US markets. American coal and pork were sent north. Reciprocity did not include GREAT manufactured goods. The treaty was BRITAIN CANADA for a ten-year trial period. After that, WEST FLOUR either side could break the bargain.

WHEAT With the trade preference from Britain, the British North American colonies USA were doing a booming business. Thousands of bushels of grain were shipped from Canadian ports to Britain every year. Canadians could also import BRITAIN ANNOUNCES FREE TRADE, 1846 American wheat, grind it into flour, and ship the flour to England at the pre- ferred rate. But when Britain introduced free trade in 1846, Americans could ship CANADA their own goods directly to Britain at EAST lower cost. CANADA WEST GREAT BRITAIN Cost of shipping one tonne of FLOUR wheat to Liverpool in 1849 WHEAT From Chicago by way USA of Montréal $13.75 From Chicago by way of New York $10.50 017-030 120820 11/1/04 12:57 PM Page 23

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Fast Forward Free Trade Canada had free trade with the United American Free Trade Agreement States from 1854 to 1865. Today we have (NAFTA) with the United States and free trade once again. On 1 January 1989, . This joined North Americans into Canada and the US signed a Free Trade a single trading region from the Yukon to the Agreement (FTA) allowing many goods to cross Yucatan. Canada, Mexico, and the United States the border without tariffs. Some people saw the provided open access to each other’s markets for deal as a key to economic prosperity for Canada. most goods. Free trade agreements are part of a Others warned of a possible American takeover of growing trend today toward globalization—the the Canadian economy. freer exchange of goods and services across inter- On 1 January 1994, Canada entered the North national borders around the world.

Strange as it may seem, there was very lit- tle trading among the British North American colonies themselves. When they did exchange RECIPROCITY WITH THE goods with one another, they always charged UNITED STATES, 1854 high tariffs. When wheat was sent from Canada into the United States, it crossed tax-free into that foreign country. But when wheat was shipped to New Brunswick or Nova Scotia, it was taxed! During the 1860s, the colonies began to

worry that the United States might end the fish reciprocity agreement. Americans were saying timbergrain they were losing money by allowing British cattle North American goods into their country tax- free. Americans were growing hostile toward the colonies. They were upset because of the pork coal British support of the South during the Civil flour War. In 1865, the United States announced that cotton wool it intended to end the Reciprocity Treaty. The British North American colonies were thrown into a panic. The only solution seemed to be free trade among the colonies them- selves. If the colonies were united, it would be easy and logical for them to trade with one another.

A Reciprocity Agreement was signed with the US in 1854.The United States could fish in the waters off the Atlantic colonies. Both countries would allow the products of farms, mines, and sea to cross the border tax-free.When the Reciprocity Agreement ended in 1865, the British North American colonies faced economic turmoil. 017-030 120820 11/1/04 12:57 PM Page 24

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3. Fenian Raids resist such invasions. It was time, he said, that The Fenians were another unsettling influence Canadians thought more seriously about in the British North American colonies. In addi- defence. The government voted more money tion to the raid on Canada West at Niagara, the for defence and more volunteers were trained Fenians had planned to invade British North for the army. America at several other points. After the The Fenian raids also united the colonies in Battle at Ridgeway in June 1866, a second their resentment against the United States gov- group of Fenians invaded Canada East. They ernment. Many people in British North America attacked just north of Lake Champlain, but felt that American newspapers encouraged the were again quickly driven off. The same year, Fenians. They also believed that the United British warships prevented a Fenian attack in States government should have stopped the New Brunswick. For the next several years, Fenians at the border. people along the United States border lived in fear. They were always on the alert for Fenian raids. John A. Macdonald turned the raids into an argument for union of the colonies. A united country would be better able to

Lake Ontario Ft. Niagara

Ft. George

Lewiston St. Catharines Queenston

Niagara River

Grand Island

Battle Site Ft. Erie Buffalo Ridgeway

N Lake Erie

FENIAN ATTACK AT RIDGEWAY, 1866 0 10 20 km Fenian raiders 017-030 120820 11/1/04 12:57 PM Page 25

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4. The Need For Rail Links Many people thought that the only way the If there was going to be trade among the Grand Trunk could be completed to Halifax colonies, there had to be a railway link. In 1850, would be if the colonies were united. Then there were only 106 km of track in British expenses could be shared. The railways would North America. In comparison, there were also provide a communication and trade link 14 484 km in the United States. Much of the between the colonies. Some even dreamed of railway business was going to the American one day extending the railway right across the railways. It was time, Canadians thought, to continent to British Columbia and the Pacific. build their own railways. A railway connection with the Atlantic Between 1850 and 1867, 3570 km of track colonies was essential for the defence of Canada. were added in the colonies. The most ambi- Suppose Canada was attacked by the United tious railway project was the Grand Trunk States during the winter. Troops from Britain Railway. It was to be an all-British route linking could be rushed to Halifax. But the St. Lawrence Canada West with the Atlantic Ocean at River would be blocked by ice. There would be Halifax. By 1860, the Grand Trunk had no way British troops could get to Canada from stretched from Sarnia only as far east as the Maritimes by rail without crossing through Rivière du Loup. It cost a tremendous amount the United States. A railway link between the of money to build and it was on the verge of colonies was essential for trade and defence. being bankrupt. It was another reason for Confederation.

N EW RAILWAYS IN BRITISH NORTH AMERICA, 1865 FO U N GRAND TRUNK AMERICAN D LA N MARITIME GREAT WESTERN D INTERCOLONIAL NORTHERN

(project) 0 250 500 750 km

CANADA EAST

PEI Riviére- Charlottetown du Loup Saint John Halifax RED RIVER NOVA SCOTIA SETTLEMENT Montréal CANADA WEST NEW BRUNSWICK Portland Kingston Boston St. Paul Toronto Hamilton Buffalo Sarnia UNITED STATES Windsor New York OF AMERICA Chicago N

List the railways you would have to travel on to reach Toronto from Saint John, New Brunswick.Why is this trip not possible by rail in 1865? What other route could you take? What problems do you see with this route? 017-030 120820 11/1/04 12:57 PM Page 26

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The first railway in in 1839 started with horse-drawn carriages. In the steam engines were rolling along the railway lines.This painting shows part of the Canada Southern Railway near Niagara Falls in the 1860s.The railway boom was in full swing.

5. Changing British Attitudes Britain. But if they are to be constantly Britain’s free trade policy in 1846 was a crush- applying to us for guarantees for railways, ing blow to the economy of the colonies. To and for grants for fortresses, and for works raise money for canals and roads, Canadians of defence, then I think it would be far bet- decided to place tariffs on all goods coming ter for them and us—cheaper for us—that into the colonies. British manufacturers were they should become independent.They could furious. Tariffs would raise the cost of British maintain their own fortresses, fight their goods in the colonies. own cause, and build up their own future Support for the colonies was weakening in without relying on us....I say the time has Britain. A small but vocal group called the come when it ought to be clearly under- Little Englanders believed that the colonies stood that the taxes of England are no were a great burden to Britain. They said it was longer to go across the ocean to pay time the colonies began to pay their own way. expenses of any kind. John Bright expressed these views in the British Parliament with the following speech: Many people in Britain agreed with the Little Englanders. This was bad news for the colonies. I think it is natural and reasonable to hope It came at the very time that the Fenians were that there is in the North American raiding their borders and the Americans were provinces a very strong attachment to threatening to expand into the West. 017-030 120820 11/1/04 12:57 PM Page 27

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Skill Building: Cause and Effect Relationships

All of the problems you have been reading about events happened. Confederation was a major can be seen as “causes” of Confederation. A decision in Canadian history. It had many causes, cause makes something happen.An effect is the each with several effects. All of these causes and result or consequence. For example, if your team effects together pushed the colonies to unite. does not practise, if your star player is hurt, or if Using a cause and effect organizer can help luck is not with you, your team may lose the bas- you to understand the complex reasons for ketball championship. Several causes may lead to Confederation. Consider the example on the next the final result—the loss. page.The first cause listed is the American Civil Suppose a new highrise office building is being War.The effects of this war on the British built right next door to your home.What effects American colonies are outlined in an organizer. might this event have? What final change or deci- Complete the organizer by filling in the effects of sion might result? Let’s consider the possibilities. the other causes listed.When you have finished, Examine the diagram below. look over all of the causes and effects. Can you see Historians examine causes and effects to how all of these events together might lead to the help them understand how and why major major decision that brought Canada into being?

Cause A new highrise building is Effects constructed next door to 1. Traffic will increase on your street. your home. 2. The noise level will rise in your neighbourhood. 3. The highrise will block out the sun- light you receive in the afternoons. 4. There will be less privacy in your backyard. 5. The neighbourhood will not be as safe for your little brother to play in because of the increased traffic.

DECISION Your family decides to sell the house and move to a new neighbourhood. 017-030 120820 11/1/04 12:57 PM Page 28

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Cause 1. American Civil War, 1861-1865

Effects 1. Britain appears to support the South and this causes resentment among the Northern states. 2. Northerners stop a British vessel and take two Southerners pris- oners. Britain is outraged. 3. Britain sells armed cruisers to the South and the North demands payment for damages. 4. Southern soldiers stage raids on Northern states and escape to Canada.The North believes Canada is hostile to its cause.

DECISION The British North American colonies fear the North may try to get back at Britain by attacking them.They begin to think about uniting to put up a strong defence.

Other Causes 2. American expansionism 3. Fenian raids 4. Britain’s free trade policy 5. End of Reciprocity with the US 6. Railway building 7. Changing British attitude to colonies 017-030 120820 11/1/04 12:57 PM Page 29

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Activities Understanding Concepts

1. Add the following new terms to your Factfile. Fenians Corn Laws globalization civil war free trade Little Englanders Manifest Destiny Reciprocity cause Underground Railroad tariff effect

2. Explain the reasons for the strained relations between Canadians and Americans and between the British and Americans in the 1860s. 3. a) Who were the Fenians? b) What were their goals? c) How did they try to achieve these goals? d) How did the Fenians help the cause of union for the British North American colonies? 4. Explain how the British gave preference to Canadian flour over American flour in the British markets.When and why did this preference stop? 5. Why was the building of railways so essential for Canada? 6. a) Who were the Little Englanders? b) What were their main beliefs? c) Why did they cause Canadians to worry? Digging Deeper

7. CHECK PREDICTIONS Go back to the predictions you made on page 3 at the beginning of Chapter 1. How do your predictions compare with the problems and advantages of a united country that you have read about in these first two chapters? Did anything surprise you? If so, why?

8. THINK/DISCUSS George-Étienne Cartier said:“When all colonies are united, the enemy will know that if he attacks any province he will have to deal with the combined forces of the Empire.” a) Who was “the enemy?” b) Who were “the combined forces of the Empire?” c) Why were British troops stationed in the colonies? d) Why would it be difficult for an individual colony to defend itself?

9. WRITE Imagine you are a concerned citizen of Canada.You have just read an article in an American newspaper that stated all of North America will one day 017-030 120820 11/1/04 12:57 PM Page 30

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belong to the United States.What is your reaction? Write a letter to the editor of the newspaper expressing your thoughts and feelings.

10. ROLE PLAY In groups of four, have each individual choose one of the following roles. Imagine you have all met on a street corner and get into a lively discus- sion over whether or not the British North American colonies should unite. Consider your arguments beforehand and then role play the scene. a) a merchant who had a thriving business in Montréal until Britain introduced free trade b) an American trader who believes in the idea of Manifest Destiny c) a New Brunswick farmer whose home was attacked by the Fenians d) a Canadian trader who is doing a thriving business in the United States with Reciprocity Making New Connections

11. INVESTIGATE/FIELD TRIP Find out if there are any historic sites, plaques, museum displays, or artifacts from the Confederation period in your area. Work in groups.Visit the sites and report back to the class on what you discover.

12. CURRENT EVENTS Throughout history Canadians have at various times felt threatened by our much larger American neighbour to the south. Do you think Canadians still feel threatened today? Present some specific examples of where you see a strong American influence over Canadian affairs (consider the arts, media, the economy, etc.). Look for examples in your everyday life and scan a newspaper.

13. DISCUSS a) With globalization, we receive many more goods and services in Canada today than we did at the beginning of this century.The world has become much more interconnected. How does globalization affect your every- day life? Give some specific examples (consider travel, exchange of goods and information, etc.). b) What do you think are some advantages and disadvantages of globalization? 017-030 120820 11/1/04 12:57 PM Page 31

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