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Home , 1800s (decade), 1860s, 1900s (decade), Wildlife, Wildlife conservation, Wildlife management

EDUCATION

A Conservation Timeline Milestones of the Model’s Evolution

By Robert Brown, Ph.D.

hough the term “North American Model 1630:  Bay Colony offers a one of Conservation” was coined only shilling bounty per wolf killed. T nine years ago by Valerius Geist (Geist et al. 1646: Portsmouth, enacts the first 2001), it encapsulates centuries’ worth of history. closed season on deer . What follows is a selection of some key historical events related to in —events that continue to shape our at- The Colonial Age titudes, laws, and policies concerning wildlife and As more settlers arrived in what are now the U.S. Credit: NCSU Media Services natural today. and , market hunting and fur trapping for export expanded. The French as well as ’s Robert Brown, Ph.D., is Dean of the College Hudson Bay Company took furbearers in the of Natural Resources Early European Settlement northeastern U.S. and Canada. And in the Pacific at North Carolina From the 1500s to the mid-1600s, historians Northwest, the Russian-American Fur Company State University. estimate that three to five million Native Ameri- took seals and sea otters. Still, in the 1700s, an esti- cans lived in what is now the . They mated 40 to 70 million bison and roughly 10 million hunted for , in some cases decimat- pronghorn roamed the West. ing large around population centers. After European explorers arrived, bringing infec- 1748: South Carolina ships 160,000 deer pelts to tious diseases with them, vast numbers of native England. people perished and wildlife populations began 1768: The Steller’s sea cow is declared extinct. to rebound.

The rebound didn’t last. European immigrants Westward Expansion cleared for farming, cut When Lewis and Clark made their westward ex- for ship building, and began hunting pedition from 1804 to 1806, they observed grizzly and trapping for European markets. As bears, abundant herds of buffalo and deer, and early as 1650, beavers had been nearly prairie dog towns a mile square. In 1813, James eliminated from the entire East Coast. recorded a passenger pigeon flock he Spaniards introduced domestic horses, estimated at one billion . Yet even by the first , , , and pigs, which of the , trading posts were plentiful competed with grazing wildlife and across the West, prompting trappers and remnant carried diseases. Wildlife populations tribes of Native Americans to harvest for declined, and settlers blamed the loss their valuable hides. on predators. 1832: Carroll’s Island Club, the first known hunting Courtesy of Thomas J. Ryder club in the U.S., forms in . Early settlers killed wolves and other predators with abandon, blaming them 1833: In this single year, the American Fur Com- for declines in game populations. pany ships 43,000 buffalo hides, mostly obtained through trade with the Native Americans. 1836: Ralph Waldo Emerson publishes , one of the first writings to extol the inherent value of wildlife beyond its use for sustenance and profit.

Credit: Library of Congress Credit: NPS When Meriwether Lewis and William Bison fell by the thousands as Clark explored the Louisiana Territory pioneers and fur traders killed the in 1804-06, they saw abundant animals for their thick pelts and wildlife and untouched . other products.

28 The Wildlife Professional, Fall 2010 © The Wildlife Society Origin of the Public Trust Doctrine a second shipment in 1882—an introduction In 1842, the U.S. Supreme Court denied a land- that leads to the establishment of pheasants owner’s effort to exclude people from taking oysters as one of the most popular game in from New Jersey mudflats he claimed as his own. North America. The decision referred to England’s Magna Carta of 1887: , George Grinnell, 1215, noting that the document guarded “the public and other influential hunter-conservationists and common right of in navigable .” gather in New York to form the Boone and This decision codified the concept of the Public Trust Crockett Club, with a mission to preserve the Doctrine, which holds that, in the U.S., wildlife and big game of North America. belong to all the people, and stewardship of 1892: John Muir and others form the Sierra Club, those fauna is entrusted to the individual states. dedicated to the preservation of the Pacific 1844: The New York Sportsmen’s Club forms and in Coast and Sierra Nevada wilderness. 1848 drafts laws to regulate trout fishing and the hunting of woodcock, quail, and deer. Age of Legislation 1854: Henry David Thoreau publishes Walden, his Legislators in the last of the treatise on the solace of nature. acted on a growing awareness of the need for natu- ral resources conservation, taking action to protect disappearing wildlands, passing laws establishing Collapse of the Bison national parks and forests, and protecting wildlife. Railroad expansion in the and ‘70s made shipping bison hides, , and tongues economi- 1891: Congress passes the Reserve Act and cal—and marked a period of wildlife slaughter creates Shoshone National Forest, the na- perhaps unparalleled in U.S. history. The annual tion’s first federally managed forest reserve. bison kill in 1865 was one million animals; by 1871 1898: Gifford Pinchot becomes the first chief of the that toll had soared to five million. Division of Forestry, renamed the U.S. Forest 1872: President Ulysses S. Grant establishes Yellow- Service in 1905. stone , with 3,348 square miles. 1900: Congress passes the Lacey Game and Wild Birds Preservation and Disposition Act, mak- 1886: A census reveals that only 540 bison remain ing it a federal offense to transport illegally in the entire U.S., mostly in the Yellowstone taken wild game across state borders. area of Montana. The Conservation President Clubs to the Fore An avid hunter and advocate for the conserva- Dozens of hunting, conservation, and scientific tion of game and wild , Theodore Roosevelt organizations formed in the , including served as President from 1901 to 1909—and the League of American Sportsmen, the Ameri- launched a conservation agenda unmatched by can Ornithologist’s Union, the Camp Fire Club, other leaders. In all, Roosevelt set aside 230 the New York , the Audubon million acres during his presidency—more than Society, and the American Bison Society. These 80,000 acres for each day he was in office, includ- groups lobbied for stricter laws to stop market hunting for meat and hides and for for the mil- linery trade. They also fought for bans on wasteful hunting. 1881: Approximately 60 ring- necked pheasants from Shanghai, , arrive in state. Most die during a subsequent shipment to Oregon, but the survivors are released and followed by

Credit: Keith Schengili-Roberts/Wikimedia Credit: Jim Peaco/NPS Credit: Library of Congress Flocks of passenger pigeons Yellowstone National Park—a Theodore Roosevelt and John darkened the sky in the early symbol of the majesty of the Muir admire Yosemite Valley 1800s. Just a century later natural world—was protected from Point in 1903— the species was extinct, a by President Grant in 1872. land their efforts helped protect victim of unregulated hunting. for generations.

© The Wildlife Society www.wildlife.org 29 ing 16 national monuments, 55 wildlife refuges, and across conservation agencies, and the five national parks. Division of Predator and Rodent Control (now Wildlife Services) forms. 1903: President Roosevelt establishes Pelican Island as the first National Wildlife . 1935: The Conservation Service (now the Natural Resources Conservation Service) forms. Concern over Populations 1937: Congress passes the Pittman-Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act (P-R Act), which After considerable debate in Congress, the U.S. signed levies a tax on certain hunting equipment to be a treaty with Great Britain in 1916 for the Protection of used for wildlife restoration projects, research, Migratory Birds in the United States and Canada—the and education (see page 35). first international wildlife conser- vation legislation. Hunters and conservationists formed organiza- Funding Boosts Post-War Efforts tions including the Izaak Walton Conservation efforts took a backseat during World War League, Forests and Wild , the II. After the war, however, sales nearly Institute, and doubled from pre-war levels, reaching 12 million by American Wild Fowlers (later to 1947. States used P-R funds to restock deer, pronghorn, become Ducks Unlimited) to support , mountain goats and sheep, bears, beavers, and hunting laws and wildlife restoration. turkeys. Due in large part to such efforts, white-tailed 1913: Pennsylvania becomes the deer numbers have risen from approximately 500,000 in the early 1900s to roughly 20 million today, while Credit: George Gentry/USFWS first state to issue a hunting President Roosevelt created Pelican license. wild turkey numbers have jumped from about 30,000 Island National Wildlife Refuge in to seven million. 1903, protecting the birds from market 1914: The last passenger pigeon hunters and destruction. dies in the Cincinnati . 1949: Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac is pub- lished, posthumously. 1916: Congress creates the National Park Service. Origin of a Green Revolution Birth of a Profession The prosperous post-war era led to commercial Desperation in the wake of the development of land for housing and agriculture, as Great Depression and Dust Bowl well as to the concentration of farming and drove innovative wildlife conserva- operations, and a loss of wildlife habitat. Liberal use tion initiatives. In 1934 Congress of pesticides and herbicides greatly increased farming passed the Migratory Bird Hunt- efficiency, but raised concerns about health and safety. ing Stamp Act, better known as 1962: Rachel Carson publishes Silent Spring, docu- the “Duck Stamp Act.” Funds from menting the potentially harmful impacts of Credit: USFWS stamp sales have protected more pesticides on wildlife. By some accounts this and Olaus Murie, leaders than 5.3 million acres of waterfowl book launched the modern environmental in natural resources conservation and habitat in the U.S. The Civilian management, attend a 1946 meeting of movement. Conservation Corps developed The Wilderness Society Council. 1964: Congress establishes the Land and Con- thousands of acres of waterfowl servation Fund to acquire land for “the benefit breeding grounds in the , and several of all Americans,” and President Lyndon John- influential conservation organizations formed son signs the Wilderness Act and the Wild and including the Cooperative Wildlife Research Scenic Rivers Act. Unit Program, the General Wildlife Federa- tion (now the National Wildlife Federation), the North American Wildlife Institute (now Protection for the Rare the North American Wildlife Foundation), and During the presidency of Richard Nixon, Congress The Wildlife Society. passed the Conservation Act in 1969, then strengthened it as the Endangered Species 1933: Aldo Leopold becomes the first profes- Act (ESA) in 1973, adding provisions for enforcement sor of wildlife management in the U.S. and funding. This landmark act established protec- at the University of Wisconsin. Credit: Ragesoss/Wikipedia tions for threatened and endangered species, funded Rachel Carson’s 1934: Congress passes the Fish and Wildlife research on rare species, and provided for the desig- seminal work, Silent Coordination Act to ensure collaboration nation and protection of critical habitat. In addition to Spring, triggered public awareness of environmental degradation in the .

30 The Wildlife Professional, Fall 2010 © The Wildlife Society the ESA, Nixon signed the Marine Protec- 2000: Congress passes a version of the Conservation tion Act, the National Act, the and Reinvestment Act (CARA). Now called the Clean Air Act, and the Clean Water Act, and he estab- State Wildlife Grants Program, the legislation lished the Environmental Protection Agency. diverts $50 million a year from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service budget to the states, and 1975: The Convention on International Trade in En- requires each state to have a comprehensive dangered Flora and Fauna Species Act (CITES) wildlife conservation plan. takes effect in the U.S. 2008: After a decade-long campaign launched by 1980: The Alaska National Interest Lands Conserva- sportsmen’s groups, Minnesota passes the tion Act expands the National Wildlife Refuge Clean Water, Land, and Legacy Amendment, System by 53 million acres. which funnels a percentage of state taxes 1985: Congress passes the Food Security Act, or Farm directly to the state’s Department of Natural Bill, establishing the Conservation Reserve Resources. Program. 2009: President Bush establishes three marine national monuments, which protect nearly Modern Milestones 200,000 square miles of the Pacific Ocean. Throughout the to the present, conservation- 2010: After announcing an opening of offshore ists and national leaders worldwide have become drilling early in the year, President Barack increasingly aware of the mounting threats to wildlife Obama places a moratorium on deepwater and , including human , drilling operations in the wake of the Gulf of extraction, , climate oil spill, widely viewed as the worst change, and loss of . Efforts to address environmental disaster in U.S. history. (A these threats and live sustainably will continue for judge blocked the moratorium in June and decades to come. the Obama administration issued a revised 1993: President Bill Clinton forms the National Biologi- moratorium in July.) cal Survey (NBS), a consolidation of 1,600 federal government scientists in eight bureaus of the De- Our society debates conservation decisions with partment of the Interior, to identify species and great emotion, whether the issue is drilling for oil habitats that are at risk of becoming threatened. in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, controlling urban deer, or managing wolves. This debate over 1996: Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt renames wildlife and wild places occurs despite our increas- the NBS the Biological Resources Division and ing and distance from nature. Such assigns it to the U.S. Geological Survey. trends make it all the more critical for wildlife pro- 1998: President Clinton signs the Kyoto Protocol, fessionals to know and understand the history of our which calls for sharp cuts in greenhouse gas field, and to share that knowledge with the public emissions. (In 2001 President George W. and with decision makers to ensure that science Bush announced that he would not submit the forms the basis of conservation policy. If we do not, treaty to the Senate for ratification, citing the then the democracy of conservation—a core tenet economic costs.) of the North American Model of Wildlife Conserva- 1999: The Departments of Interior, Agriculture, tion—will be in danger, as will the very animals and Commerce, and Defense form a coalition with that we treasure. university researchers to conduct research on natural resources and the environ- ment and offer additional educational and outreach programs. The organization, known as the Cooperative Studies Units, now comprises more than 200 universities, NGOs, and federal agency partners in 17 Credit: Dave Menke/USFWS regions. Credit: John and Karen Hollingsworth/USFWS Credit: Rachel Brittin/AFWA The bald is a International trade in Launched in the 1990s, beneficiary of the wildlife products came Teaming With Wildlife—a Endangered Species Act, under greater scrutiny with coalition of more than 6,000 signed by President Nixon the ratification of CITES by conservation groups—lobbies in 1973. the U.S. in 1975. for increased resources for wildlife and habitat restoration.

© The Wildlife Society www.wildlife.org 31